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You can search through the full text of this book on the web at http : //books . google . com/| Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC ']:, JH- l^arbarti ColUfle librars mOM THE DANIEL TRKADWELL FUND Residuary Ici^acy from D.inicl Trradwcll, Rumford Professor and Lrcturer on the Application of Science to the l'»«-ful Art* Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC ^'^c i'i\ l^arbarli College Itbrars mOM THE DANIEL TREADWELL FUND Residuary Ictfacy from Daniel Trradwcll, Rumford Prnfcksor and Lecturer on the Application of Science to the l'»rful Artii ) Digitized by Google Digitized by VjOOQ IC r T ? u l^arbarH CoUrfle librarQ mOM THE DANIEL TREADWELL FUND Residiutry legacy from Daniel Tread well, Rumford Krofcssor and Lecturer oa the Application of Science to the Useful Arts oogle Digitized by VjOOQ IC i u l^arbarti ColUgr ItbratQ mOM THE DANIEL TRKADWKLL FUND Residuary legacy fn>m I>.inicl Trc;ftd\%rll, Rumford l*rofc*»<>r and Lrcturtr on the Applic<*tion of Science to the I'Kful ArU 1 Digitized by Google Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC i Digitized by VjOOQ IC HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES CONTAINING NEARLY TEN THOUSAND SELECTED SCIENTIFIC, CHEM- ICAL, TECHNICAL AND HOUSEHOLD RECIPES, FORMU- LAS AND PROCESSES FOR USE IN THE LABORATORY, THE OFFICE, THE WORKSHOP AND IN THE HOME EDITED BY GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E. AUTHOB OF "MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES/' "GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINES," ETC. ILLUSTRATED NEW YORlT THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING 132 NASSAU STREET 1907 COMPANY Digitized by VjOOQ IC ^7 ' •• ; \ J\^i O. .tiAJ^ '^ '^ : iA. yy^^ OOPTRIORT, 1907, BV THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHIN(} COMPANY Also, Entered at Stationers* Hall Court. Ix>ndoo, BoglaDd All right M rriterved OOMFOSmON, KUBCTROTVPtHO. ASH PRINTINO VT THB TBOW PRX8S, VMM YORK, V. S. A. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PREFACE In compiling this book of fonnulas, i-ecipes and processes, the Editor has endeavored to meet primarily the pi*actical requirements of the me- chanic, the manufactm'er, the artisan, and the hoasewife. An ideal book for this purpose would naturally include only formulas and recipes which have been carefully tested. Such a course would have been im- practicable, for the i-eason that chemical or technological tests of several thoasand processes would have taxed the resources of a large laboratory, would have entailed a prohibitive expense, and would have required years f»f painstaking labor. The next best course is naturally the selection of recipes fi*om trust- worthy sources. It is this simpler course which the Editor has adopted. Inasmuch as the authorities M'hom he has consulted have themselves in many cases spared no pains in obtaining accuracy, the Editor has reason to l)elieve that the recipes to be found in the following pages will be foimd sufficiently correct, in the main, for the needs of everyday life. In addition to exercising the utmost care in selecting his materials from crimpetent sources, the Editor has also modified formulas which were ob- viously ill adapted for his needs, but were still valuable if altered. Proc- ev^es of questionable merit he has discarded. By adhering to this plan tlie Editor trusts that he has succeeded in preparing a repository of useful knowledge representing the experience of practical men in every branch of technical achievement. Much of the matter has been specially trans- lated for this work from foreign technological periodicals and books. In thi!» way the Editor has succeeded, he hopes, in embodying much practical information otherwise inaccessible to most English-speaking people. Each recipe is to be regarded as a basis of experiment, to be modified to suit the particular purpose in hand, or the peculiar conditions which may affect the experimenter. Chemicals are rarely of uniform relative purity and strength ; heat or cold may markedly influence the result ob- titined, and lack of skill in the handling of utensils and instruments may often cause failure. Inasmuch as a particular formula may not always lie applicable, the Editor has thought it advisable to give as many recipes 7 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 8 PREFACE as his limited space would allow under each heading. Sometimes a series of formulas is given which apparently differ but slightly in their ingre- dients. This has been done on the principle that one, at least, will answer the pui'pose in hand. Recognizing the fact that works of a similar character are not un- known, the Editor has endeavoi*ed to present in these pages the most modem methods and formulas. Naturally, old recipes which have proven their value by long use are also includead quality and of little value; but if it is coherent, gelatinous, and weighing double, it is good; if it weighs up to 16 I ounces, it is very good; if as much as M ounces, it may be called excellent. I To Prevent Glue from Cnddng.— Tti i prevent glue from cracking, which fre- quently occurs when glued articles are Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 11 rxposed to the heat of a stove, a little chloride of potassium is added. This prevents the elue from becoming drv enough to crack. Glue thus treated will adhere to glass, metals, etc., and may abo be used for pasting on labels. Preventing the Putrefaction of Strong Glues. — The fatty matter always existing io small quantity in sheets of ordinary glue affects the adhesive properties and facilitates the development of bacteria, and consequently putrefaction and de- composition. These inconveniences are remedied by adding a small quantity of caustic soda to the dissolved glue. The Siida prevents decomposition absolutely; with tne fatty matter it forms a hard soap which renders it harmless. Liquid Glues. — I. — Glue 3 ounces Gelatin S ounces Acetic acid 4 ounces Water 2 ounces Alum 30 grains Heat together for 6 hours, skim, and arid: II. — Alcohol 1 fluidounce Brown glue. No. 2. . 2 pounds Sodium carbonate . . 11 ounces Water SJ pints Oil of clove 160 minims Dissolve the soda in the water, pour the solution over the dry slue, let stand o«'er night or till thoroughly soaked and swelled, then heat carefully on a water bath nntO dissolved. When nearly cold iiir in the oil of cloves. By using white glue, a finer article, fit for »ncy work* may be made. III. — Dissolve by heating 60 parts of borax in 420 parts of water, add 480 piarta dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts of glucose and heat carefully ^-ith con- tifliied stirring, to complete solution; replace the evaporated water and pour through flannel. The glue made in this way remains clear quite a long time, and possesses great adhesive power; it also dries very quiekly, but upon careless and extended heating above 90« C. (194° F.), it is apt to turn brown and brittle. IV. — Pour 50 parts of warm (not hot) water over 50 parts of Cologne glue and allow to soak over night. Next day the swelled dlue is dissolved with moderate hf-ai. and if still too thick, a little more i» ^trr is added. When this is done, add fnm 2i to 3 parts of crude nitric acid, %fir w^l, and fill the liquid glue in well- rorkrd bottles. This is a good liquid •team glue. V. — Soak 1 pound of good glue in a auart of water for a few hours, then melt tne glue bv heating it, together with the unabsorbed water, then stir in } pound dr;r white lead, and when that is well mixed pour in 4 fluidounces of alcohol and continue the boiling 5 minutes longer. VI. — Soak 1 pound of good glue in H pints of cold water for 5 hours, then ada 3 ounces of zinc sulphate and 2 fluid- ounces of hydrochloric acid, and keep the mixture heated for 10 or 12 hours at ITS'* to lOO"* F. The glue remains liquid and mav be used for sticking a variety of materials. VII. — A very inexpensive liquid glue may be prepared b;^ ^r^t soaking and then dissolving gelatin in twice its own weight of water at a very gentle heat; then add glacial acetic acid in weight equal to the weight of the dry gelatin. It should be remembered, however, that all acid glues are not generally applica- ble. VIII,— Glue «00 parts Dilute acetic acid. . 400 parts Dissolve by the aid of heat and add: Alcohol 25 parts Alum 5 parts IX.— Glue 5 parts Calcium chloride. . 1 part Water 1 part X. — Sugar of lead 1 J drachms Alum 1 1 drachms Gum arabic 2} drachms Wheat flour 1 av. lb. Water, q. s. Dissolve the ffum in 2 quarts of warm water; when cold mix in the flour, and add the sugar of lead and alum dissolved in water; heat the whole over a slow fire until it shows signs of ebullition. Let it cool, and add enough gum water to bring it to the proper consistence. XI. — Dilute 1 part of official phos- phoric acid with 2 parts of water and neu- tralize the solution with carbonate of ammonium. Add to the liquid an equal quantity of water, warm it on a water bath, and dissolve in it sufficient glue to form a thick syrupy liquid. Keep in well-stoppered bottles. XII.— Dissolve 3 parts of glue in small Eieces in 12 to 15 ot saccharate of lime. ly heating, the glue dissolves rapidly and remains liquid, when cold, without loss of adhesive power. Anv desirable consistence can be secured ^ by varying the amount of saccharate of lime. Thick glue retains its muddy color, while a thin solution becomes clear on standing. The saccharate of lime is prepared by Digitized by VjOOQ IC 12 ADHESIVES dissolving 1 part of sugar in 3 parts of water, and after adding \ part of the weight of the sugar of slaked lime, heat- ing the whole from 149^ to 185*" F., allow- ing it to macerate for several days, shaking it frequently. The solution, which has the properties of mucilage, is then de- canted irorn the sediment. XIII. — In a solution of borax in water soak a good quantity of glue until it has thoroughly imbibed the liauid. Pour off the surplus solution ana then put on the water bath and melt the glue. Cool down until the glue begins to set, then add, drop by drop, with agitation, enough acetic acid to check the tendency to solidification. If, after becoming quite cold, there is still a tendency to solidification, add a few drops more of the acid. The liquid shoula be of the consistence of ordinary mucilage at all times. XI v.— Gelatin 100 parts Cabinetmakers' glue. 100 parts Alcohol 25 parts Alum 2 parts Acetic acid, 20 per cent 800 parts Soak the gelatin and glue with the acetic acid and heat on a water bath until fluid; then add the alum and alcohol. XV.— Glue 10 parts Water 15 parts Sodium salicylate. ... 1 part XVI. — Soak 5 parts of Cologne glue in an aqueous calcium chloride solution (I : 4) and heat on the water bath until dissolved, replacing the evaporating water; or .Mack 100 parts of lime with 150 parts of hot water, dissolve 60 parts of sugar in 180 parts of water, and add 15 parts of the slacked lime to the solution, heating the whole to 75* C. (167° F.). Place aside for a few days, shaking from time to time. In the clear sugar-liinc solution collected by decanting soak 60 parts of glue and assist the solution by moderate heating. X VII.~Molas.se8, 100 parts, dis.solved in 800 parts of water, 25 parts of quick- lime Tslaked to powder), being then .stirred in and the mixture heated to 167° F, on a water bath, with frequent stir- rings. After settling for a few days a large portion of the lime will have dis> solved, and the clear, white, thick solu- tion, when decanted, behaves like rubber solution and makes a highly adherent coating. XVIII,— Dissolve bone glue, ioO parts, bv heating in 1.000 parts of m-ater. and add to the solution barium perox- ide 10 parts, sulphuric acid (66° B.) 5 parts, and water 15 parts. Heat for 48 hours on the water bath to 80° C. (176° F.). Thus a syrupy liquid is obtained, which is allowed to settle and i.s then decanted. This glue has no unpleasant odor, and does not mold. XIX. — A glue possessing the adhenive qualities of ordinary joiners* glue, but constituting a pale yellow liquid which in ready for use without reqmring heating and possesses g^at resistance to damp- ness, is produced by treating dry casein with a diluted borax solution or with enouffh ammonia solutioD to cauxe a faintly alkaline reaction. The prepara- tion roajr be employed alone or mixed with liquid starch in any proportion. Glue for Celluloid.— I.— Two paHs shellac, 3 parts spirits of camphor, and I parts strong alconol dissolved in a warm place, give an excellent gluing agent to fix wood, tin, and other bodies to celluloid. The glue must be kept well corked up. II. — A collodion solution may be used, or an alcoholic solution of fine celluloid shavings. Glue to Form Paper P«dt.— I. — Glue 3J ounces Glycerine 8 ounces Water, a sufficient quantity. Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat until tne glue is dissolved, and add the glycerin. If the mixture is too thick, add more water. II. — Glue 6 ounces Alum 80 grains Acetic acid } ounce Alcohol 1 } ounces Water 6) ounces Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow to cool and add the alcohol. III. — Glue 5 ounces Water 1 ounce Calcium chloride. . 1 ounce Di.ssolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate until it is thoroughly softened, and then heat until completely dissolved. IV.— (Slue 20 ounces (ilycerine 5 ounces Syrupy glucose. . 1 ounce Tannin 50 grains Cover the ^lue with cold water, ami Irt stand over night. In the morning pour otT superfluous water, throw the glue on muslin, and manipulate so as to get rid of as much moisture as possible, then put in a water bath and melt. Add the glyr- Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVTS 18 erine and syrup, and stir well in. Fi- nmlly, dissolve tne tannin in the smallest quantity of water possible and add. This mixture must be used hot. V. — Glue. 15 ounces Glycerine 5 ounces Linseed oil 2 ounces Sugar 1 ounce Soak the elue as before, melt, add the sufi^r and gly<^erine, continuing the heat, and finally^ add the oil gradually under constant stirring. This must be used hot. Glue for Tablets.— I. — Glue 3) ounces Glycerine 8 ounces Water, a sufficient quantity. Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water: apply heat until the glue is dui^olved, and add the glycerine. If the mixture is too thick, add more water. IL — Glue 6 ounces Alum 30 grains Acetic acid } ounce Alcohol 1 i ounces Water 6^ ounces Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow to cool and add the alcohol. III. — Glue 5 ounces Water 1 ounce Calcium chloride. . . 1 ounce Dissolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate until it is thoroughly softened, and then apply heat until completely dissolved. IV. — Glue, 1 pound; glycerine, 4 ounces; Sncose syrup, 2 tablespoonfuls; tannin, ounce. Use warm, and give an hour to dry and set on the pads. This can be coloi^ with any anihne dye. MArine Glue. — Marine glue is a prod- art consisting of shellac and eaoutcnouc, which is mixed differently according to the nae for which it is required. The quantity of benxol used as solvent gov- erna Ihe hardness or softness of the ^ue. L— One part Pari caoutchouc is dis- solved in 12 parts benzol; 20 parts pow- dered shellac are added to the solution, and the mixture is carefully heated. II. — Stronger glue is obtained by dis- soiriBg 10 parts good crude caoutchouc in 120 parts benzine or naphtha which eolation is poured slowly and in a fine stream into 20 parts asphaltum melted to a kettle, stimng constantly and heat- iag. Pour the finished glue, after the •olvmt has almost evaporated and the mass has become quite uniform, into flat molds, in which it solidifies into very hard tablets of dark brown or black color. For use, these glue tablets are first soaked in boiling water and then heated over a free flame until the marine glue has be- come thinly liquid. The pieces to be glued are also warmed and a very durable union is obtained. III. — Cut caoutchouc into small pieces and dissolve in coal naphtha by heat and agitation. Add to this solution pow- dered shellac, and heat the whole, con- stantly stirring until combination takes place, then pour it on metal plates to form sheets. Wnen used it must be heated to 248^ F., and applied with a brush. Water-Proof Gluei}.— I.— The glue is put in water till it is soft, and subse- quently melted in linseed oil at moderate heat. This glue is affected neither by water nor by vapors. II. — Dissolve a small quantity of san- darac and mastic in a HtUe alcohol, and add a little turpentine. The solution is boiled in a kettle over the fire, and an equal quantity of a strong hot solution of glue and isinglass is added. Then filter through a cloth while hot. III. — Water-proof glue mav also be produced by the simple addition of oichromate of potassium to the liquid glue solution, and subsequent exposure to the air. IV. — Mix glue as usual, and then add linseed oil in the proportion of 1 part oil to 8 parts glue. If it is desired tnat the mixture remain liauid, } ounce of nitric acid should be adaed to every pound of :lue. This will also prevent the glue rom souring. v.— In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol dissolve 60 parti of sandarac and as much mastic whereupon add 60 parts of white oil of turpentine.^ Next, prepare a rather strong ^lue solution and add about the like quantity of isinglass, heating the solution until it commences to boil; then slowly add the hot clue solution till a thin paste forms, whicn can still be filtered through a cloth. Heat the solution be- fore use and employ like ordinary glue. A connection effected with this glue is not dissolved by cold water and even resists hot water for a long time. VI.— Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue in cold water for 12 nours and in another vessel for the same length of time 150 parts of isinglass in a mixture of lamp spirit and water. Then dissolve both masses together on the water bath in a suitable vessel, thinning, if necessary, with some hot water. Next add 100 fl Digitized by VjOOQ IC 14 adhesi\t:s parts of linseed oil varnish and filter hot throuffh linen. Vlf. — Ordinary glue is kept in water until it swells up without losinj; its shape. Thus softened it is placed in an iron crucible without adding water; then add linseed oil according to the quantity of the glue and leave this mixture to boil over a slow fire until a gelatinous mass results. Such glue unites materials in a verv durable manner. It adheres firmly and hardens quickly. Its chief advan- tage, however, consists in that it neither absorbs water nor allows it to pass through, whereby the connecting places are often destroyed. A little borax will prevent putrefaction. VIII. — Bichromate of potassium 40 parts (by weight); gelatin glue, 55 parts; alum, 5 parts. Dissolve the glue in a little wafer and add the bichromate of potassium and the alum. IX. — This preparation permits an ab- solutely permanent gluing of pieces of cardboard, even when they are moist- ened by water. Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta-percha; of this take 9 parts, and add to it S parts of boiled linseed oil and 1 } parts of litharge. Place this over the fire and stir it till all the ingredients arc intimately mixed. The mixture may be diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine, and must be warm when used. Glue to Fasten Linoleum on Iron Stairs. — I. — Use a mixture of glue, isin- glass, and dextrin which, dissolved in water and heated, is given an admixture of turpentine. The strips pasted down . must be weighted with boards and brick on top until the adhesive agent has hard- ened. II. — Soak 3 parts of glue in 8 parts water, add A part hydrochloric acid and I part zinc vitriol and let this mixture boil several hours. Coat the floor and the back of the linoleum with this. Press the linoleum down uniformly and firmly and weight it for some time. Glue for Attaching Gloss to Precious Metals. — Sandarac varnish, 15 parts; marine glue, 5 parts; drying oil. 5 parts; white lead, 5 parts; Spanish white, 5 parts; turpentine, 5 parts. Triturate all to form a rather homogeneous paste. This glue becomes very hard and resisting. Elastic Glue.— Although elastic glue is less durable than rubber, and will not stand much heat, yet it is cheaper than rubber, and is not, like rubber affected I by oil colors. Hence it is largely used ' for printing rollers and stamps*. For stamps, good glue is soaked for 24 hours in soft water. The water is poured off. and the swollen glue is melted and mixed with glycerine and a little salicylic acid and cast into molds. The durability is in- creased by painting the mass with a solu- tion of tannin, or, better, of bichromate of potassium. Printing rollers require greater firmness and elasticity. The mass for them once consisted solely (»f glue and vinegar, and their manufacture was very difficult. The use of glycerine has remedied this, and gives great elaM- ticity without adhesiveness, and has re- moved the liability of moldiness. Swol- len glue, which has been superficially dried, is fused with glycerine and cast into oil molds. Similar mixtures are used for casting plaster ornaments, etc., and give very snarp casts. A mass con- sisting of glue and glycerine is poureer position until cool, when they are ready for use. VII.— Rosin 600 ) pi^t. Sulphur 150}. by Iron filings i50) ''•»«»»»• Pour the mixture, hot, into the openio of the heated handle and shove in tli knife likewise heated. VIII. — Melt sufficient black rosin, an incorporate thoroughly with it one-fifth il weight of very fine silver sand. Mak the pestle hot, pour in a little of the mv ture, then force the handle well hom< and set aside for a day before usins. IX.— ^ Make a smooth, moderatelv sot paste with litharge and glycerine; fill tli hole in the pestle with the cement, an firmly press the handle in place, keepin it under pressure for three or four dayi Cements for Stone. — I. — An excellei cement for broken marble consists of parts of gypsum and 1 part of finrl powdered gum arabic. Mix intimateb Then with a cold solution of borax mak into a mortarlike mass. Smear on ear face of the parts to be joined, and fastr the bits oi marble together. In th course of a few days the cement become very hard and holds very tenaciou»h The object mended should not be touch r for several days. In mending colore marbles the cement may be given the hu of the marble by adding the color to tb borax solution. II. — A cement which dries instants neously, qualifying it for all sorts of n pairing and only presenting the disac vantage of having to be freshly prepare each time, notwithstanding any 8ubs< ?uent heating, may be made as follow: n a metal vessel or iron spoon melt 4 1 5 parts of rosin (or preferably masti* and 1 part of beeswax. This mixtui must be applied rapidly, it being of ac vantage silently to heat the surfaces to t united, which naturally must have bee previously well cleaned. III.— Slaked lime, 10 parts; chalk, 1 parts; kaolin, 5 parts; mix» and imim diately before use stir with a corresponi ing amount of potash water glass. IV.— Cement on Marble Slabs.— T( whole marble slab is thoroughlv warm« and laid face down upon a neatly cleans planing bench upon which a woolen clot IS spread so as not to injure the polish * the slab. Next appl^ to the slab vei hot, weak glue and quickly sift hot plasty of Paris on the glue in a thin even laye stirring the plaster rapidly into the a| plied glue by means ot a strong spatul so that a uniform glue- plaster coatir is formed on the warm slao. Before th has time to harden tip the respective pie< of furniture on the slab. The frame, lik wise warmed, will adhere very firmly to tl slab after two days. Besides, this proce: has the advantage of great cleanliness. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 17 V. — Hie following is a recipe used by marble workers, and which probablv can be used to advantage: Flour of sul- pbor, 1 part; hydrocnlorate of am- monia, 2 parts: iron filings. 16 parts. The above substances must be reauced to a powder, and securely preserved in doseljr stoppered vessels. When the cement is to be employed, take 20 parts very fine iron filings and 1 part ot the above powder; mix them together with rnough water to form a manageable pa«te. This paste solidifies in 20 days and becomes as hard as iron. A recipe for another cement useful for joining »mall pieces of marble or alabaster is as follows: Add } pint of vinegar to \ pint akimmed milk; mix the curd with the white* of 5 eggs, well beaten, and suffi- cient powdered quicklime sifted in with constant stirring so as to form a paste. It resists water and a moderate degree of heat. VI. — Cement for Iron and Marble. — For fastening iron to marble or stone a good cement is made as foUows: Thirty parts plaster of Paris, 10 parts iron filings, § part sal ammoniac mixed with vinegar to a fluid paste fresh for use. Cement for Sandstones. — One part sulphur and 1 part rosin are melted separately; the melted masses are mixed and S |>arts litharge and 2 parts ground ^ass stirred in. The latter ingredients must be perfectly dr^, and have been well pulverized and mixed previouslv. Equally good cement is obtained by melting together 1 part pitch and iV part wax. and mixing with 2 parts brickdust. The stones to be cemented, or be- tween the joints of which the putty is to be poured, must be perfectly dry. If Eracticable, they should be warmed a ttle, and the surfaces to which the puttv LS to adhere painted with oil varnisn oooe or twice. The above two formulae are of especial value in case the stones are very much exposed to the heat of the suo in summer, as well as to cold, rain, and snow in winter. Experience has •howp that in these instances the above- mentioned cements give better satisfac- tion than the other brands of cement. Ccsneots for Attaching Objects to Rotsin 1 part Yellow wax 2 parts Melt together. To Attach Copper to Glass.— Boil 1 part of caustic soda and 3 parts of co- lophonj in 5 parts of water and mix with the tike quantity of plaster of Paris. This cement is not attacked by water, heat, and petroleum. If, in place of the plaster of raris, zinc white, white lead, or slaked h'me is used, the cement hard- ens more slowly. To Fasten Brass upon Glass.— Boil to- gether 1 part of caustic soda, 8 parts of rosin, 3 PJirts of gypsum, and 5 parts of water. The cement made in this waj hardens in about half an hour, hence it must be applied quickly. During the preparation it should be stirred con- stantly. All the ingredients used must be in a finely powdered state. Uniting Glass with Horn.— (1) A solu- tion of 2 parts of gelatin in 20 parts water is evaporated up to one-sixth ot its volume and i mastic dissolved in i spirit added and some zinc white stirred in. The putty is applied warm; it dries easily and can be kept a long time. (2) Mix gold size with the equal volume of water glass. To Cement Glass to Iron.— I. — Rosin 5 ounces Yellow wax 1 ounce Venetian red 1 ounce Melt the wax and rosin on a water bath and add, under constant stirrirq^, the Venetian red previously well dried. Stir until nearly cool, so as to prevent the Ve- netian red from settling to the bottom. n. — Portland cement 2 ounces Prepared chalk 1 ounce Fine sand 1 ounce Solution of sodium silicate enouffh to form a semi- liquia paste. m.— Litharge 2 parts White lead 1 part Work into a pasty condition by using 3 parts boiled unseed oil, 1 part copal varnish. Celluloid Cements. — I. — To mend brok- en drau^^hting triangles and other cellu- loid articles, use 3 parts alcohol and 4 parts ether mixed together and applied to the fracture with a brush until tne edges become warm. The edges are then stuck together, and left to dry for at least 24 hours. II. — Camphor, 1 part; alcohol, 4 parts. Dissolve and add equal quantity (by weieht) of shellac to this solution. III. — If firmness is desired in putting celluloid on wood, tin, etc., the followinff gluing agent is recommended, viz.: A compound of 2 parts shellac, 3 parts spirit of camphor, and 4 parts strong alcohol. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 18 ADHESIVES IV. — Shellac 2 ounces Spirits of camphor. . 2 ounces ^cohol, 90 per cent. . 6 to 8 ounces V. >— Make a moderately strong glue or solution of gelatin. In a dark place or a dark room mix with the above a small amount of concentrated solution of potas- sium dichromate. Coat the back of the label, which must be clean, with a thin laver of the mixture. Stronclj press the label against the bottle and keep the two in close contact by tying with twine or otherwise. Expose to sunlight for some hours; this causes the cement to be insol- uble even in hot water. VI. — Lime a v. ok. 1 White of egg av. os. 2} Plaster of Paris. . . . a v. os. 5} Water fl. ob. 1 Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix it with the white of egg by trituration, forming a uniform paste. Dilute with water, rapidly incorporate the plaster of Paris, and use the cement immediately. The surfaces to be cemented must first be moistened with water so that the ce- ment will readily adhere. The pieces must be firmly pressed together ana kept in tiiis position lor about 12 hours. Cementiiig Celluloid and Hard-Rubber Articles.— I.— Celluloid articles can be mended by making a mixture com- posed of 8 parts of alcohol and 4 parts of ether. This mixture should be kept in a well-corked bottle, and when celluloid articles are to be mended, the broken surfaces are painted over with the alcohol and ether mixture until the surfaces softeni then press together and bind and allow to dry for at least 24 hours. II. — Dissolve I part of gum camphor in 4 parts of alcohol; dissolve an equal weight of shellac in such stronff camphor solution. The cement is applied warm and the parts united must not be dis- turbed until the cement is hard. Hard- rubber articles are never mended to form a strong joint. in. — Melt toff ether eoual parts of gutta percha ana real asphaltum. The cement is applied hot, and the broken surfaces pressed together and held in place while cooling. Sign-Letter Cementi.^ I. — Copal varnish 15 parts Drying oil 5 parts Turpentine (spirits). 8 parts Oil of turpentine 2 parts Liquefied glue 5 parts Melt all together on a water bath until well mixed, and then add 10 parts slaked lime. II.— Mix 100 parts finely powdered white litharge with 50 parts ary white lead, knead together 8 parts linseed oil varnish and 1 P^rt copal varnish into a firm dough. Cfoat the side to be attached with this, removing the superfluous ce> ment. It will dry quickly and become very hard, m. — Copal varnish ...... 15 parts Linseed-oil varnish . 5 parts Raw turpentine 8 parts Oil of turpentine. ... 2 parts Carpenters' glue, dis- solved in water ... 5 parts Precipitated chalk . . 10 parts IV. — Mastic gum 1 part Litharge, lead 2 parts White lead 1 part Linseed oil 8 parts Melt together to a homogeneous mass. Apply hot. To make a thorough and reliable job, the letters should be neated to at least the temperature of the cement. To Fix Gold Letters, etc., upon Glass. — I. — The glass must be entirely clean and polished, and the medium is prepared in the following manner: One ou'nce fish glue or isinglass is dissolved in water so that the latter covers the glue. When this is dissolved a quart of rectified spir- it of wine is added, and enough water is poured in to make up one-quarter the whole. The substance must bie kept well corked. II. — Take } quart of the best rum and ) ounce fish glue, which is dissolved in the former at a moderate degree of heat. Then add ) quart distilled water, and filter throuffh a piece of old linen. The glass is laid upon a perfectly level table and is covered with this substance to the thickness of } inch, using a clean brush. Seize the gold leaf with a pointed object and place it smoothly upon the prepared mass, and it will be attracted ov the glass at once. After 5 minutes hold liie glass slightly slanting so that the superfluous mass can run on, and leave the plate in this position for 24 hours, when it will be perfectly dry. Now trace the letters or the design on a piece of paper, and perforate the lines with a thick needle, makf'nff the holes ^ inch apart. Then place tlie perforated paper upon the surface of the glass, and stamp the tracery on with powdered chalk. The paper pattern is then carefully removed, and the accurate design will remain upon the gold. The outHnes are now filled out with an oily gold mass, mixed with a little chrome orange and diluted with boiled oil or turpentine. When all In dry the superfluous gold is washed off Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 19 with water by means of a common rag. The back of the glajis is then paint^ with a suitable coK>r. Attaching Enamel Letters to Glass. — To affix enamel letters to glass, first dean the surface of the |^lass perfectly, leaving no grease or sticky substance of any kind adhering to the surface. Then with a piece of soap sketch the out- lines of the design. Make the proper division of the guide lines, and strike off accurately the position each letter is to occupy. Then to the back of the letters apply a cement made as follows: White lead ground in ofl, 2 parts; dry white lead« 8 parts. Mix to a soft putty con- sistency with good copal varnish. With a small knife or spatula apply the cement to the back of the letters, observing especial aire in getting the mixture well and uniformly laid around the inside edges of the letter. In at- taching the letters to the glass make sure to expel the air from beneath the char- acters, and to do this, work them up and down and sidewise. If the weather be at all warm, support the letters while drjring by pressing tiny beads of ««aling wax against the glass, dose to the under side or bottom of the letters. With a putty knife, keenly sharpened on one edge, next remove all the sur- plus cement. Give the letters a hard, firm pressure against the fflass around all edges to securely guard against the disirufrnve attacks of moisture. The seepage of moisture beneath the •Off ace of the letters is the main cause of their early detachment from the glass. The removal of the letters from the fjiuM may be effected by applying tur- pentine to the top of the characters, allowing it to soak down and through the eement. Oxalic add aoplied in the tame wa^ will usually slick the letters off in a tnce. Cement for Porcelain Lettefs.— Slake 13 parts of fresh quicklime in 20 parts of vatcr. Mdt 50 parts of caoutchouc and SO parts of linseed-oil varnish together, and bring the mixture to a boil. While iMifliBg. pour the liquid on the slaked bmr, Uttie by little, under constant stir- nnip. Pass the mixture, while still hot, through muslin, to remove anv possible lumps, and let cool. It takes the cement t days to set completely, but when dry it makes a joint tnat will resist a great lve in bisulphide of carbon X. — Make the following solutions sep arately and mix: (a) India rubber 5 ounces Chloroform 140 ounces (6) India rubber 5 ounces Rosin 8 ounces Venire turpentine. 1 ounce Oil of turpentine . . 80 ounces Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 28 Cement for Fatching Rubber Boots ■nd Shoes. — 1. — IndU rubber, finely chopped 100 parts Rosin 15 parts Shellac 10 parte Carbon disulphide, q. 8. to dissolve. This will not only unite leather to leather, india rubber, etc., but will unite rubber to almost any substance. II. — Caoutchouc, fineW cut 4 parts India rubber, nnely cut 1 part Carbon disulphide ... 32 parte Dissolre the caoutchouc in the carbon dtsttlphide, add the rubber, let macer- ate a few days, then mash with a palette knife to a smooth paste. The yessel in which the solution is made in both instances above must be kept tightly Hosed, and should have frequent agita- tions. III. — ^Take 100 parte of crude rubber or caoutchouc, cut it up in small bite, and dissolve it in sufficient carbon bisul- phide, add to it 15 parte of rosin and 10 parte of gum lac. The user must not orerlook tne great inflammability and exceedingly voiatue nature of the carbon bisttlphide. Tire Cements. — I. — India rubber 15 grams Chloroform 2 ounces Mastic i ounce Mix the india rubber and chloroform together, and when dissolved, the mastic is added in powder. It is then allowed to stand a week or two before using. IL — ^Tlie following is recommended as vaj good for oementnig pneumatic tires to la^vle wheels: Shellac . 1 ounce Gutta perdba 1 ounce Sulphur 45 grains Red lead 45 grains Mdt together the shellac and (^utta per- Hba, then add, with constant stirring, the > sulphur and red lead. Use while hot. IIL — Raw gutta percha ! . 16 ounces Carbon bisulphide. 72 ounces £aa de Cologne. ... 2} ounces This (sement is the subject of an Eng- fisb patent and is recommended ior patching cycle and motor tires, insulat- inir electric wires, etc. I V. — A good tluck shellac varnish with whjeli a small amount of castor oil has beea mixed will be found a very excellent faicTcle rim cement. The formula rec- ommeiided by Edel is as follows: Shellac 1 pound Alcohol 1 pint Mix and dissolve, then add: Castor oil J ounce The castor oil prevente the cement from becoming hard and brittle. A cement used to 'fasten bicycle tires may be made by melting together at a gentle heat equal parte of gutta percha and asphalt. Apply hot. Sometimes a small quantity each of sulphur and red lead is added (about 1 part of each to SO parte of cement). Cemente for Leather. — I.— Gutta percha 20 parte Syrian asphalt, pow- dered 20 parte Carbon disulphide.. 50 parte Oil of turpentine ... 10 parte The gutta percha, shredded fine, is dissolved in the carbon disulphide and turpentine oil. To the solution add the aspnalt and set awa^ for several davs, or until the asphalt is dissolved. The cement should have the consistency of honey. If the preparation is thinner than this let it sUnd, open, for a few days. Articles to be patched should first be washed with benzine. n. — Glue 1 ounce Storch paste 2 ounces Turpentine 1 drachm Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the ^ue In sufficient water with heat; mix the starch paste with water ;^ add the turpentine, and finally mix with the glue wnile hot. III.— Soak tor one day 1 pound of com- mon glue in enough water to cover, and 1 pound of isinglass in ale droppings. Then mix together and heat gently un- til boiling. At this point add a little Eure tennin and keep boiling for an our. If the glue and isinglass when mixed are too thick, add water. This cement should be used warm and the jointed leather pressed tightly together for 12 hours. IV. — A waterproof cement for leather caoutchouc, or oalata, is prepared by dissolving gutU percha, caoutchouc, benzoin, gum lac, mastic, etc., in some convenient solvent like carbon disul- ?hide, chloroform, ether, ^ or alcohol. *he best solvent, however, in the case oi gutte percha, is carbon disulphide, and ether for mastic. The most favorable proportions are as follows: Guttapercha, 200 to 800 parte to 100 parts of the sol- vent, and 75 to 85 parte of mastic to 100 parte of ether. From 5 to 8 parts of the former solution are mixed with 1 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 24 ADHESIVES part of the latter, and the mixture is then boiled on the water bath, or in a vessel fitted with a water jacket. v.— Make a solution of 200 to 300 parts of caoutchouc, gutta percha. india rubber, benzoin, or similar gum, in 1,000 parts of carbon di^ulphide, chloroform, ether, or alcohol, and of this add 5 to 8 parts to a solution of mastic (75 to 125 parts) in ether 100 parts, of equal volume and boil together. Use hot water as the boiling agent, or boil very cautiously on the water bath. VI. — Forty parts of aluminum ace- tate, lO*" B., 10 parts of grlue, 10 parts of rye flour. These materials are either to be simultaneously mixed and boiled, or else the glue is to be dissolved in the aluminum acetate, and the flour stirred into the solution. This is an excellent cement for leather, and is used in so- called art work with leather, and with leather articles which are made of sev- eral pieces. It is to be applied warm. Rubber Cement for Qotfa.— The fol- lowing formulas have been recommended: I. — Caoutchouc, 5 parts; chloroform, 3 parts. Dissolve and add gum mastic (powder) 1 part. II. — Gutta percha, 16 parts; india rub- ber. 4 parts; pitch, 2 parts; shellac, 1 part; linseed oil, 2 parts. Reduce the solids to small pieces, melt together with the oil and mix well. III. — The following cement for mend- ing rubber shoes and tires will answer similar purposes: Caoutchouc in shavings . . 10 ) p^ts Rosin 4 >• by Gum turpentine 40 ) ^«>k*»*. Oil turpentine, enough. Melt together first the caoutchouc and rosin, then add the gum turpentine, and when all is liquefied, add enough of oil of turpentine to preserve it liquid. A seconci solution is prepared by dissolv- ing together: Caoutchouc 10 ) P*^ Chloroform 280 f ^^i^it. For use these two solutions are mixed. Wash the hole in the rubber shoe over with the cement, then a piece of linen dipped in it is placed over it; as soon as the linen adheres to the sole, the cement is then applied as thickly as re- quired. CEMENTS FOR METALS A5D FOR AT- TACHING VARIOUS SUBSTANCES TO METALS: Cements for Iron.— I.— To make a good cement for iron on iron, make a thick paste, with water, of powdered iron, 60 parts; sal ammoniac, 2 parts, and sulphur flowers, 1 part. Use while fresh. II. — Sulphur flowers, 6 parts; dry white lead 6 parts, and powdered borax, 1 part. Mix by sifting and keep as a dry powder in a closed tin box. To use, make into a thin paste with strong sul- phuric acid and press together immedi- ately. This cement will harden in 5 days. in. — Graphite 50 pounds Whiting 15 pounds Litharge 15 pounds Make to a paste with a boiled oil. IV. — Make a paste of white lead and asbestos. V. — Make a paste of litharge and f^yc- erine. Red lead may be added. Ttiis also does for stone. VI. — Make a paste of boiled oil of equal parts of white lead, pipe clay, and black oxide of manganese. VII. — Make iron filings to a paste with water glass. VIII. — Sal ammoniac. ... 4 ounces Sulphur 2 ounces Iron filings 82 ounces Make as much as is to be used at once to a paste with a little water. This re- mark applies to both the following dry recipes: IX. — Iron filings 160 ounces Lime 80 ounces Red lead 16 ounces Alum 8 ounces Sal ammoniac... 2 ounces X. — Clay. 10 ounces Iron filings 4 ounces Salt 1 ounce Borax 1 ounce Black oxide of manganese ... 2 ounces XL— Mix: Iron filings 180 ounces Lime 45 ounces Salt 8 ounces XII.— Mix: Iron filings 140 ounces Hydraulic lime . . 20 ounces Sand ^ 25 ounces Sal ammoniac. . . 3 ounces Either of these last two mixtures is made into a paste with strong vinegar just before use. XIII. — Mix equal weights of rinc oxide and black oxide of manganese into a paste with water glass. XI VT — Copal varnish, 15 parts; hy- drated lime, 10 parts; f}ue a$ nrrfa (of sinews), 5 parts; tat drying oil, 5 parts; Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES S6 powdered turpentine, 8 parts; essence of turpentine, 2 parts. Dissolve the glue dk ficr/t on the water bath, add all the other substances, and triturate inti- mairiy. XV. — Copal varnish, 15 parts; pow- dered turpentine, 8 parts; essence of tur- pentine, i parts; powdered fish glue, 8 parts; iron filings, 8 parts; ocher, 10 parts. XVI. — To make a cement for cast iron, take 16 ounces cast-iron borings; 2 ounces sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce sulphur. Mix well and keep dry. When ready to use take 1 part of this powder to 20 parts of cast-iron borings and mix thoroughly into a stiff paste, adding a little water. XVn.— Litharge « parts Boiled linseed oil 2 parts White lead 1 part Copal 1 part Heat together until of a uniform con- sistence and apply warm. XVni. — A cement for iron which is said to be perfectly waterproof and fire- proof is made by working up a mixture of equal weights of red lead and litharge with glycerine till the mass is perfectly homogeneous and has the consistency of a glazier's putty. Thb cement is ftaid to answer well, even for very large iron vessels, and to be unsurpassable for stopping up cracks in large iron pans of steam pipes. Cement for Metal, Glass, and Porce- lain.— A soft alloy is prepared by mixing from 80 to 86 parts of copper precipi- tated in the form of a fine brown powder, with sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.86 in a cast-iron or porcelain mor- tar and incorporating by stirrinjg; with 75 parts of mercurv, the acid being after- wards removed by washing with water. In from 10 to 14 hours the amalgam be- eoa»es harder than tin, but when heated to 692^ F., it can be kneaded like wax. In tlib condition it is applied to the surface to lie cemented, and will fix them firmly together on cooling. Dissirfve 1 drachm of ^um mastic in 8 drachms of spirits of wine. In a sep- arate vessel containing water soak 3 drachms of isinglass. When thoroughly MLked take it out of the water and put it into S drachms of spirits of wine. Take a nieee of gum ammoniacum the size of a large p<» and grind it up finely with a little spirits of wine and isinglass until It has dissolved. Then mix the whole together with sufficient heat. It vriO be fcrand most convenient to place the n a hot-water bath. Xeep this cement in a bottle closely stoppered, and when it is to be used, place it in hot water until dissolved. Cements for Fastening Porcelain to Metal. — I. — Mix equal parts of alcohol (95 per cent) and water, and make a paste by incorporating the liauid with 800 parts of finelv pulverized chalk and 250parts of starch. II. — Mix finely powdered burned lime, 300 parts, with powdered starch, 250 parts, and moisten the mixture with a compound of equal parts of water and alconol of 95 per cent until a paste results. III. — Cement or plaster can be used if the surfaces are sufficiently large; cement is the better article when the object may be exposed to moisture or subjected to much pressure. A process which can be recommended consists in mingling equal weights of chalk, brick- dust, clay, and Romain cement. These materials, pulverized and sifted, are in- corporated with linseed oil in the pro- portion of half a kilo of oil to 8 kilos of the mingled powder. The Romain or Romanic cement is so designated from the district in France where the calca- reous stone from which it is prepared is found in considerable quantity. Al- though its adhesive oualities are unques- tioned, there are unaoubtedly American cements equally as good. IV.— Acetate of lead, 46J parts by weight; alum, 46) parts by weight; gum arabic, 76 parts by weight; flour, 500 parts by weight; water, 2,000 parts by weight. Dissolve the acetate of lead and the alum in a little water; on the other hand dissolve the gum arabic in water by pouring, for instance, the 2 liters of boning water on the sum arabic reduced to powder. When the gum has dissolved, add the flower, put all on the fire, and stir well with a piece of wood; then add the solution of acetate of lead and the alum; agitate well so as to pre- vent any lumps from forming; retire from the fire before allowing to boil. This glue is used cold, does not peel off, and IS excellent to make wood, glass, card- board, etc. adhere to metals. Cement for Leather and Iron.— To face a cast-iron pulley with leather apply acetic acid to the face of the pulley with a brush, which will roughen it by rusting, and then when dry apply a cement made of 1 pound of fish glue and ^ pound of common glue, melted in a mixture of alcohol and water. The leather should then be placed on the pulley and dried under pressure. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 86 ADHESIVES Amber Cements. — I. — To solder to- gether two pieces of yellow amber, slightlj heat tlie oarts to be united and moisten them witn a solution of caustic soda; then bring the two pieces together quickly. II. — Disserve in a closed bottle 75 parts of cut-up caoutchouc in 60 parts of chloroform. Add 15 parts of mastic and let the mixture stand in the cold until all has dissolved. III. — Moisten the pieces to be joined with caustic potash and press them to- gether when warm. The union is so perfect that no trace of the juncture is visible. A concentrated alcoholic solu- tion of the rosin over the amber, soluble in alcohol, is also employed for this pur- pose. Another medium is a solution of hard and very finely powdered copal in pure sulphuric ether. Coat both fractures, previously well cleaned, with this solution and endeavor to combine them intimately by tving or pressing. IV. — In 30 parts oy weight of copal dissolve 80 parts by weight of alumina by means of a water bath. Bathe the surface to be cemented with this gelat- inous liquid, but very slightly. Unite the fractures and press them together firmly until the mixture is dry. Add-Proof Cementi for Stonewmre and Glass.— I.— Mix with the aid of heat eoual weights of pitch, rosin, and plaster of Paris. II. — Mix silicate of soda to a paste with ground glass. III. — Mix boiled oil to a paste with china clay. IV. — Mix coal tar to a paste with pipe clay. V. — Mix boiled oil to a paste with quicklime. VI.— Mix with the aid of heat: Sul- phur, 100 pounds; tallow, 2 pounds; rosin, 2 pounds. Thicken with ground glass. VII.— Mix with the aid of hcat: Rosin. 2 pounds; sulphur, 2 pounds; brickdust, 4 pounds. VIII.— Mix with the aid of heat 2 pounds of india rubber and 4 pounds of boiled oil. Thicken with 12 pounds of pipe clay. IX.— Fuse 100 pounds of india rub- ber with 7 pounds of tallow. Then make to a paste with dry slaked lime and finally addr20 pounds of red lead. X.— Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin, 24 pounds; red ocher, 8 pounds; boiled oil, 2 pounds; plaster of Paris, 4 pounds. Add-Proof Cement for Wood, Metals, etc.— I. — Powdered asbestos. . . 2 parts Ground baryta 1 part Sodium watei^glass so- lution 2 parts Mix. II. — To withstand hot nitric acid the following is used: Sodium water-glass so- lution 2 parts Sand 1 part Asbestos 1 part Mix. m. — Asbestos 2 parts Sulphate of barium ... 8 parts Silicate of sodium .... 2 parts By mixing these ingredients a cement strong enough to resist the strongest nitric acid whI be obtained. IV.— If hot acids are dealt with, the following mixture will be found to possess still more resistant powers: Silicate of sodium (50^ Baume) 2 parts Fine sand 1 part Asbestos 1 part Both these cements take a few hours to set. If the cement is wanted to set at once, use silicate of potassium, instead of silicate of sodium. This mixture will be instantly effective and possesses the same power of resistance as the other. Directions for Repairing Broken Glass, Porcelain, Brie -4-Bnc.— Broken glass, china, bnc4i-brac, and picture frames, not to name casts, require each a differ- ent cement — in fact, several different cements. Glass may be beautifully mended to look at, but seldom so as to be safely used. For clear glass the best cement u isinglass dissolvedin gin. Put 2 ounces of isinglass in a clean, wide- mouthed bottle, add half a pint of gin, and set in the sun until dissolved. Shake well every day, and before using strain through double lawn, squeezing very gently. Spread a white cloth over the mend- ing table and supply it with plenty of clean linen rags, strong rubber bands, and narrow white tape, also a basin of tepid water and a clean soft towel. Wash the broken glass very dean, especially alon^ the break, but take care not to chip At further. Wet both broken edges well with the glue, using a camel's- hair pencil. Fit the break to a nicetv, then slip on rubber bands length- and cross- wise, every way they will hold. If they will not hold tiue as upon a stemmed Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 27 thuig, a vase or jug or scent bottle, string half a dozen bands of the same fiise and strength upon a bit of tape, and tie the tape aoout neck or base before beginning the gluing. After the parts are joined slip another tape through the same bands and tie it above the fracture; thus with all their strenfftb the bands pull the break together. The bands can be uaed thus on casts of china — in fact, to bold anything mendable. In glass meadini^ the greater the pressure the better — if onW it stops short of the break- ing point. Properly made the isinglass cement is as clear as water. When the pieces fit true one on the other the break should be hardly visible, if the pressure has been ffreat enough to force out the tiny bubbles, which otherwise refract the light and make the line of cleavage diivtressingly apparent. Mended glass may be used to hold dry things — ^as rose leaves, sachets, violet powder, even can- diet and fruits. But it wiU not bear to have any sort of liouid left standing in it, nor to be washed beyond a quick rinsing in tepid water. In wiping always use a very soft towel, and pat the vessel dry with due regard to its infirmities. Mend a lamp loose in the collar with sifted plaster of Paris mixed to a very Mrft paste with beaten white of e^g. Have everything ready before wetting; up the plaster, and work quickly so it may set in place. With several lamps to mend wet enough plaster for one at a time. It takes less than 5 minutes to set. and is utterly worthless if one tries wotf^kinc it over. Metal work apart frc^m the glass needs the soldering iron. Dust the break well with powdered rosin, tie the parts firmly together, lav the stick of solder above the break, and fetch the irMU down on it lightly but firmly. When the solder cools, remove the melted rosin with a cloth dipped in alcohol. Since breakaojes have so unhappy a knack of fracturing theniselves in such fashion they cannot possibly stand up- rif^ht; one needs a sand box. It is only a bos of handy sixe with 8 inches of dcaa^ coarse sand in the bottom. Along with it there should be some small leaden « eights, with rings cast in them, run- ning from an ounce to a quarter pound. Two of each weight are needed. In use, tapes are tied to the rings, and the pair of vfsghta swung outside the edges of the b»x, so as to press in place the upper part of a broken thing to which the tapes La IT been fastened. Set broken platters on edge in the sand box with the break up. The sand will bold them firm, and tne broken bit can be slapped on. It is the same with plates and saucers. None of these com- monly requires weightin^^. But ver^ fine pieces where an invisible seam is wanted should be held firm until partly set, then have the pair of heaviest weights accuratelv balanced across the brcncen piece. The weights are also very useful to prop and stay topheavv articles and balance them so they shall not get out of kilter. A cup broken, as is so com- mon with cups, can have the tape passed around it, crossing inside the handle, then be set firmly in the sand, face down, and be held b^ the hanging weights pulling one against the other. The most dependable cement for china is pure white lead, ground in linseed oil, so thick it will barely spread smoothly with a knife. Given time enough to harden (some 8 months), it makes a seam practically indestructible. The objec- tion to it is that it always shows in a staring white line. A better cement for fine china is white of egg and plaster. Sift the plaster three times and tie a generous ?inch of it loosely in mosquito netting, 'hen beat the egg until it will stick to the plaster. Have the broken egg very clean, cover both with the beaten egg, dust well with the plaster, fit together at once, tie, usin^ ruboer bands if possible, wrap loosely m very soft tissue paper, and bury head and ears in the sand box, taking care that the break lies so that the sand will hold it together. Leave in the box S4 hours. After a week the su- perfluous plaster may be gently scraped away. General Formulas for Cements for Repairing Porcelain, Glassware, Crock- ery, Plaster, and Meenchaum. — I. — An excellent cement for joining broken crockery and similar small articles can be made by melting 4 or 5 parts of rosin (or, better still, gum mastic) with 1 part of beeswax in an iron spoon or similar vessel. Apply while hot. It will not stand great neat. II. — An excellent cement for porcelain and stoneware is obtained by mixing 20 parts of fish slue with an equal weight of crystallizable acetic acid and evapo- rate the mixture carefully to a sjrrupy consistency so that it forms a gelatinous mass on coolihg. For use the cement thus obtained is made liquid again bv heating and applied to the fracture with a brush. The pieces should ^ now be pressed firmly together, by winding a twine tightlv around them, until the cement has hardened. HI. — For luting vessels made of glass. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 28 ADHESIVES porcelain, etc., which are to be used to nold strong acids, a mixture of asbestos powder, water glass, and an indifferent pow- der (permanent white, sand, etc.) is rec- ommended. To begin with, asbestos powder is made into a pulp with three or four times the quantity (weight) of a solution of soda water glass (of 80^ B.). The same is exceedingly fat and plastic, but is not very well suited for working, as it shrinlu too much and cracks when drying. By an addition of fine writing sand of the same weight as the asbestos used, the mass can be made less fat, so as to obviate shrinking, without detracting from the plasticity. Small vessels were molded from it and dried in the air, to be tested afterwards. Put in water, the hardened mass becomes soft again and falls apart. Brought into contact, however, with very strong min- eral acids, it becomes even firmer and withstands the liquid perfectly. Con- centrated nitric acid was kept in such small vessels without the mass being visibly attacked or anything; penetrating it. The action of the acid manifestly has the effect that silicic acid is set free from the water glass in excess, which clogs up the pores entirely and con- tributes to the lutation. Later on, the mass cannot be dissolved by pure water any more. The mass is also highly fire- proof. One of the molded bcraies can be kept glowing in a Bunsen gas flame for about half a dstj after treatment with acid, without slagging in the least. For many purposes it ought to be welcome to have such a mass at hand. It cannot be kept ready for use, however, as it hardens a few hours after being pre- pared; if potash water glass is used, in- stead of tne soda composition, this in- duration takes place still more quickly. IV.->Cement for GlaM, PorcelAiiii etc. Isinglass (fish glue) . . 50 parts Gum ammoniac 4 parts Gum mastic 2 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent . . 10 parts Water, q. s. Soak the isinglass in cold water over night, or until it has become swollen and soft throughout. In the morning throw off any superfluous fluid and throw the isinfflass on a clean towel or other coarse dotn, and hang it up in such a way that any free residual water will drain awajr. Upon doing this thoroughly depends, in a great measure, the strength of the cement. When the gelatin has become thoroughly drained put it into a flask or other container, place it in the water bath and heat carefully until it becomes fluid, being careful not to let it come to a boil, as tnis injures its adhesive prop- erties (the same may be said in reMrd to glues and gelatins of all kinds). Dis- solve the gums in the alcohol and add the solution to the gelatin after remov- ing the same from tne water bath, and letting it cool down to about 160^ F. Stir well together or mix hy agitation. The following precautions must be observed: 1. Both surfaces to be joined niust be absolutely clean, free from dust, dirt, grease, etc. ^ 8. Where the cement is one that requires the application of heat before use, the objects to be united should also he heated to a ftoint at least a$ high ae the melting point of the cewisni. Otherwise, the cement on application is chilled and conseouently fails to make a lasting joint. S. The thinner the layer of cement the stronger the ioint; avoid, therefore, using too much of the binding material. Cover both surfaces to be united, coapt them exactlpr, and press together as closely as possible. In this manner the thinnest possible layer is secured. 4. Bind the parts securay to> gether, and let remain without loosening or attempting to use the article for i or 8 days or longer. A liouid cement ac- quires its full strength only after evapoi^ ation of the fluids used as solvents, and this can occur only from the infinitesimal line of exposed surface. v.— Liquid Porcelain Cement— Fish glue, 20 parts; glass acetic acid, 20 parU; neat together until the mass gelaUniaes on cooling. VI. — Take 1 ounce of Russian isin- glass, cut in small pieces, and brul«e well; then add 8 ounces of warm water, and leave it in a warm place for from 24 to 48 hours. Evajrarate the re- sulting solution to about 8 ounces. Next dissolve } ounce of mastic in 4 ounces of alcohol and add the mastic solution to the isinglass in small quan- tities at a time, continuing the heat and stirring well. While still hot strain the liquid through muslin. VU.— For optical glasses, Canada bal- sam is employed, the two pieces being firm- \^ pressed together. After a while, espe- cially by humidity, punctures will form, and the glass is separated by a mist of varying reflexes, while in certain climates the heat will melt the balsam. For all other glass articles which require only simple treatment, such as knobs of covers plates, etc., silicate of potash b excel- lent Vni.— Glen Cement— Dissolve in 150 parts of acetic actd of M per cent. 100 Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 29 pftiia of gelmtin by the use of heat, and add ammonium bichromate, 6 parts. This glue must be kept away from the hght. IX.— White glue 10 parts Potassium bichromate 2 parts Water 100 parte The glue is dissolved in a portion of the water by the aid of heat, tne bichro- mate in the remainder, and the liquids mixed, the mixing being done in a feebly lighted place, and the mixture is then kept in tne dark. It is applied in feeble light, being reliquefied by gentle heat, and the glass, the fractured pieces being tightly clamped together, is tnen exposed to a strong light for some time. Bv this exiKMMire the cement becomes insoluble. This is waterproof cement for glass. S. — ^Diamond Glass Cement— Dis- foivc 100 parte of fish glue in 150 parte of 90 per cent alcohol and add, with con- stant stirring, 200 parte of powdered roain. This cement must be preserved in absolutdy tight bottles, as it solidifies very quickly. XI — To unite objecte of crystal dis- solve 8 parte of caoutchouc and 100 parte ol gum mastic in 600 parte of chloro- form. Set aside, hermeticaUy closed, for 8 days; then apply with a brush, cold. Xn. — To make a transparent cement for glaaSy digest together for a week in the cold 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of chloroform, and 40 ounces of mastic. XIII. — A mixture of traumaticin, a M^ution of caoutchouc in chloroform, and a concentrated solution of water ^lasa make a capital cement for unit- ing articles of glass. Not only is the imnt very strong, but it is transparent. \cither changes of temperature nor moisture affect the cement. XIV. — A transparent cement for por- celain is prepared by dissolving 75 parte of india rubber, cut into small pieces, in a bottle containing 60 parte chloro- form: to this add 15 parte green mastic. Lei the bottle stand in the cold until the iacrediente have become thoroughly dis- XV. — Some preparations resist the ac- tion of heat and moisture a short time, but generally yield very quickly. The following cement^ for glass has proven most resistant to liquids and heat: Silver litharge 1.000 parte White lead 50 parte Bofled linseed ofl. . 8 parte Copal varnish .... 1 part Mix the lead and litharffe thoroughly, and the oil and copal in tne same man- ner, and preserve separately. When needed for use, mix in the proportions indicated (150 parte of the powder to 4 parte of the liquid) and knead well to- gether. Apply to the edges of the glass, bind the broken parte together, and let stand for from 24 to 48 hours. XVI. — To reunite plaster articles dis- solve small pieces of celluloid in ether; in a quarter of an hour decant, and use the pasty deposit which remains for smearing the edgjes of the articles. It dries rapidly and is insoluble in water. XVn.— To Mend Wedgwood Mortars. — It is easy enough to mend morters so that they may be used for making emul- sions and other light work which does not tax their strength too much. But a mended mortar will hardly be able to stand the force required for powdering hard substances. A good cement for mending mortars is the following: a. — Glass flour elutriated. 10 parte Fluorspar, powdered and elutriated 20 parte Silicate of soda 60 parte Both glass and fluorspar must be in the finest possible condition, which is best done by shaking each in fine pow- der, with water allowing the coarser particles to deposit, and then to pour off the remainder, which holds the finest particles in suspension. The mixture must be made very rapidly by quick stirring, and when thoroughly mixed must be at once applied. This is said to yield an excellent cement. 6. — Freshly burnt plaster of Paris 5 parte Freshly burnt lime .... 1 part White of egg, sufficient Reduce the first two in^ediente to a very fine powder and mix them well; moisten the two surfaces to be united with a small quantity of white of egg to make them adhesive; then mix the powder very rapidly with the white of egg and applv the mixture to the broken surfaces. If they are large, two persons should do this, eacn applying the cement to one portion. The pieces are then firmly pressed to- § ether and left undisturbed for several avs. The less cement is used the better will the articles hold together. c. — If there is no objection to dark- colored cement, the very best that can be used is probably marine glue. This is made thus: Ten parte of caoutchouc or india rubber are dissolved in 120 parte of benzine or petroleum naphtha, with Digitized by VjOOQ IC 80 ADHESIVES the aid of a gentle heat. When the so- lution ifl complete, which sometimes lequires from 10 to 14 dajrs, 20 parts of asphalt are melted in an iron vessel and the caoutchouc solution is poured in very slowly in a fine stream and under con- tinued heating, until the mass has be- come homogeneous and nearlv all the solvent has been driven off. It is then poured out and cast into greased tin molds. It forms dark brown or black cakes, which are very hard to break. This cement requires considerable heat to melt it; and to prevent it from being burnt it is best to heat a capsule contain- ing a piece of it first on a water bath until the cake softens and begins to be liquid. It is then carefully wiped dry and heated over a naked flame, under constant stir- ring, up to about 300^ F. The edges of the article to be mended should, if possi- ble, also be heated to at least %W F., so as to permit the cement to be ap- plied at leisure and with care. The thinner the cement is applied the better it binds. MeerBchaum Cements.— I.*— If the ma- terial is genuine (natural) meerschaum a lasting joint can be made between the parts by proceeding as follows: Clean a clove or two of garlic (the fresher the better) by removing all the outside hull of skin; throw into a little mortar and mash to a paste. Rub this paste over each surface to be united and loin quick- ly. Bring the parts as closely together as possible and fasten in this position. Have ready some boiling fresn milk; place the article in it ana continue the Doiling for 30 minutes. Remove and let cool slowly. If properly done, this makes a joint that will stand any ordi- nary treatment, and is nearly invisible. For composition, use a cement made of quicklime, rubbed to a thick cream itith egg albumen. IL— Mix very fine meerschaum shav- ings with albumen or dissolve casein in water glass, stir finely powdered magne- sia into the mass, and use the cement at once. This hardens quickly. Asbeitot Cement — Ground asbestos may be made into a cement which will stand a hif|[h degree of heat by simply mixing it with a solution of soaium sili- cate. By subsec)uent treatment with a solution of calcium chloride the mass may be made insoluble, silicate of cal- cium being formed. A cement said to stand a high degree of heat and to be suitable for cementing glass, porcelain, or other vessels intended to hola corrosive acids, is this one: I. — Asbestos 2 pa Barium sulphate S pa Sodium silicate 2 pai By mixing these ingredients a cei strong enouffh to resist the stroi nitric acid will be obtained. If hot a are dealt with, the following mixture be found to possess still more rests powers: II. — Sodium silicate. 8 par Fine sand 1 par Asbestos pQwder. 1 pari Both these cements take a few he to set. If the cement is wanted to He once, use potassium silicate instead sodium silicate. This mixture will instantly effective, and possesses same pQwer of resistance as the other Parisian Cement. — Mix 1 part finely ground ^lass powder, obtain by levigation, with 3 parts of finelv pn dered zinc oxide renaered perfectly t\ from carbonic acid by calcination, f sides prepare a solution of 1 part, weight, of borax in a ver^ small quanti of hot water and mix this with 50 pai of a highlv concentrated zinc chloric solution of 1.5 to 1.6 specific gravit As is welj known the mixture of th powder with the liquid into a soft un torm paste is accomplished only imni< diately before use. The induration I a stonelike mass takes place within few minutes, the admixture of bora retarding the solidification somewha The pure white color of the powder ma be tinted with ocher, manganese, etc according to the shade desired. Strong Cement. — Pour over well washed and cleaned casein 12} parts o boiled linseed oil and the same anioun of castor oil. Boil. Stir actively ati< add a small amount of a saturated a que ous solution of alum; remove from th« fire and set aside. After a while a milk^ looking fiuid will separate and riMC. TUv shoula be poured off. To the rcxiduc add 120 parts of rock candy syrup an(i 6 parts of dextrin. A Cheap and Excellent Cement.— A cheap ana excellent cement, insolublr after drving in water, petroleum, oils. carbon disulphide, etc., very hard whrn dry and of very considerable tensilr strength, is composed of casein and some tannic-acid compound, as, for in- stance, calcium tannate, and is prepared as follows: First, a tannin solution u prepared either by dis-solving a tannin salt, or hy extraction from vegetable sources (ait barks from certain trees, etc.). to which Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 31 is added dear lime water (obtained by filtering milk of lime, or by letting the milk Btand until the lime subsides) until no further precipitation occurs, and red litmus iMiper munffed in the fluid is tamed blue. The Ti<]uid is now sepa- rated from its precipitate, either by de* cantation or otnerwise. and the precipi- tate is dried. In operating witn large quantities of the substance, this is done by passing a stream of atmospheric air throng the same. The lime tan- nate^ obtained thus is then mixed with casein in proportions running from 1 : 1 np to 1 : 10, and the mixture, thoroughly dried, is milled into thecQnsistenc7 of the finest powder. This powder has now only to be mixed with water to be ready for use, the consistency of the prepara- tion depending upon the use to which it u to be put. UoiTexsal Cement— Take gum arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 parts, by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight; camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve the sum arabic in a little water; also dissoiTe the starch in a little water. Mix and add the sugar and camphor. Boil on the water batn until a paste is formed which, on coating, will thicken. Cement for Ivory. — Melt tosether egual parts of ^utta percha and ordinary Ctch. The pieces to be united have to t warmed. Cement for Belts.— Mix 50 parts, by weight, of fish ^lue with eoual parts of whey and acetic acid. ^ Tnen add 50 parts, by weight, of garlic in paste form and bou the whole on the water bath. At the same time make a solution of too parts, by weight, of gelatin in the same quantity of whey, and mix both liquids. To the whole add, finally, 50 parts, by weight, of OO-per-cent alcohol and, after filtration, a cement is ob- tained which can be readily applied with a brush and possesses extraordinary binding qualities. Cement for Chemical Appaxmtus.-— Melt together 20 parts of gutta percha, 10 parts ol yellow wax, and SO parts of sheflae. Sizt Over Portiand Cement — The best size to use on Portland cement molding for wall paper would ordinarily be glue and alum size put on thin and warm, made in proportion of \ pound of glue and same weight of alum dis- solved in separate pails, then poured to- fctfacr. Aquarium Cements. — I. — Litharge 3 ounces Fine white sand ... 8 ounces Plaster of Paris. ... 3 ounces Rosin, in fine pow- der 1 ounce Linseed oil, enough. Drier, enough. Mix the first three ingredients, add sufficient linseed oU to make a homogene- ous paste, and then add a small quantity of drier. This should stand a few hours before it is used. It is said that glass t'oined to iron with this cement will »reak before it will come loose. II. — Litharge 1 ounce Fine wnite sand .... 1 ounce Raster of Paris. ... 1 ounce Manganese borate. 20 grains Rosin, in fine pow- der 8} pounds Linseed varnish oil, enough. III. — Take equal parts of flowers of sulphur, ammonium chloride, and iron filings, and mix thoroughly with boiled lins^d oil. Finally, add enough white lead to form a thin paste. I V. — Powdered graphite . 6 parts Slaked lime 8 parts Barium sulphate. . . 8 parts Linseed varnish oil . 7 parts V. — Simplv inix equal parts of white and red leaa with a little kettle-boUed linseed oil. Substitute for Cement on Grinder Disks. — A good substitute in place of glue or various kinds of cement for fast- ening emery cloth to the disks of grind- ers of the Gardner type is to heat or warm the disk and apply a thin coating of beeswax; then put the emery cloth in place and allow to set and cool under pressure. Knockenplombe. — If 1 part of thymol be mixed with 8 parts oi iodoform we obtain a substance that retains its fluid- ity down to 72** C. (161.6* F.). If the temperature be carried down to 60* C. (140* F.) it suddenly becomes solid and hard. If, in its liquid condition, this substance be mixed intimately with an equal quantity of calcined bone, it forms a cement that can be molded or kneaded into any shape, that, at the temperature of the body (98* F.), becomes as hard as stone, a fact that suggests many useful purposes to which the mixture may be put Cement for General Use.— Take gum arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 82 ADHESIVES parts by weight; w^te sugar, 21 parts, by weight; camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve the gum arable in a little water. On the other hand, dissolve the starch also in some water. When this is done add the sugar and the camphor and put in a water bath. Boil until a paste is formed, which must be rather tiiin, be- cause it will thicken on cooling. Strong Cement. — Pour over well- washed and cleaned casein 12 ) parts of boiled linseed oil and the same amount of castor oil, put on the fire and bring to a boil; stir actively and add a small amount of a saturated aqueous solution of alum; remove from the fire and set aside. After standing a while a milky- looking fluid will separate at the bottom and rise to the top. This should be poured off and to the residue add 120 Sarts of rock-candy syrup and 6 parts of extrine. Syndeticon.— I.— Slake 100 parU of burnt lime with 50 parts of water, pour off the supernatant water; next, dissolve 60 parts of lump sugar in 160 i>arts of water, add to the solution 15 parts of the slaked lime, heat to TO** or SO"" C. (US'" to 176^ F.)> and set aside, shaking fre- quently. Finally dissolve 50 to 60 parts of genuine Cologne glue in 250 parts of the clear solution. II. — A solution of 10 parts gum ara- ble and 80 parts of sugar in 100 parts of soda water fflass. III. — A not solution of 50 parts of Cologne glue in 60 parts of a 20-per-cent aqueous calcium-chloride solution. IV. — A solution of 50 parts of Co- logne glue in 60 parts of acetic acid. V. — Soak isinglass (fish bladder) in acetic acid of 70 per cent until it swells up, then rub it up, adding a little water dur- ing the process. "Shio Liao.w —Under this name the Chinese manufacture an excellent ce- ment which takes the place of glue, and with which gypsum, marble, porcelain, stone, and stoneware can be cemented. It consists of the following parts (by weight): Slaked powdered lime, 54 parts; powdered alum, 6 parts; and iresh, well - strained blood, 40 parts. These materials are stirred thoroughly until an intimately bound mass of the consistencv of a more or less stiff salve IS obtained. In paste form this mass is used as cement; in a liauid state it is emploved for painting all sorts of arti- cles which are to be rendered waterproof and durable. Cardboard covers, which are coated with it two or three times, be- coine as hard as wood. The Chinese paint their houses with "shio liao" and glaze their barrels with it, in which they trans- port oil and other greasy substances. LUTES. Lutes always consist of a menstruum and dissolved or suspended solids, and thev must not be attacked by the vases ana liquids coming in contact with them. In some cases the constituents of the lute react to form a more strongly adhering mass. The conditions of application are, in brief: (a) Heating the composition to make it plastic until firmly fixed in place. (6) Heating the surfaces. (r) Applying the lute with water or a volatile solvent, which is allowed to vola- tilize. (d) Moistening the surfaces with wa- ter, oil, etc. (the menstruum of the lute itself). (^e) Applying the lute in workable con- dition and the setting taking place by chemical reactions. (/) Setting by hydration. (o) Setting by oxidation. Tnese principles will be found to cover nearly all cases. Joints should not be ill - fitting, de- pending upon the lute to do what the pipes or other parts of the apparatus should do. In most cases one part of the fittine should overlap the otner, so as to make a small amount of the lute effective and to keep the parts of the ap- paratus rigid, as a luted joint is not supposed to be a particularly strong one, but rather one quickly applied, effective while in place and easily removed. Verv moderate amounts of the lute shoula be used, as large amounts are likely to develop cracks, be rubbed off, etc. A classification may be given as fol- lows: (1) Plaster of Paris. (2) Hydraulic cement. (S) Cfay. (4) Lime. (5) Asphalt and pitch. (6) Rosin. (7) Rubber. (8) Linseed oil. (9) Casein and albumen. (10) Silicates of soda and oxy chlo- ride cements. (11) Flour and starch. (12) Miscellaneous, including core compounds. I. Plaster of Pttris is. of course, often used alone as a paste, which quickly Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 88 souoiiies, for gas and wood distillation retorts, etc., and similar places where quickness of setting is requisite. It is more often, however, used with some 6brous material to give it greater strength. Asbestos is the most commonly used material of these, as it will stand a high temperature. When that is not so im- portant, straw, plush trimmings, hair, etc., are used as binders, while broken stone« glass, and various mineral sub- stances are used as fillers, but they do Dot add anything to the strength. These lutes seem to be particularly suit- able for oil vapors and hydrocarbon gmses. Formulas: (1) Plaster and water. it) Plaster (wet) and asbestos. (3) Plaster (wet) and straw. (4) Plaster (wet) and plush trim- mings. (5) Plaster (wet) and hair. (6) Plaster (wet) and broken stone, etc. n. Hydraulic Cement. — Cement is used either alone or with sand, asbestos, etc These lutes are suitable for nitric acid. ^ When used with substances such as rosin or sulphur, cement is probably employed because it is in sucn a fine state of division and used as a filler and out because of any powers of setting by hydration. Formulas: (1) Cement — neat. (2) Cement and asbestos. (3) Cement and sand. IIT. Clay. — This most frequently en- ten Into the composition of lutes as a filler, but even then the very finely divid- ed condition of certain grades renders it taloable, as it gives body to a liquid, soch as linseed ou, which, unless stiff- ened, would be pervious to a gas, the day in all cases being neutral. Thus, for luting pipes carrying chlorine, a stiff fttste of dav and molasses has been sug- gested by Theo. KoUer in Die SuttogaU^ but it soon gives way. Formulas: (1) Clay and linseed oil. <2) Same, using fire clay. (3) Clay and molasses. W) Is suiteble for steam, etc.; (2) for d^lome; and (3) for oil vapors. IV. Lime is used in the old lute known %» patty, which consists of caustic lime sad linseed oil. Frequently the lime is rrplaeed by chalk and china clay, but tW lime should be, in part at least, cans- be, to as to form a certain amount of fiiae aoap. Lime is also used in silicate and casein compositions, which are very strong and useful, but will be described elsewhere. Formulas: (1) Lime and boiled oil to stiff mass. (2) Clay, etc., boiled oil to stiff V. Asphalt and Pitch.— These sub- stances are used in lutes somewhat inter- changeably. As a rule, pitch makes the stronger lutes. Tar is sometimes used, but, because of the light oils and, fre- quently, water contained, it is not so good as either of the others. Asphalt dissolved in benzol is very useful for uniting glass for photographic, microscopical, and other uses. Also for coating wood, concrete, etc., where the melted asphalt would be too thick to cover well. Benzol is the cheapest solvent that is satisfactorv for this pur- pose, as the only one that is cheaper would be a petroleum naphtha, which does not dissolve all the constituents of the asphalt. For waterproofing wood, brick, ^ concrete, etc., melted asphalt alone is much used, ^ but when a little paraffine is added, it improves its water- proofing qualities, and in particular cases Doiled oil IS also added to advantage. Formulas: 1. Refined lake asphalt. 2. Asphalt 4 parts Paraffine 1 part 3. Asphalt 10 parts Paraffine 2 parts Boiled oil 1 part Any of these may be thinned with hot benzol or toluol. Toluol is less volatile than benzol and about as cheap, if not cheaper, the straw-colored grades being about 24 cents per gallon. Examples of so-called "stone cement" are: 4. Pitch 8 parU Rosin 6 parts Wax 1 part Plaster } to } part 5. Pitch 8 parts Rosin 7 parts Sulphur 2 parts Stone powder 1 part These compositions are used to unite slate slabs and stoneware for domestic, engineering, and chemical purposes. Va- rious rosin and pitch mixtures are used for these purposes, and the proportions of these two ingredients are determined by the consistency desired. Sulphur and stone powder are added to prevent the formation of cracks, sulphur acting chem- ically and stone powder mechanically Digitized by VjOOQ IC 84 ADHESIVES Where the lute would come in contAct with acid or vapors of the same, lime- stone should not be the powder used, otherwise it is about the best. Wax is a useful ingredient to keep the composi- tion from getting brittle with a^. A class of lutes under this general grouping that are much used are so- called 'marine glues" (q. v.). They must be tough and elastic. When usea for calking on a vessel they must expand and contract with the temperature and not crack or come loose. Formulas: 6. Pitch S parte Shellac 2 parte Pure crude rubber ... 1 part 7. Pitch 1 part Shellac 1 part Rubber substitute .... 1 part These are used by melting over a burner. VI. Rodn, Shellac, and Wax. -— A strong cement, used as a stone cement, is: 1. Rosin 8 parte Wax 1 part Turpentine 1 part It has little or no body, and is used in thin layers. ^ For nitric and hydrochloric acid vapors: 2. Rosin 1 part Sulphur 1 part Fire clay « parte Sulphur gives great hardness and permanency to rosin lutes, but this com- position is somewhat brittle. Good waterproof lutes of this class are: S. Rosin 1 part Wax 1 part Powdered fttone 2 parte 4. Shellac 5 parte Wax 1 part Turpentine 1 part Chalk, etc 8 to 10 parte For a soft air-tight paste for ground- glass surfaces: 5. Wax 1 part Vaseline 1 part 6. A strong crmcnt, without body, for metals (other than copper or alleys of same), porcelain, and glans is made by letting 1 part of finely powdered shellac sUnd witn 10 parte of ammonia water until solution is effertrd. Vn. Rubber.— Brcauae of tte toughnrm, elasticity, and resi.^Unce to alterative iofluences, rubber is a very useful con- stituent in lutes, but ite price makes ite use very limited. Leather Cement. 1. Asphalt 1 part Rosin 1 part Guttapercha 4 parte Carbon disulphide. . . 20 parte To stand acid vapors: 2. Rubber... 1 part Linseed oil 8 parte Fire clay 8 parte 8. Plain Rubber Cement— Cut the crude rubber in small pieces and then add the solvent. Carbon disulphide ia the best, bensol good and much cheaper, but gasoline is probably most extensively used because of ite cheapness. 4. To make corks and wood im- pervious to steam and water, soak them in a rubber solution as above; if it is desired to protect them from oil vapors, use glue composition. (See Section IX.) Vm. Linseed OU.— This is one of the most generally useful substances we have for luung purposes, if absorbed by a por- ous substance that is inert. Formulas: 1. China clay of general utility for ac^ueous vapors. Linseed oil of general utility for aque- ous vapors. 2. Lime forming the well-known putty. Linseed oil forming the well-known putty- 8. Red or white lead and linseed oil. These mixtures become ver^ strong when set and are best diluted with pow- dered glass, clay, or graphite. There are almost an endless number of lute« using metallic oxides and linseed oil. A very good one, not getting as hard as those containing lead, is: 4. Oxide of iron and linseed oil. IX. Casein, Albumen, and Glue.— These, if properly made, become very tough and tenacious; they stand moder- ate heat and oil vapors, but not add vapors. 1. Finely powdered case- in 1« parte Slaked lime (fresh). . . AO parte Fine sand. AO parte Water to thick mush. A very strong cement which standa moderate heat is the following : 2. Casein in very fine powder 1 part Rubl>ed up with sili- cate of soda 8 parte A strong lute for general purposes. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 35 which must be used promptly when nuMle: S. White of egg made into a paste with slaked lime. A composition for soaking corks, wood, packing, etc.. to render tnem im- pervious to oil vapors, is: Gelatine or good glue 2 parts Glycerine } to 1 part Water 6 parts Oil of wintergreen, etc., to keep from spoiling. X. Silicate of Oxychloride Cements.— For oil vapors, standins the highest heat: 1. A stiff paste of sincate of soda and asbestos. Gaskets for superheated steam, re- torts, furnaces, etc.: ^ Silicate of soda and powdered glass; drv the mixture and heat. \ot so strong, however, as the follow- ing: S. Silicate of soda 50 parts Asbestos 15 parts Slaked lime 10 parts Metal Cement: 4. SOicate of soda 1 part Oxides of metal, such as zinc oxide; lith- arge, iron oxide, singly or mixed 1 part Very hard and extra strong composi- tions: 5. Zinc oxide 2 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Water to make a paste. 6. Magnesium oxide ... 2 parts Magnesium chloride. 1 part W^ater to make a paste. n. Floor and Starch Compositions. — 1. The well-known flaxseed poultice «ebi very tough, but does not stand water or condensed steam. 2. Flour and molasses, made by mak- infc a stiff composition of the two. This is an excellent lute to have at hand at all times for emergency use, etc. S, Stiff paste of nour and strong zinc- chloride solution forms a more imper- vious lute, and in more permanent as a cvmrnt. This is good tor most pur- poses, at ordinary temperature, where it would not be in contact with nitric-acid vapors or condensing steam. 4. A mixture of dextrine and fine sand makes a good composition, mainly used as core compound. Xn. Miscellaneous. — L Uthar^. Glycerine. Mixed to form a stiff paste, sets and becomes very hard and strong, and is very useful for inserting glass tubes, etc., in iron or brass. For a high heat: 2. Alumina 1 part Sand 4 parts Slaked lime 1 part Borax ) part Water sufficient A class of mixtures that can be classi- fied only according to their intended use are core compounds. I.— Dextrine, about 1 part ' Sand, about 10 parts With enough water to form a paste. II. — Powdered anthracite coal, with molasses to form a stiff paste. III. — Rosin, parti V saponi- fied by soda lye .... 1 part Flour. 2 parts Sand (with sufficient water) 4 parts (These proportions are approximate and the amount of sand can be increased for some purposes.) IV. — Glue, powdered 1 part Flour, 4 parts Sand (with sufficient water) 6 parts For some purposes the following mix- ture is used. It does not seem to be a gasket or a core compound: V. — Oats (or wheat) ground 25 parts Glue, powdered 6 parts Sal ammoniac 1 part Paper read by Samuel S, Sadder before the Franklin Institute. PASTES: Dextrine Pastes.^ I. — Borax, powdered.. . . 60 parts Dextrine, light yellow. 480 parts Glucose 50 parts Water 420 parts Bv the aid of heat, dissolve the borax in tne water and add the dextrine and glucose. Continue the heat, but do not let the mixture boil, and stir constantlv until a homogeneous solution is obtainecl, from time to time renewing the water lost by evaporation with hot water. Finally, bring up to full weight (1,000 parts) by the addition of hot water, then strain through flannel. Prepared in this manner the paste remains bright and clear for a long time. It has extraor- dinary adhesive properties and dries very rapidly. If care is not taken to keep the cooking temperature below the boiling point of water, the paste is apt to become brown and to be very brittle on drying. Digitized by VjOOQ IC S6 ADHESIVES II. — ^Dissolve in hot water a sufficient quantity of dextrine to bring it to the consistencT of honey. This forms a strong adhesive paste that will keep a long time unchanged, if the water is not allowed to evaporate. Sheets of paper may be prepared for extempore labels bv coating one side with the paste and allowing it to dry; by slightly wetting the gummed side, the labd will adhere to glass. This paste is very useful in the office or laboratory. III. — Pour over 1,000 parts of dextrine 450 parts of soft water and stir the mix- ture for 10 minutes. After the dextrine has absorbed the water, put the mixture over the fire, or, preferably, on a water bath, and heat, with lively stirring for 5 minutes, or until it forms a light milk- like liquid, on the surface of which lit- tle bubbles begin to form and the liquid is apparently beginning to boil. Do not allow it to come to a^ boil. Re- move from the fire and set in a bucket of cold water to cool off. When cold add to every 1.000 parts of the solution 51 parts ^Ivcerine and as much salicylic acia as will stand on the tip of a knife blade. If the solution is too thick, thin it with water that has been boiled and cooled off again. Do not add any more glycerine or the solution will never set. IV.— Soften 175 parts of thick dex- trine with cold water and 250 parts of boiling water added. Boil for 5 minutes and then add SO parts of dilute acetic acid, SO parts glycerine, and a drop or two of clove oil. V. — Powder coarsely 400 parts dex- trine and dissolve in 600 parts of water. Add 20 parts glycerine and 10 parts glu- cose and heat to 90<> C. (195'' P.). VI. —Stir 400 parts of dextrine with water and thin the mass with 200 parts more water, 20 parts glucose, and 10 parts aluminum sulphate. Heat the ^hole to 90* C. (195^ F.) in the water bath until the whole mass becomes clear and liquid. VII. — Warm 2 parU of dextrine, 5 parts of water, 1 part of acetic acid, 1 part of alcohol together, with occasional stirring until a complete solution is at- tained. VIII. — Dissolve bv the aid of heat 100 parts of builders' glue in 200 parts of water add 2 parts of bleachea shellac dwrnlved previously in 50 parts of alcohol. Dissolve by the aid of heat 50 parts of dex- trine in 50 parts of water, and mix the two solutions by stirring the second slowlv into the first. Strain the mixture through a cloth into a shallow dish and let it harden. When needed cut off a piece of sufficient size and warm until it becomes liquid and if necessary or advisable thin with water. IX. — Stir up 10 parts of dextrine with sufficient water to make a thick broth. Then, over a light fire, heat and add 25 parts of sodium water glass. X. — Dissolve 5 parts of dextrine in water and add 1 part of alum. Fastening Cork to Metal. — In fasten- ing cork to iron and brass, even when these are lacquered, a good sealing wax containing shellac will be found to serve the purpose nicely. Wax prepared with rosin is not suitable. The cork surface is painted with the melted sealing wax. The surface of the metal is heated with a spirit flaine entirely free from soot, until the sealing wax melts when pressed upon the metallic surface. The wax is held in the flame until it burns, and it is then applied to the hot surface of the metal. The cork surface painted with sealing wax is now held in the flame, and as soon as the wax begins to melt the cork is pressed firmly on the metallic sur- face bearing the wax. To Paste Celluloid on Wood, Tin, or Leather. — To attach celluloid to wood, tin, or leather, a mixture of 1 part of shellac, 1 part of spirit of camphor, S to 4 parts of alcohol and spirit of camphor (90°) is well adapted, in which 1 part of cam- phor is dissolved without neating in 7 parts of spirit of wine of 0.832 specific gravity, adding 2 parts of water. To Paste Paper Signs on Metal or Cloth.— A piece of gutta percha of the same size as the label^ is laid under the latter and the whole is heated. If the heating cannot be accomplished by means of a spirit lamp the label should be ironed down under a protective cloth or papor in the same manner as woolen gooas are pressed. This method is also very use- ful for attaching paper labels to minerals. Paste for Fastening Leather, Oildoth, or Similar Stuff to Table or DeskfTops, etc. — Use the same paste for leather as for oilcloth or other goods, but moisten the leather before applying the paste. Prepare the paste as follows: Mix 'i\ pounds of good wheat flour with 2 tablcspoonfuls of pulverized gum ara- bic or powdered rosin and 2 table- spoonfuls of pulverized alum in a dean dish with water enough to miike a uni- formly thick batter; set it over a sl»>w fire and stir continuously until the paste is uniform and free from lumps. When the mass has become so stout that the wooden spoon or stick will stand in it Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 87 uprtghtv it is taken from the fire and placed in another dish and covered so that no skin will form on top. When cold, the table or desk top, etc.» is covered with a thin coat of the paste, the doth, etc., carefully laid on and smoothed from the center toward the edges with a roUinff pin. The trimming of edges is accomplished when the paste has dried. To smooth out the leather after pasting, a woolen doth is of the best service. To Paste Paper on Smooth Iron. — Over a water bath dissolve 200 parts, by weight, of gelatine in 150 parts, by weight, of water; while stirring add 50 parts, by weight, of acetic acid, 50 piuts alco- hol, and 50 parts, by weight, of pulver- ized alum. The spot upon which it is desired to attach the paper must first be rubbed with a bit of nne emery paper. Paste for Affixing Cloth to MetaL— SUrch 20 parts Sugar 10 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Water 100 parts Mix the ingredients and stir until a perfectly smooth liquid results entirely free from lumps, then warm gradually until the liquid thickens. To Fix Paper npon Polished MetsL — Dissolve 400 parts, bj^ weight, of dextrine in 000 parts, by weight, of water; add to this 10 parts, by weight, of glucose, and heat almost to boiling. Albumen Paste. — Fresh egg albumen is recommended as a paste for affixing labds on bottles. It is said that labels Sat on with this substance, and well ried at the time, will not loosen even when bottles are put into water and left there for some time. Albumen, dry, is aliDo^t proof a^^nst mold or ferments. As to cost, it IS but little if any higher than gum arable, the white of one egg bdn^ suffident to attach at least 100 mediam-sized labds. Ftste for Parchment Paper. — The best mg^tAj* made by dissolving casein in a saturated aqueous solution of borax. Medical Paste. — As an adhesive agent for medicinal purposes Professor Reihl, of Ldpsic, recommends the viscous sub- stance contained in the white mistletoe. It is largely present in the berries and the bark of the plant; it is called viscin, and can be produced at one-tenth the price of caoutchouc. Solutions in ben- siae majT be used like those of caout- chouc without causing an^ irritation if applied mixed with medicinal remedies to the skin. Paste That Will Not Mohl.— Mix food white flour with cold water into a thick paste. Be sure to stir out all the lumps; then add boiling water, stirring all the time until thoroughly cooked. To 6 quarts of this add ) pound light brown sugar and \ ounce corrosive sublimate, dissolved in a little hot water. When the paste is cool add 1 drachm oil of lavender. This paste wUl keep for a long time. Pasting Wood and Cardboard on Metal. — ^In a little water dissolve 50 parts of lead acetate and 5 parts of alum. In another receptacle dissolve 75 parts of fum arable in 2,000 parts of water, nto this ffum-arabic solution pour 500 Earts of flour, stirring constantly, and eat graduallv to the boiling point. Mingle the solution first preparea with the second solution. It should be kept in mind that, owing to the lead acetate, this preparation is poisonous. Agar Agar Paste. — The agar agar is broken up small, wetted with water, and exposed in an earthenware vessel to the ac- tion of ozone pumped under pressure into the vessel from the ozonizing apparatus. About an hour of this bleaches the agar agar and makes it freely soluble in boil- ing water, when solutions far more con- centrated than has hitherto been possible can be prepared. On cooling, the solu- tions assume a milky appearance, but form no lumps and are readily relique- fied by heating. If the solution is com- pletely evaporated, as of course happens when the adhesive is allowed to dry after use, it leaves a firmly holding mass which is insoluble in cold water. Among the uses to which the preparation can be applied are the dressing of textile fabrics and paper sizing, and the production of photographic papers, as^ well as the or- dinary uses of^an adhesive. Strongly Adhesive Paste. — Four parts glue are soaked a few hours in 15 parts cold water, and moderately heated till the solution becomes peitectly clear, when 65 parts boiling water are added, while stirring. In another vessej SO parts boiled starch are previously stirred together with 20 parts cold water, so that a thin, milk^ liquid without lumps results. ^ The boiling ^lue solution is poured into this while stirring constantly, and the whole is kept boiling another 10 minutes. Paste for Tissue Paper. — (a) Pulverized gum ara- ble 2 ounces White sugar 4 drachms Boiling water 8 fluidounces Digitized by VjOOQ IC d8 ADHESIVES (6) Common laundry starch 1 ) ounces Cold water 3 fluidounces Make into a batter and pour into Boiling water 82 fluidounces Mix (a) with (6), and keep in a wide- mouthed bottle. Waterproof and Addproof Pastes. — I. — Chromic acid. ...... 2) parts Stronger ammonia. . . 15 parta Sulphuric acid ) part Cuprammonium so- lution SO parts Fine white paper .... 4 parts II. — Isinglass, a sufficient quantity Acetic acid 1 part Water 7 parts Dissolve sufficient isinglass in the mix- ture of acetic acid and water to make a thin mucilage. One of the solutions is applied to the surface of one sheet of paper and the other to the other sheet, and they are then pressed together. III. — A fair knotting varnish free from surplus oil is by far the best adhe- sive for nxing labels, especially on metal surfaces. It dries instantly, insuring a speedy job and immediate packing, ii needful, without fear of derangement. It has great tenacity, and is not only absolutelv damp-proof itself, but is actu- ally repellent of moisture, to which all water pastes are subject. It costs more, but the additional expense is often infini- tesimal compared with the pleasure of a satisfactory result. Balkan Paste.— Pale glue 4 ounces White loaf sugar. ... 2 ounces Powdered starch. ... 1 ounce White dextrine } pound Pure glycerine S ounces Carbolic acid } ounce Boiling water 82 ounces Cut up the glue and steep it in } pint boih'ng water; when softened melt in a saucepan; add sugar, starch, and dex- trine, and lastly the glycerine, in which carbolic acid has been mixed; add re- mainder of water, and boil until it thick- ens. Pour into jars or bottles. P^rmaiieiit Paste. — I. — Wheat flour 1 pound Water, cold 1 quart Nitric acid 4 fluidrachms Boric acid 40 grains Oil of cloves 20 minims Mix the flour, boric acid, and water, then strain the mixture; add the nitric acid, apply heat with constant aii until the mixture thickens; 'when n cold add the oil of cloves. This ; will have a pleasant smell, "will not af flies, and can be thinned by the add of cold water as needed. II. — Dissolve 4 ounces alum i quarts hot water. When cool ad< much flour as will make it of the ii consistency; then stir into it 4 oi powdered rosin; next add a little w m which a dozen cloves have h steeped; then boil it until thick as mi stirring from the bottom all the ti Thin with warm water for use. ^ Pmervatives for Paste. — Various tiseptics are employed for the pressor tion of flour paste, mucilage, etc. Jl« and salicylic acids, oil oi cloves, ciil sassafras, and solution of forniaIclrh> are among those which have given b service. A durable starch paste is pi duced by adding some borax to t water used in making it. A paste fru 10 parts (weight) starch to 100 piii (weight) water with 1 per cent bon added will keep many weeks, while y\it out this addition it will sour after .s days. In the case of a gluing materia prepared from starch paste and joiner glue, borax has also demonstrated its pn serving qualities. The solution is mad by mixing 10 parts (weight) starch int a paste with water and adding 10 part (weif^ht) glue soaked in water to the ho solution; the addition of -^ part (weight of borax to the solution will cause i( t< keep for weeks. It is equal to the hesj glue, but should be warmed and sarts, bv weight, of good linseed- oil varnish and 8} parts, by weight, of turpentine to every 500 parts, by weight. VII.->Pa8te for Wall Paper.— Soak 18 pounds of bolus (bole) in water, after it nas been beaten into small fragments, and pour off the supernatant water. Boil 10 ounces of glue into glue water, mix it well with the softened bolus and 2 pounds plaster of Paris and strain through a sieve by means of a brush. Thin the mass with water to the consist- ency of a thin paste. ^ The paste is now ready for use. It is not only much cheaper than other varieties, but has the advantage over them of adhering better to whitewashed walls, and especially such as have been repeatedly coated over the old coatings which were not thor- oughly removed. *For hanging fine wall paper this paste is less commendable, as it forms a white color,, with which the paper might easily become soiled if {Treat care is not exercised in applying it. If the fine wall paper is mounted on ground paper, however, it can be recom- mended for pasting the ground paper on the wall. LABEL PASTES: Pastes to Afliz Labels to Tin.— labels separate from tin because the paste be- comes too dry. Some moisture is pre- sumably always present; but more is required to cause continued adhesion in the case of tin than where the container is of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 40 ADHESIVES glaM. Paste may be kept moist by the addition of calciom chloride, which is strongly hygroscopic, or of glycerine. The following formulas ^r pastes of the type indicated were proposed by Leo Eliel: I. — Tragacanth 1 ounce Acacia 4 ounces Thymol 14 grains Glycerine 4 ounces Water, sufficient to make 2 pints Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of watert strain, and add the glycerine, in which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to make 2 |>ints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it sufficiently for use. II. — ^Rye flour 8 ounces Powdered acacia. ... 1 ounce Glycerine 2 ounces Oil of cloves 40 drops Bub the rye flour and acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint otboiling water, and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves. III.— Rye flour 5 parts Venice turpentine. . . 1 part Liquid glue, a sufficient quantity Rub up the flour with the turpentine and then add sufficient freshly prepared glue (glue or gelatine dissolved m water) to make a stiff paste. This paste dries slowly. I v.— Dextrine 2 parts Acetic acid 1 part Water 5 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent . 1 part Dissolve the dextrine and acetic acid in water by heating together in the water bath, and to the solution add the alcohol. V. — Dextrine 3 pounds Borax 2 ounces Glucose 5 drachms Water 8 pints 2 ounces Dissolve the borax in the water by warming, then add the dextrine and glu- cose, and continue to heat gently until dissolved. Another variety is made by dissolvinf; a cheap Ghatti gum in limewater, but it keeps badly. VI. — Add tartaric acid to thick flour paste. The paste is to be boiled until quite thick, and the acid, previously dis- solved in a little water, is added, the pro- portion being about 2 ounces to the pint of paste. VII. — Gum arable, 60 parts; glycer- ine, 10 parts; water, 30 parts; liq. Stibii chlorat., 2 parts. VIII. — Boil rye flour and strong glue water into a mass to which are added, fo" 1,000 parts, ^ood linseed-oil varniMb 30 parts and oil of turpentine 30 psrts. This mixture furnishes a gluing agent which, it is claimed, even renders the labels proof against being loosened by moisture. IX.— Pour 140 parts of distilled cold water over 100 parts of gum arable in a wide-necked bottle and dissolve by fre- (fuent shaking. To the solution, which is ready after standing for about 3 days, add 10 parts of glycerine; later, 20 parts of diluted acetic acid, and finally 6 parts of aluminum sulphate, then straining it through a fi ne-nair sieve. X. — Good glue is said to be obtaineil by dissolving 1 part of powdered sugar in 4 parts of soda water glass. XI. — A glue for bottle labels is pre- pared by dissolving borax in water; soak glue in this solution and dissolve the glue b^ boiling. Carefully drop hs mucn acetic acid into the solution as will allow it to remain thin on cooling. Labels affixed with this agent adhere firmly and do not become moldy in damp cellars. XII. — Dissolve some isinglass in acetic acid and brush the labels over with it. There wUl be no cause to complain of their coming off, nor of striking through the paper. Take a wide- mouthed bottle, fin about two-thirds with commercial acetic acid, and put in as much isinglass as the liquid will hold, and <^et asioe in a warm place until completely dissolved. When cold it should form a jelly. To use it place the bottle in hot water. The cork should be well-fit- ting and smeared with vaseline or melted paraffine. How to Paste Labels on Tin.— Bru.«h over the entire back of the label with a flour paste, fold the label loosely hy sticking both ends together without creasing the center, and throw to one side until this process has been gone through with the whole lot. Then unfold each label and place it on the can in the regular manner. The paste ought not to DC thicker than maple syrup. W'hen of this consistency it soaks through the label and makes it pliable and in a con- dition to be easily rubbed into position. If the paste is too thick it dries ouickly. and does not soak through the label suf- ficiently. After the labels have been placed upon the cans the latter must be Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 41 kept apart until dry.^ In putting the paste upon the labeU in the first place, loUoir the methixi of placing the dry UbeU oTer one another, back sides up, vith the edffe of each just protruding over the edge of the one beneath it, so that the 6iigers may easily grasp the label after the pasting has been done. Druggists' Label Paste.— This paste, vhea carefully nutde, is an admirable one for label use, and a very little will go a loag way: Whc^t flour 4 ounces Nitric acid 1 drachm Boric acid 10 grains Ofl of cloY^ 5 drops Carbolic add } drachm Stir flour and water together, n^ixing thoroughly, and add the other ingre- dirsts. After the stuff is well mixed, beat it, watching very carefully and re- moring the instant it stiffens. To Attach Glass Labels to Bottles.— Melt toigether 1 part of rosin and 2 parts of ycUow wax, and use while warm. Photographic Mountants (see also Photography). — Owing to the nature of the different papers used for printing photographs, it is a matter of extreme nnportanoe to use a mountant that shall aot set up decomposition in the coating <4 the pnnt. For example, a mountant that exhibits acidity or alkalinity is in- ^ 'vriotts with most varieties of paper; and 'b photography the following formulas f«#r pastes, mucilages, etc., have there- forr been selected with regard to their ahi^olttte immunity from setting up de- no mposition in the print or changing its tiioe in any way. One of the usual uxnuitaBts is rice starch or else rice water. Tbe latter is boiled to a thick jelly, ftnuDed« and the strained mass used a% aa agglutinant for attaching photo- graphic prints to the mounts. Tnere is aotaiog of an injurious nature whatever io this mountant, neither is there in a iBttcilage made with gum dragon. Tkts gum (also called gum traga- canth) is usually in the form of curls • ije^ leal gum), which take a long time to propcmr dissolTe in water — several vreha, in fact — but during the past few years there has been put on the market a powdered gum dragon which does not orcopy so many days in dissolving. To okafce a mucilage rom gum dragon a vrry large volume of water is required. fyr example. 1 ounce of the gum, either icaf or powder, will swell up and con- «ryt 1 gaOon of water into a thickish Bodlage in the course of 2 or 8 weeks. Only cold water must be used, and be- fore using the mucilage, all whitish lumps (which are particles of undissolved gum} should be picked out or else the mucilage strained. The time of solution can be considerably shortened (to a feW hours) bjr acidifying the water in which the gum is placed with a little sulphuric or oxalic acid; but as the resultant muci- lage would contain traces of their pres- ence, such acids are not permissible when the gum-dragon mucilage is to be used for mounting photograpniB. Glycerine and gum araoic make a very good adhesive of a fluid nature suited to mounting photographs; and although glycerine is hygroscopic by itself, such tendency to absorb moisture is checked by the reverse nature of the gum arabic; consequently an ideal fluid mucilage is produced. The proportions of the sev- eral ingredients are tnese: Gum arabic, genuine (gum acacia, not Bassora gum) 4 ounces Boiling water 12 ounces Glycerine, pure 1 ounce First dissolve the gum in the water, and then stir in the glycerine, and allow all debris from the gum to deposit before using. The following adhesive com- pound is also one that is free from chem- ical reactions, and is suited for photo- graphic purposes: Water 2 pints Gum dragon, pow- dered 1 ounce Gum arabic, genuine 4 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Mix the gum arabic with half the wa- ter, and in the remainder of the water dissolve the gum dragon. When both solids are dissolved, mix them together, and then stir in the glycerine. The following paste will be found a useful mountant: Gum arabic, genuine 1 ounce Rice starch 1 ounce White sugar 4 ounces Water, q. s. Dissolve the gum in just suflficient water to completely dissolve it. then add the sugar, and when that has completely dissolved stir in the starch paste, and then boil the mixture until the starch is properly cooked. A very strong, stiff paste for fastening cardboard mounts to frames, wood, and other materials is prepared by making a bowl of starch paste in the usual way, and then adding 1 ounce of Venice tur- pentine per pound of paste, and boil- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 42 ADHESIVES ing and stirring the mixture until the thick turpentine has become well incor- porated. Venice turpentine stirred into flour paste and boiled will also be found a very adhesive cement for fasteninff cardboard, strawboard, leatherette, ana skiver leather to wood or metal; but owing to the resinous nature of the Venice turpentine, such pastes are not suitable for mounting photographic prints. The following half-dozen compounds are suitable mountants to use with silver prints: Alcohol, absolute. ... 10 ounces Gelatine, good 1 ounce Glycerine } to I ounce Soak the gelatine in water for an hour or two until it is completely softened; take the gelatine out ot the water, and allow it to drain, and put it into a bottle and pour alcohol over it; add the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only i ounce; if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up very well. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the prints from stretching or cockling, as they are apt to, under the influence of the gelatine. In the following compound, however, only sufficient alcohol is used to serve as an antiseptic, and prevent the aggluti- nant from decomposing : Dissolve 4 ounces of photographic gelatine in 10 ounces of water (first soalung the gela- tine therein for an hour or two untilit is completely softened), then remove the gelatine from the water, allow it to drain, and put it into the bottle, and pour the alcohol over it, and put in the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only i ounce; if the gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up well and mix thor- oughly. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the print from stretch- ing or cockling up under the influence of the gelatine. The following paste agglutinant is one that is very permanent and useful for all purposes required in a photographic studio: Take 5 pints of water, 10 ounces of arrowroot, 1 ounce of gelatine, and a } pint (10 fluidounces) of alcohol, and proceed to combine them as follows : Make arrowroot into a thick cream with a little of the water, and in the remainder of the water soak the gelatine for a few hours, after which melt the gelatine in the water by heating it* add the arrow- root paste, and bring the mixture to the boil and allow to boil for 4 or 5 minutes. then allow to cool, and mix in the alcohol, addinff a few drops of oil of cloves. Pernaps one ot the most useful com- pounds for photographic purposes is that prepared as follows: Soak 4 ounces of nard gelatine in 15 ounces of water for a few hours, then melt the gelatine by heating it in a glue pot until the solution is quite clear and free from lumps, stir in 65 fluidounces of cold water so that it is free from lumps, and pour in the boiling-hot solution of gelatine and con- tinue stirring, and if the starch is not completely cooked, boil up the mixture for a few minutes until it *^low8," being careful to keep it well stirred so as not to burn; when cold add a few drops of carbolic acid or some essential oil as an antiseptic to prevent the compound from decomposing or becoming sour. A useful photographic mucila^, which is very liquid, is obtained bv mixing equal bulks of gum-arabic and gum-dragon mucilages of the same consistence. The naixture of these mucilages will be con- siderably thinner than either of them when alone. As an agglutinant for general use in the studio, the following is reoomipended: Dissolve 2 ounces of gum arabic in 5 ounces of water, and for every 250 parts of the mucilage add 20 parts of a solu- tion of sulphate of aluminum, prepared by dissolving 1 part of the sulphate in 20 parts of water (common alum should not be used, only the pure aluminum sulphate, because common alum is a mixture of sulphates, and usually con- taminated with iron salts). The addi- tion of the sulphate solution to the gum mucilage renders the latter less y^oscopic, and practically waterproof, besides Deing very adhesive to any materials, particularly those exhibiting a smooth sunace. MUCILAGES: For AffizinffLabds to Glass and Other Objects. — I.^i^-The mucilage is made bv simply pouring over the gum enough water to a little more than cover it, and then, as the gum swells, adding more water from time to time in small portions, until the mucilage is brought to such con- sistency that it may be easily spread with the brush. The mucilage keeps fairlv well without the addition of any anti- septic. « lI.^Tragacanth 1 ounce Acacia ^ . . 4 ounces Thymol 14 grains Glycerine. 4 ounces Water, sufficient to make 2 pints Digitized by VjOOQ IC ADHESIVES 43 Dissolye the gums in 1 pint of water» strain and add the glycenne, in which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it sufficiently for use. m. — Rye flour 8 ounces Powdered acacia. 1 ounce Glycerine 2 ounces Oil of cloves 40 drops Water, a sufficient quantity. Rub the rye flour and the acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of cold water; strain tnroush cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of boiling water and continue the beat until as thick as desired. When nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of doTcs. IV. — One part, by weight, of traga- cantb, when mixed with 95-per-oent alco- hol to form 4 fluidounces, forms a li(|uid in which a portion of the tragacanth is dis- solved and the remainder suspended; this remains permanently fluid, never deteriorates, and can be used in place of the present mucilage; 4 to 8 minims to each ounce of mixture is sufficient to suspend any of the insoluble substances usually given in mixtures. V« — To 250 parts of gum-arabic muci- lage add 20 parts of water and 2 parts of ftuTphate of alumina and heat until dis- solved. VI. — Dissolve ) pound gum traga- canth, powdered, } pound gum arabic, powxlered, cold water to the desired con- sistency, and add 40 drops carbolic acid. Mucilage of Acacia. — Put the«gum, whk-fa should be of the best kind, in a flask the Msie of which should be large enough U% contain the mucilage with about one- fifth of its space to spare (i. e., the prixiuct ihoold fill rt about four-fifths full). Now bre« and wash the gum with distilled wa- ter* letting the latter dmin away as much as possible before proceeding further. Am the requisite auantity of distilled water slowlv, whicn, however, should fifst have added to it about 10 per cent of limewrater. Now cork the flask, and lay it without shaking, horizontally in a cool place and let it remain ouietly for about 3 hours* then give it a najf turn to the right without disturbing its horizontal poaitifin. Repeat this operation three or foor times during the day, and keep it ap ooti] the gum is completely dissolved (which will not be untilthe fourth day probably), then strain through a thin cloth previously wet with distilled wa- ter, avoiding, in so doing, the formation of foaoB or bubbles. This preeaution shimld also be observed in decantation of the percolate into smaller bottles pro- vided with paraffine corks. ^ The small amount of lime water, as will be under- stood, is added to the solvent water in order to prevent the action of free acid. Commercial Mncilage. — Dissolve } pound white glue in equal parts water and strong vinegar, and add } as much alcohol and } ounce alum dissolved in a little water. To proceed, first get |[ood glue and soak in cold water until it swells and softens. Use pale vinegar. Pour off the cold water, tnen melt the glue to a thick paste in ho^ water, and add the vinegar hot. When a little cool add the alconol and alum water. To ^Render Gum Arabic More Ad- hesive'.— I. — Add crystallized aluminum sulphate in the proportion of 2 dissolved in 20 parts of water to 250 parts of con- centrated gum solution (75 parts of gum in 175 parts of water). II. — Add to 250 parts of concentrated gum solution (2 parts of gum in 5 parts of water) 2 parts of crvstallized alumi- num sulphate dissolved in 20 parts of water. This mixture glues even unsized paper, pasteboard on pasteboard, wood on wood, glass, porcelain, and other substances on whicn labels frequently do not adhere well. Envelope Gum. — The gum used by the United States Government on postage stamps is probably one of the best that coula be used not only for envelopes but for labels as well. It will stick to almost any surface. Its composition is said to be the following: Gum arabic 1 part Starch 1 part Sugar 4 parts Water, sufficient to give the desired con- sistency. The gum arabic is first dissolved in some water, the sugar added, then the starch, after which the mixture is boiled for a few minutes in order to dissolve the starch, after which it is thinned down to the desired consistency. Cheaper envelope gums can be made by substituting dextrine for the sum arabic, glucose for the sugar, and adding boric acid to preserve and help stiffen it. Mudlase to Make Wood and Paste- board Adhere to Metals. — Dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of lead acetate together with 5 parts, by weight, of alum in a little water. Make a separate solution of 75 parts, by weight, of gum arabic in 2,000 parts, by weight, of water, stir in this 500 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 44 ADHESIVES parts, by weight, of flour, and heat slowly to boiling, stirring the while. Let it cool somewhat, and mix with it the solution containing the lead acetate and alum, stirring them well together. Preservation of Gum Solution. —Put a small piece of camphor in the mucilage bottle. Camphor vapors are generated which kill all the bacterial germs that have entered the bottle. The gum main- tains its adhesiveness to the last drop. ADULTERAIITS IN FOODS: See Foods. ADUROL DEVELOPER: See Photography. JESCO-QUINIIIE: See Horse Chestnut AGAR AGAR PASTE: See Adhesives. AGATE, BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL. Prepare a mixture or frit of 83 parts of quartz sand, 65 parts calcium phos- phate, and 2 parts oi potash. The frit, which has been reduced by heat to the fusing point, is finelv ground, intimately mingled with a small Quantity of kaolin and pressed in molds which yield button- shaped masses. These masses, after hav- ing been fired, are given a transparent glaze by any of the well-known processes. AGATE (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial. AGING OF SILK: See Silk. AGING, SILVER AND GOLD: See rlating. AIR BATH. This air bath is employed in cases in which, upon drying or heating sub- stances, acid vapors arise because the walls of the bath are not attacked by them. For the production of the drying s take a flask with the bottom or a bell jar tubulated above, laced either upon a sand bath asbestos paper, previously laid jiece of sheet iron. The sand he sheet iron is put on a tripod, t can be heated by means of a >laced underneath. The sub- be dried is placed in a glass or dish, which is put under the and if desired the drying dish lung on the tripod. For regu- e temperature the tubulure of is dosed with a pierced cork. through whose aperture the thermom- eter is thrust. In order to permit the vapors to escape, the cork is grooved lengthwise along the periphery. AIR BUBBLES IN GELATINE: See Gelatine. AOL EXCLUSION OF, FROM SOLU- TIONS: See Photography. AIR-PURIFYING. Ozonatine is a fragrant air-purifying preparation consisting of dextrogyrate turpentine oil scented with slight quan- tities of fragrant oils. ALABASTER CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. ALBATA METAL: See Alloys. ALASKA, BAKED: See Ice Cream. ALBUMEN IN URINE, DETECTION OF. Patein {Pharm, Zeit.) recommends the following test for albumen in urine: Dissolve 250 grams of citric acid in a sufficient quantity of water, add enough ammonia to neutralize, then 50 grams of alcohol, and finally enough water to make 1 liter. To the acid (or acidulated ) urine, one-tenth its volume of the ammo- nium-citrate solution made as above is added, and the whole heated in the usual fanner. The appearance of the faint- est tui^idity is said to indicate with pos- itive certainty the presence of albumen. ALBUMEN PAPER: See Photography. ALBUMEN PASTE: See Adhesives. Alcohol After the manuscript of this book was ready for the press, Congress passed the bill which has since become a law, whereby the prohibitive tax on industrial or de- natured alcohol is removed. So impor- tant is this legislative measure that the Editor has deemed it wise to insert ati article on the sources of alcohol and the manufacture of alcohol from farm pro scnption of the brewing^ and the f>enod that will be allowed for its maturation. The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8 per cent of "al>soiute alcohol"; ordinary strong ale, 4X to 6 per cent; mild ale, 3 to 4 percent; and table ale. 1 to 11 per cent (each by volume); togeth- er with some undecomposed saccharine, gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic principles of the hop,^ some acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and very small and variable quantities of mineral and saline matter. Ordinary ale- wort (preferably pale), sufficient to produce 1 barrel, is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 pounds of crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter is extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a ctmrso strainer and become lukewarm, is fer- mented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast; and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely bunged up for draft or is at once put into strong stone- ware bottles, which are then well corked and wired. White ale is said to be very nutritious, though apt to prove laxative to those un- Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 47 acGiutomed to its use. It is drunk in a state ol effervescence or lively fermenta- tion; the glass or cup containing it beinff kept in constant motion, when removed from the mouth, untfl the whole is con- sumed, in order that the thicker portion may not subside to the bottom. ALE, GINGER: See Beverages. ALFSmDE METAL: See AUoys. ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT: See Soiaps. ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO: See Atropine. Alloys No general rules can be given for ftllovinc metals. Alloys differing greatly in lustoility are commonly made by adding the more fusible ones, either in the melted state or in small portions at a time* to the other melted or heated to the lowest possible temperature at which A perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usuallv effected uoder m flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction and prevent vola- tiiixation and unnecessary exposure to the air. Thus, in melting lead and tin together for solder, rosin or tallow is thrown upon the surface is rubbed with ssl ammoniac; and in combining some melalf, powdered charcoal is used for the same purpose. Mercury or quick- stiver combines with many metals m the ctiid, forming amaixiamb, or easily fusible liluys (q. v.). Alloys generallv jMssess characteris- tics unshared by tneir component metals. Tbusw copper and zinc form brass, vhieh has a different density, hardness, and color from either of its constituents. Whether the inetals tend to unite in stoinic proportions or_ in any definite rxtjo b stiU undetermined. The evi- tirnce afforded by the natural alloys of m the state of fusion, goes far tu prove that such is the case (Rud- berg). The subiect is, however, one of e^9undrrmlAe difficulty, as metals and netaflic compounds are generally solu- bur in each other, and unite by simple ferion and contact. That they do not 'iimbine indifferently with each other, ^ot exercise a species of elective affinity •St diwimtlar to other bodies, is clearly shown by the homogeneity and superior quality of many alloys in which the con- stituent metals are in atomic proi>ortion. The variation of the specific gravity and melting points of alloys from the mean of those of their component metals also affords strong evidence of a chemical change having taken place. Thus, alloys generally melt at lower temperatures than tneir separate metals. They also usually possess more tenacity and hardness than the mean of their constituents. Matthiessen found that when weights are suspended to spirals of hard-drawn wire made of copper, gold, or platinum, they become nearly straightened when stretched by a moderate weight; but wires of equal dimensions composed of copper-tin (12 per cent of tin), silver- platinum (36 per cent of platinum), and {|[old-copper (84 per cent of copper) scarce- y underffo any permanent change in form when suDJectea to tension by the same weiffht. The same chemist gives the following approximate results upon the tenacity of certain metals and wires hard-drawn through the same gauge (No. 23) : Pounds Copper, breaking strain 25-30 Tin, breaking strain under 7 Lead, breaking strain under 7 Tin-lead (20% lead) about 7 Tin-copi>er (12% copper). . .about 7 Copper-tin (12% tin) about 80-90 Gold (12% tin) 20-25 Gold-copper (8.4% copper) 70-75 Silver (8.4% copper) 45-50 Platinum (8.4% copper) 45-50 Silver-platinum (30% platinum). 75-80 On the other hand, the malleability, ductility, and power of resisting oxygen of allovs is senerally diminished. The alloy formea of two brittle metals is always brittle; that of a brittle and a duc- tile metal, generally so; and even two ductile metals sometimes unite to form a brittle compound. The alloys formed of metals having different fusing points are usually malleable while cola and brittle while hot. The action of the air on alloys is generally less than on their simple metals, unless the former are heated. A mixture of 1 part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely acted on at common temperatures; but at a red heat it readily takes fire, and continues to burn for some time like a piece of bad turf. In like manner, a mixture of tin and zinc, when strongly heated, de- composes both moist air and steam with rapidity. The specific gravity of alloys is rarely Digitized by VjOOQ IC 48 ALLOYS the arithmetical mean of that of their constituents, as commonly taueht; and in many cases considerable condensation or expansion occurs. When there is a strong affinity between two metals, the density of their alloy is generally greater than tne calculated mean; and vice versa, as may be seen in the following table: Allots having a denbht Greater than the Mean of their Constit- uents: Copper and bismuth. Copper and (Milladium, Copper and tin. Copper and zinc. Gold and antimony. Gold and bismuth. Gold and cobalt. Gold and tin. Gold and zinc. Lead and antimony. Palladium and bismuth. Silver and antimony. Silver and bismuth. Silver and lead. Silver and tin. Silver and zinc. Less than the Mean of jtheir Constituents: Gold and copper. Gold and iridium. Gold and iron. Gold and lead. Gold and nickel. Gold and silver. Iron and antimony. Iron and bismuth. Iron and lead. Nickel and arsenic. Silver and copper. Tin and antimony. Tin and lead. Tin and palladium. Zinc and antimony. Compouxiding Alloys. -^Considerable experience is necessary to insure success in compounding alloys, especially when the metals employed varv greatly in fusibility and volatility. The following are rules supplied by an experienced workman: 1. Melt the least fusible, oxidizable, and volatile first, and then add the others heated to their point of fusion or near it. Thus, if it is desired to make an alloy of exactly 1 part of copper and 3 of zinc, it will be impossible to do so by putting proportions of the metals in a crucible and exposing the whole to heat. Much of the zinc would fly oflf in vapor before the copper was melted. First, melt the copper and add the zinc, which has been melted in another crucible. The zinc should be in excess, as some of it will be lost anvway. 2. Some alloys, as copper and zinc, copper and arsenic, may be formed b^ exposing heated plates of the least fusi- ble metal to the vapor of the other. I n making brass in thelarge way, thin plates of copper are dissolved, as it were, in melted zinc until the proper proportional have been obtained. 3. The surface of all oxidizable metals should be covered with some protecting agent, as tallow for very fusible ones, rosin for lead and tin, charcoal for zinc, copper, etc. 4. Stir the metal before casting and if possible, when casting, with a white- wood stick; this is much better for the purpose than an iron rod. 5. If possible, add a small portion of old alloy to the new. If the alloy is re- quired to make sharp castings and strength is not a very great object, the Proportion of old alloy to the new should e increased. In aU cases a new or thorouffhly well-cleansed crucible should be used. To obtain metals and metallic alloys from their compounds, such as oxides, sulphides, chlorides, etc., a process lately patented makes use of the reducing qualities of aluminum or its alloys with magnesium. The finely powdered ma- terial (e. g., chromic oxide) is placed in a crucible mixed with aluminum oxide. The mixture is set afire by means of a soldering pipe or a burning magnoiium wire, and tne desired reaction takes place. For igniting, one may also employ with advantage a special priming cartridge consisting of pulverized aluminum t«» which a little masnesium may be mixed, and peroxide of magnesia, which in shaped into balls and lighted with a magnesium wire. By suitable additic»ns to the pulverized mixture, alloys con- taining aluminum, magnetism, chro- mium, manganese, copper, iron» borun, silicic acid, etc., are obtained. ALUMINUM ALLOTS. M. H. Pecheux has contributed to tli€ Comptes Rendus, from time to time, th« results of his investigations into the allovi of aluminum with soft metals, and tfiv* following constitutes a brief summary oi his observations: Lead. — ^When aluminum is melteci and lead is added in proportion great ei than 10 per cent, the metals separate on cooling into three layers — lead, altimi num, and between them an allov c^tntain ing from 90 to 97 per cent of aluminum Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 49 The aUoys with 98, 05, and 98 per cent have densities of 2.745, 2.674, and 2.600 re- »Dectivel^, and melting points near that oi alaminum. Their color ia like that of aluminum, but they are less lustrous. All are malleable, easdy cut, softer than aluminum, and have a granular fracture. On remelting they become somewhat richer in lead, through a tendency to li<|iution. They do not oxidize in moist air, nor at their melting points. They are attacked in the cold oy hydrochloric and by strong sulphuric acid, with evo- lution of hydrogen, and by strong nitric arid when hot; strong solution of po- tassium hydroxide also attacks them. They are without action on distilled water* whether cold or hot. Zrnir. — Well-defined alloys were ob- tained, corresponding to the formulas Zd»A1, Zn,Al, ZnAl, ZnAlt, ZnAl,, ZnAI«. ZnAl.. ZnAli«, ZnAli*. Their loeltsiig points and densities all lie be- tween those of zinc and aluminum, and Ihoee containing most zinc are the hard- est. They are all dissolved by cold hydrochloric acid and by hot dilute nitric acid. Cold concentrated nitnc acid at- tacks the first three, and cold dilute acid the firvt five. The Zn.Al, ZnAl«, ZnAli., and ZnAl It are onlv sliji^htly affected by cold potassium-hvaroxide solution; the others are strongly attacked, potassium nncste and aluminate probably being f«jrmed. Tin. — A filed rod of tin-aluminum alloy pi anged in cold water gives off for some minutes bubbles of gas, composed of hydrogen and oxygen in explosive pro- portions. An unfiled rod, or a filed rod d cither aluminum or tin, is without artioa. though the unfiled rod of alloy wQI act on boiling water. The filed rod f4 alloj« in faintJv acid solution of cop- p^ or zinc sulpnate, becomes covered with a deposit of copper or zinc, while bubbles of oxygen are given off. M. Pecbeux believes that the metals are truly alloyed only at the surface, and that filing layi bare an almost infinitely numerous •cries of junctions of the two metals, which, heated by the filing, act as ther- mocouples. Bbmuth. — By the method used for Wad. bismuth alloys were obtained con- UiBsng 75. 85, 88, and 94 per cent of alnmianm* with densities 2.86, 2.79, 4-78, and 2.74 respectively. They were •tourons, brittle, finelv^ grained, and homogeneous, silver- white, and with Belting points between those of their con- itiittettts, but nearer that of aluminum. Tbty are not oxidized in air at the tem- perature of casting, but are readily at- tacked by acids, concentrated or dilute, and by potassium-hydroxide solution. The filed alloys behave like those of tin, but still more markedly. Magnesium. — These were obtained with 66, 68, 73, 77, and 85 per cent of aluminum, and densities 2.24, 2.47, 2.32, 2.37, 2.47. They are britUe, with larffe granular fracture, silver-white, file wen, take a good polish, and have melt- ing points near that of aluminum. Being viscous when melted, thev are dif- ficult to cast, and when slowhr cooled form a gray, spongy mass whicn cannot be remelted. They do not oxidize in air at the ordinary temperatures, but burn readily at a bnffht-red heat. They are attacked violently by acids and by potassium-hydroxide solution, decom- pose hydrogen peroxide, and slowly de- compose water even in the cold. Tin, Bismuth, and ICagnesium.— The action of water on these alloys just re- ferred to has been recently demonstrated on a larger scale, 5 to 6 cubic centimeters of hydrogen having been obtained in 20 minutes from 2 cubic centimeters of the filed tin ailov. The bismuth alloy yield- ed more hydrogen than the tin alloy, and the magnesium alloy more than the bis- muth alloy. The oxygen of the decom- posed water unites with the aluminum. Larger quantities of hydrogen are ob- tained from copper-siuphate solution, apart from the decomposition of this solution by precipitation of copper at the expense of the metal alloyea with the aluminum. The alloys of aluminum with zinc and lead do not decompose pure water, but do decompose the water of copper-sulphate solution, and, more slowly, that of zinc-sulphate solution. Aluminum is a metal whose properties are very materiaUy influenced oy a pro- portionately small addition of copper. Alloys of 99 per cent aluminum and 1 per cent of copper are hard, brittle, and bluish in color; 95 per cent of aluminuni and 5 per cent of copper give an alloy which can DC hammered, but with 10 per cent of cop- per the metal can no longer be worked. With 80 per cent and upward of copper are obtained alloys of a oeautif ul yellow color, and these mixtures, containing from 5 to 10 percent of aluminum and from 90 to 05 per cent of copper, are the genuine aluminum bronzes. The 10-per-cent al- loys are of a pure golden-yellow color; with 5 per cent of aluminum they are reddish yellow, like gold heavily alloyed with copper, and a 2-per-cent admix- ture is of an almost pure copper red. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 60 ALLOYS As the proportion of copper increases, the brittleness is diminished, and alloys containing 10 percent and less of aluminum can be used for industrial purposes, the best consisting of 90 per cent of copper and 10 of aluminum. The hardness of this alloy approaches that of the general bronzes, whence its name. It can be stretched out into thin sheets between rollers, worked under the hammer, and shaped as desired b^ beating or pressure, in powerful stampmg presses. On ac- count of its hardness it takes a fine pol- ish, and its peculiar ffreenish-gold color resembles that of gold alloyed with cop- per and silver together. Alloys with a still greater proportion of copper approach this metal more and more nearly in their character; the color of an alloy, for instance, composed of 95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of alu- minum, can be distinguished from pure gold only by direct comparison, ana the metal is very hard, ana also very mal- leable. Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum AlloyB. — During three years' exposure to the atmosphere, copper-aluminum alloys in one test gradually diminished in con- ductivity in proportion to the amount of copper they contamed. The nickel-copper aluminum alloys, which show such re- markably increased tensile strength as compared with good commercial alumi- num^ considerabnr diminished in total con- ductivity. On the other hand, the man- ganese-copper aluminum alloys suffered comparatively little diminution in total conauctivity, and one of them retained comparatively high tensile strength. It was thought that an examination of the structure of these alloys by aid of microphotography might throw some light on the great difference which exists between some of their physical proper- ties. For instance, a nickel -copper alu- minum alloy has 1.6 times the tensile strength of ordinary commercial alumi- num. Under a magnification of 800 diameters practically no structure could be discovered. Considering the re- markable crystalline structure exhibited by ordinary commercial aluminum near the surface of an ingot, when allowed to solidify at an ordinary rate, the want of structure in these alloys must be attrib- uted to the process of drawing down. The inference is that the great differ- ence which exists between their tensile strengths and other qualities is not due to variation in structure. Colored AUoys of Alumintim. — A pur^ pie scintillating composition is produced fj by an alloyage of 78 parts of gold and 22 parts aluminum. With platinum a gold- colored alloy is obtained; with palladium a copper-colored one; and with cobalt and nickel one of a yellow color. Easily fusible metals of the color of aluminum ive white alloys. Metal difficult of usion, such as iridium, osmium, tita- nium, etc., appear in abnormal tones of color through such alloyages. Aluminum-Brass. — Aluminum, 1 per cent; specific gravity, 8.35 ; tensile strength, 40. Aluminum, 3 per cent; specific grav- ity, 8.83; tensile strength, 65. The last named is harder than the first. Aluminum -Copper, — Minikin is prin- cipallv aluminum with a small percent- age of copper and nickel. It is alloyed by mixinjg the aluminum and copper, then adding the nickel. It resembles palladium and is very strong. Aluminum -Silver. — I. — Silver, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. A hand- some color. II. — A silver aluminum that is easily worked into various articles contains about one-fourth silver and three-fourths of aluminum. Aluminum -Tin. — Bourbon metal is composed of equal parts of aluminum and tin; it solders readily. Aluminum -Tungsten. —A new metal alloy consisting of aluminum and tung- sten is used of late in France in the con- struction of conveyances, especiallv car- riages, bicycles, and motor vehicles. The French call it partinium; the com- position of the new alloy varies according to the purposes for which it is used. It is considerably cheaper than aluminum, almost as light, and nas a greater resist- ance. The strength is stated at 32 to 37 kilograms per square millimeter. Aluminum -Zinc. — Zinc, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. Very ductile, white, and harder than aluminum. AUALGAMS: See Fusible Alloys. Anti-Friction Bearing or BabUtt Met- als.— ^These alloys are usuallv supported by bearinp of brass, into whicn it is ooured after they have been tinned, and heated and put together with an exact model of the axle, or other working piece, plastic clay being previously applied, in the usual manner, as a lute or outer mold. Soft gun metal is also excellent, and is much used for bearings. They all be- come less heated in working than the Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 51 bartlennetals, and less grease or oil is con- seouently required when they are used. i.^-An anti-friction metal of excellent quality and one that has been used with •ucccss is made as follows : 17 parts sine; 1 part copper; 1) parts antimony; prepared in the following wav: Melt the copper in a small crucible, then add the antimony, and lastly the zinc, care being taken not to burn the zinc. Burning can be prevented by allowing the copper and antimony to cool slightly before add- ing the zinc. This metal is preferably cast into the shape desired and is not u»ed as a lining metal because it requires too great a heat to pour. It macnines nicely and takes a fine polish on bearing fturfaoes. It has the appearance of alaminum when finished. Use a lubri- catinir oil made from any good grade of machine oO to which 3 parts of kerosene have been added. II. — Copper, 6 parts; tin, 18 parts; lead, liO parts; antimonjr, 30 parts; vrooght iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. For certain purposes the composition is modified as follows: Copper, 16 parts; tin, 40 parts; lead, 120 parts; antimony, t?l parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. In both cases the wrought iron is cut up in small pieces, and in tnis state it will melt readily in fused copper and cast iron. After the mixture nas been well stirred, the tin, lead, and antimony are added; these are previously melted in separate crucibles, and when mingled the wDole mass is again stirred thoroughly. The product mav then be run into ineots, to be employed when needed. When ran into the molds the surface should be weQ skimmed, for in this state it oxidizes rapidly. The proportions may be varied vithoui materially affecting the results. HI. — From tin, 16 to 20 parts; anti- mony, € parts; lead, 1 part; fused to- retber. and then blended with copper, SO parts. Used where there is much friction or high velocity. IV. — Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; co|>- jftT, 90 parts, used when the metal is cxpMed to violent shocks. V. — Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts: copper, 68 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to heat. VI. — Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5 parts: copper, 1 part. VII. — S BISMUTH ALLOY : See Cadmium Alloys. BRASS. In general brass is composed of two- thirds copper and one-thira zinc, hut a little lead or tin is sometimes advanta- geous, as the following: I. — Red copper, 66 parts; linc, 3% parts; lead, 1 part. II.— Copper, 66 parts; sine, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead. 1 part. III.— Copper. 64.5 parts; einc, 33.5 parts; lead, 1.5 partn; tin, 0.5 part. Brmss-Aluminum.— A nnall ailditicm of aluminum to brass (1.5 to 8 percent) great- Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 58 \y increases its hardness and elasticity, and this alloy is also easiljr worked for any purpose. Brass containing 8 per cent of alaminuRi has the valuable property of being but slightly affected by aads or gases. A larger percentage of aluminum makes the brass brittle. It is to be noted that aluminum brass decreases very materi- ally in volume in casting, and the casts must be cooled slowly or they will be brittle. It is an alloy easily made, and its low price, combined with its excellent qualities, would seem to make it in many cases an advantageous substitute for the expensive phosphorous bronze. Bristol Brass (Prince's Metal). --This aUov, which possesses properties similar in tnose of French brass, is prepared in the follovnng proportions: I II III Topper 75.7 67. « 60.8 Zinc 24.3 32.8 39.2 Particular care is required to prevent the sine from evaporating during the fus- ing, and for this purpose it is customary to put only half of it into the first melting, and to aod the remainder when the first maaa is liquefied. Bfmss-Iron (Aich^s Metal).— This is a Tsrietj^ of brass with an admixture of imn. which gives it a considerable degree Iff tenadty. It is especiallv adapted for purposes which rec^uire a hard and, at the same tone, tenacious metal. Analvses (if the various kinds of this metal show considerable variation in the proportions. Kf m the amount of iron, to which the hardening effect must be attributed, maj «i.ry within wide limits without ma ten- ally modif ving the tenacity which is the rnj^ntiaJ characteristic of Uiis alloy. L— The best variety of Aich's metal rivnabts of copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1 .8. The predominating quality of thH alloy is its hardness, which is claimed r*t be not inferior to that of certain kinds 1^ ffted. It has a beautiful golden-yellow cvlor. and is said not to oxidize easily, a raloable property for articles exposed to the action of air and water. IL— Copper, 60.2 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron* I '6. The permissible variations in the content of iron are from 0.4 to 8 fCT CXUt. StesTO metal may properly be consid- tred in connection witn Aich's metal, «ince its constituents are the same and itsproperties very similar. The principal diBereooe between the two metals is tWt sterro metal contains a much larger aanant of iron. The composition of this alloy varies considerably with dif- Irreot naniifacturers. m. — ^Two varieties of excellent qual- ity are the product of the Rosthorn fac- tory, in Lower Austria — copper, 55.33 parts; zinc, 41.80; iron, 4.66. Also IV. — English sterro metal (Gedge's alloy for snip sheathing), copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.125; iron, 1.5. The great value of this alloy lies in its strength, which is equaled only b^ that of the best steel. As an illustration of this, a wrought-iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmospheres, while a similar pipe of sterro metal withstood the enormous pressure of 763 atmospheres without cracking. Besides its remark- able strength, it possesses a high degree of elasticity, and is, therefore, particiuar- Iv suitable for purposes which recjuire tne combination of these two qualities, such as the construction of hydraulic cylinders. It is well known that these cylinders, at a certain pressure, begin to sweat, that is, the interior pressure is so great that the water permeates through the pores of the steel. With a sterro metal cylinder, the pressure can be con- siderably increasedf without any mois- ture being perceptible on the outside of the cylinder. Sterro metal can be made even more hard and dense, if required for special purposes, but this is effected rather by mechanical manipulation than by anv change in the chemical composition. If rolled or hammered in heat, its strength is increased, and it acouires, in addition, an exceedingly high degree of tenacity. Special care must oe taken, however, in hammering not to overheat the metal, as in this case it would become brittle and might crack under the hammer. Sterro metal is especially suitable for all the purposes for which the so-called red metal has been in the past almost ex- clusively used. Axle bearings, for ex- ample, made of sterro metal have such excellent qualities that many machine factories are now using this material entirely for the purpose. Cast Brass. — The various articles of bronze, so called, statuettes, clock casea^ etc., made in France, where this industry has attained great perfection and exten- sive proportions, are not, in many cases^ {genuine bronze, but fine cast brass. Fol^ owing are the compositions of a few mixtures of metals most frequently used by French manufacturers: Copper Zino Tin Lead 1 63.70 33.55 2.50 0.25 II 64.45 32.44 0.25 2.86 III 70.90 24.05 2.00 3.05 IV 72.43 22.75 1.87 2.95 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 54 ALLOYS Their special advantage is that they can be readily cast, worked with file and chbel, and easily gilded. To Cast Yellow Brass. —If good, clean, yellow brass sand castings are desired, the brass should not contain over SO per cent of zinc. This will assure an allov of good color and one which will run free and clean. Tin or lead may be added without affecting the property of casting clean. A mixture of 7 pounds of copper, 3 pounds of spelter, 4 ounces of tin, and 3 ounces of lead makes a good casting alloy and one which will cut free and is strong. If a stronger alloy be desired, more tin may be added, but 4 ounces is usually sufficient. If the alloy be too hard, reduce the proportion of tin. Leaf Brass. — This alloy is also called Dutch gold, or imitation gold leaf. It is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts; zine, 15.5 to 22.25. Its color is pale or bright yellow or greenish, according to the proportions of the metals. It has an unusual degree of ductility. Malleable Brass.— This meUl is af- fected less by sea water than pure copper, and was formerlv much used for ship sheathin||[, and for making nails and rivets which were to come in contact with sea water. At the present day it has lost much of its importance, since all the larger ships are made of steel. It is usually composed of copper, 60 to 62 parts; and zinc, 40 to 38 parts. It is sometimes called yellow metal, or MUntz metal (called after its inventor), and is prepared with certain precautions, di- rected toward obtaining as fine a grain as possible, experience having shown that only a fine-grained alloy of uniform density can resist the action of the sea water evenly. A metal of uneven den- sity will wear in holes. To obtain as uniform a grain as possible, small sam- ples taken from the fused mass are cooled Quickly and examined as to fracture. If tney do not show the desired uniform grain, some zinc is added to the mass. After it has permeated the whole mass, a fresh sample is taken and tested, this being continued until the desired result is reached. It is scarcely necessary to remark that considerable experience is required to tell the correct composition of the alloy from the fracture. The mass is finally poured into molds and rolled cold. Malleable brass can be worked warm, like iron, being ductile in heat, a valuable quality. Experiments with malleable brass show that all alloys containing up to 58.33 per cent of copper and up to 41.67 per cent of zinc are malleable. There is, in addition, a second group of such al- loys, with 61.54 per caA of copper and 38.46 per cent ot zinc, which are also malleable in heat. The preparation of these alloys re- quires considerable experience, and is best accomplished by melting the metals together in the usual manner, and heating the fused mass as strongly as possible. It must be covered with a layer of char- coal dust to prevent oxidation of the zinc. The mass becomes thinly fluid, and an intimate mixture of the constituents is effected. Small pieces of the same allny are thrown into the liquid mass until it no longer shows a reflecting surface, when it is cast into ingots in iron molds. The ingots are plunged into water while still red-hot, and acquire by this treat- ment a very high degree of ductility. The alloy, properly prepared, has a fibrous fracture and a reddish-yellow color. Sheet Brass (For Sheet and Wire).— In the preparation of brass for the manu- facture of wire, an especially pure qual- ity of copper must be used; without thi.«. all efforts to produce a suitable quality of brass will be in vain. That pure coppvr is indispensable to the manufacture of good, ductile brass may be seen from the great difference in the composition of the various kinds, all of which answer their purpose, but contain widely varying quantities of copper and zinc. The fol- lowing table shows the composition of some excellent qualities of brass suitable for making sheet and wire: Braos Sheet — Souroe Cop- per Jemappes 64, Stolberg 64 Romilly 170. Rosthorn (Vienna^. 68. Rosthorn (Vienna). 71. Rosthorn (Vienna). 71. Iserlohn & Romilly. 70. LUdenscheid ,72. (Brittle) 63 HegermUhl 70. Oker 68. Zinc 33.7 32.8 29.26 31.9 28.5 27.6 29.9 27.27 33.02 I6I27.45 98|29.54 Bram Wire- England 70.29 29.26 71.89 27.63 70.1627.45 71.36 28.15 71.5 !28.5 Augsburg Neustadt Neustadt Neustadt Neustadt 171.0 (Good qualitv) 65.4 (BritUe) |65.5 For wire and sheet.. 67.0 Uad Tin 1.4 0.2 2.0 0.4 0.38 0.17 1.3 I 2.52 0.79 0.97 0.28 0.85 0.2 '27.6 iS4.6 32.4 132.0 I 0.20 0.17 6!79 2.1 0.5 0.5 Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 55 As the above figures show, the per- centage of zinc in the different kinds of brass lies between 27 and 84. Recently, alloys containing a somewhat larger quantity of zinc have been used, it hav- ing been found that the toughness and ductility of the brass are increased there- by, without injury to its tenacity. Al- loys containing up to 37 per cent of zinc poucsa a high degree of ductility in the cold, and are well adapted for wire and sheet. Gilden' Sheet Brass. — Copper, 1 part; line, 1 part; tin, A P«rt; lead, A part. Very readily fusible and very dense. White Brass. — Birmingham platina is an alloy of a pure white, almost silver- white color, remaining unaffected by tolerably long exposure to the atmos- Ehere. Unfortunately this alloy is so rittle that it can rarely be shaped ex- cept by casting. It is used only in the manufacture of buttons. The alloy is poured into molds giving rather sharp impreasions and allowing the design on the button (letters or coat of arms) to stand out prominently with careful stamping. The composition of this alloy« also known by the name of plati- num lead, is as follows: I II Copper 46.5 4 Zinc 53,5 16 III, — Zinc, 80 parts; copper, 10 parts; iron, 10 parts. BBITAinnA METAL. Britannia metal is an alloy consisting principally of tin and antimony. Many Tmrieties contain only these two metals, and may be considered simply as tin nardened with antimony, while others contain* in addition, certain quantities of riipper, Bometimes lead, and occasion- slly, though rarely on account of its cost, havaiatb. Britannia metal is always of a til t-rrr- white color, with a^ bluish tinge, snd Its hardness makes it capable of UUai^ a high polish, which is not lost tl^rougb exposure to the air. Ninety per r^ot of tin and 10 per cent of antimony pve* a composition which is the best for 'DSBT purposes, esDecially for casting, as i filU out tbe molds well, and is readily fifible. In some cases, where articles axsde from it are to be subjected to con- «»ot v««r, a^ harder alloy is required. 1% the proportions given above, the metal I* indeed much ^ harder than tin, but 'vould still soon give way under usage. A table is appended, giving the com- pMU^oa of some of the varieties of Bri- ' , Beta] and their special names. J,. lAnti- Cop- mony per 20.0 48.0 7.81 1.46 6.3 3.1 9.66 0.81 5.7 1.60 English 81.90 16.25 1.84 English J90.62 English 90,1 English 85.4 Pewter '81.2 Pewter 89.3 Tutania '91.4 Queen's metal -88.5 German [72.0 German '84.0 German (for casting) Malleable (for casting) 7.6 7.1* 24.0 9.0 1.8 0.7 3.5 4.0 2.0 64.0 10.0 ..J,.. Zinc 0,5 3.06 0.3 0.9 5.0 6.0 48.0 Lead 11.5 1.8 7.6 1.0 Britannia metal is prepared by melting the copper alone first, then adding a I>art of the tin and the whole of the an- timony. The heat can then be quickly moderated, as the melting point of the new alloy is much lower tnan that of copper. Finally, the rest of the tin is added, and the mixture stirred constantly for some time to make it thoroughly homogeneous. An alloy which bears a resemblance to Britannia metal is Ashberry metal, for which there are two formulas. I II Copper 2 3 Tin 8 79 Antimony 14 15 Zinc 1 2 Nickel 2 1 BRONZES. The composition of bronze must be effected immediately before the casting, for bronze cannot be kept in store ready prepared. In forming the alloy, the re- fractory compound, copper, is first melted separately, tne other metals, tin, zinc, etc., previously heated, being then added; the whole is then stirred and the casting carried out without loss of time. The process of forming the alloy must be effected quickly, so that there may be no loss of zinc, tin, or lead through oxida- tion, and also no interruption to the flow of metal, as metal added after an interval of time will not combine per- fectly with the metal already poured in. It is important, therefore, to ascertain the specific weights of the metals, for the heavier metal will naturally tend to sink to the bottom and the lighter to collect at the top. Only in this way, and by vigorous stirring, can the com- plete blending of the two metals be secured. In adding the zinc, great care Digitized by VjOOQ IC 56 ALLOYS must be taken that the latter sinks at once to the level of the copper, otherwise a considerable portion win be volatilized before reaching the copper. When the castinj^s are made, they must be cooled as quickly as possible, for the compo- nents of bronze have a tendency to form separate alloys of various composition, thus producing the so-called tin spots. This IS much more likely to occur with a slow than with a sudden cooling of the mass. Annealiiig Bronze. — This process is more particularly employed in the prep- aration of alloys used in the manufacture of cymbals, gon^, bells, etc. The alloy IS naturally brittle, and acquires the properties essential to the purpose for which it is intended only alter casting. The instruments are plunged into cold water while red-hot, hammered, re- heated, and slowly cooled, when they become soft and sonorous. The alloy of copper and tin has the peculiar prop- erty that, whereas steel pecomes hard throuffh cooling, this mixture, when cooled suddenly, becomes noticeably soft and more malleable. The alloy is heated to a dark-red heat, or, in the case of thin articles, to the melting point of lead, and then plunged in cola water. The alloy may be hammered without splitting or breaking. Aluminum Bronze.— This is prepared bv melting the finest copper in a cruci- ble, and adding the aluminum. The copper is cooled thereby to the thickly fluid point, but at the moment of the combination of the two metals, so much heat is released that the alloy becomes white hot and thinly fluid. Aluminum bronze thus prepared is usually brittle, and acauires its best qualities only after having been remelted several times. It may be remarked that, in order to obtain a bronze of the best quality, onl v the very purest copper must be used; witn an infe- rior quality of copper, all labor is wasted. Aluminum bronze is not affected by ex- posure to the air; and its beautiful color makes it very suitable for manufactur- ing various ornamental articles, includ- ing clock cases, door knobs, etc. Aluminum bronze wire is almost as strong as good steel wire, and castings made from it are almost as hard as steely iron; its resistance to bending or sag- ging is great. I. — A good formula is 90 to 05 per cent of aluminum and 5 to 10 per cent of cop- per, of golden coloT, whicn keeps well in the air, without soon becoming dull and changing color like pure copper and its alloys with tin and zinc (bronze, brass, etc.). It can be cast excellently, can be filed well and turned, possesses an ex- traordinary hardness and firmness, and attains a high degree of polish; it is malleable and forgeable. On the latter quality are founded applications which were formerly never tnought of, viz.: forged works of art for decorative pur- poses. An alloy of 95 parts aluminum and 5 parts copper is used here. The technical working of bronze is not mate- rially different from that of iron. The metal, especially in a hot condition, is worked like iron on the anvil, with ham- mer and chisel, only that the tempera- ture to be maintained in forging Hex between dark and light cherry red. If the articles are not forged in one piece and the putting together of the separate parts becomes necessary, riveting or soldering has to be resorted to. Bes^idcA forging, aluminum bronze is well suited for emoossing, which is not surprising con- sidering the high percentage of copper. After finishing the pieces, the metal ran be toned in manifold ways by treatment with acid. 11. — Copper, 89 to 98 per cent; alu- minum and nickel, 1 to 2 per cent Alu- minum and nickel diange in the opposite way, that is to say, in increasing the per- centage of nickel the amount of alu- minum is decreased by the equal quan- tity. It should be borne in mind that the best ratio is aluminum, 9.5 per cent: niens that large castings have not the right character. They are either defective in color, or they do not take on a fine patina, or they are difficult to chisel. These phenomena may be due to the use of impure metals — containing oxides, iron, lead, etc. — or to improper treatment of the alloy in melting. With the most careful work possible, there is a consid- erable loss in melting — 8 per cent at the ver^ least, and sometimes as much as 10. This is due to the large proportion of zinc, and it is evident that, in conse- quence of it, the nature of the alloy will be different from what might be expected from the quantities of metals used in its manufacture. It has been remarked that slight vari- ations in composition quickly change the color of the alloy. The following table gives a series of alloys of different colors, suitable for statuary bronze: I.. II.. III.. IV.. v.. VI.. VII.. VIII.. IX.. X.. XI.. XII.. Cop- per 84.42 84.00 83.05 83.00 81.05 81.00 78.09 73.58 73.00 70.36 70.00 65.95 Zino Tin 11.28 11.00 13.03 12.00,5. 15.323. I5.OOI4. 18.47|3. 23.273. 23.00*4. 26.88|2. 27.O0I3. 31.56,2. Color 30 Reddish yellow 00; Orange red 92, Orange red 001 Orange red 63: Orange yellow 00| Orange yellow 44' Orange yellow 15 Orange yellow 00 Pale orange 76 Pale yellow 00 Pale yellow 49 Pale yellow Digitized by VjOOQ IC 58 ALLOYS Perhaps the most satisfactory bronze metal is the alloy used in France for more than a century. It contains 91.60 per cent of copper, 5.S3 per cent of zinc, 1.70 Ser cent of tin, and 1.37 per cent of lead, omewhat more zinc is taken for articles to be gilded. Bismuth Bronze. — Copper, 52 parts; nickel, 30 parts; zinc, 12 parts; lead, 5 parts; bismuth, 1 part For metallic mirrors, lamp reflectors, etc. Gun Bronze. — See Phosphor Bronze under this title. Japanese Bronzes. — ^The formulas mven below contain a lai^ percentage of lead, wfaidb greatly improves the patina. The in- gredients and the ratio of their parts for sev- eral sorts of modem Japanese bronze follow: L— Copper, 81.62 per cent; tin, 4.61 per cent; lead, 10.21 pier cent. n.— Copper, 76.60 per cent; tin, 4.38 per cent; lead, 11.88 per cent; zinc, 6.53 per cent. III.— Copper, 88.55 per cent; tin, 2.42 per cent; lead, 4.72 per cent; zinc, 3.20 percent. Sometimes a little antimony is added just before casting, and such a composi- tion would be represented more nearly by this formula: IV.— Copper, 68.25 per cent; tin, 5.47 per cent; zinc, 8.88 per cent; lead, 17.06 per cent; antimony, 0.34 per cent. For imitation Japanese bronze, see Plating under Bronzing. ICachine Bronze. — I. — Copper, 80 per cent; tin, 11 per cent. II. — Copper, 80 per cent; tin, 16 per cent. Phosphor Bronze.— Phosphor bronze b bronze containing varying amounts of phosphorus, from a few hundredths of 1 pNcr cent to 1 or 2 per cent.^ Bronze containing simply copper and tin is very liable to be defective from the presence of oxygen, sulphur, or occluded gases. Oxvgen causes the metal to be spongy and weak. Sulphur and occluded gases cause porosity. ^ Oxygen gets into the metal b^ absorption from the air. It can be eliminated by adding to the metal something which combines with the oxy- gen and then fluxes off. Such deoxidizers are zinc, antimony, aluminum, man- ganese, silicon, and phosphorus. Sul- phur and occluded gases can be elimi- nated by melting^ the.mctal, exposing it to the air, and^ letting it thus absorb some oxygen, which then burns the sulphur and gas. The oxygen can then be re- moved by adding one of the above- mentioned deoxidizers. The important use of phosphorus in bronze is, there- fore, to remove oxygen and also indirect- ly to destroy occluded gas and sulphur. A bronze is sometimes made with an extra high percentage of phosphoruit, namely, 6 per cent. This aUoy is made BO as to have phosphorus in convenient form for use, and the process of manu- facture is as follows: Ninety pounds of copper are melted under charcoal in a No. 70 crucible, which holds about 200 pound^ of metal when full; 11 pounds of tin are added and the metal is allowed to become hot. The crucible is then removed from the furnace and 7 pounds of phosphorus are introduced in the following manner: A 3-gallon stone jar,^ half full of dilute solution of blue vitriol, is weighed. Then the weights are increased 7 pounds, and phosphorus in sticks about 4 inches fon^ is added till the scales balance again. The phosphorus is left in this solution half an hour or longer, the phos- phorus being given a coating of copper, so that it may be dried and exposed to the air without i||[niting. Have ready a pan about 30 inches square and 6 incnes deep, containing about 2 inches of water. ^ Over the water is a wire netting, which is laid loose on ledges or supports along the inner sides of the pan. On the netting is blotting paper, and on this the phosphorus is laid to dry when taken out of the blue-vitriol solution. The piin also has a lid which can be put down in case of ignition of the^ phospnorus. The phosphorus is now ready for introduction into the metal. This is done by means of a cup-shaped instru- ment called a retort or phosphorixer. One man holds the retort on the rim of the crucible in a honzontal position. A second man takes about three pieces of phosphorus and throws them into the retort. The first man then immediately plunges the mouth of the retort below the surface of the metal before the phos- phorus has a chance to fall or flow out. Of course the phosphorus immediately melts and also oegins to volatilize. .\s the phosphorus comes in contact with the metal, it combines with it. This process is continued till all the 7 pounds of phosphorus has been put into the metal. The metal is then poured into slabs about 3 inches by 4 inches by 1 inch thick. The metal is so hard that a greater thickness would make it diflicult to break it up. When finished, the metal contains, by analysis, 6 per cent of phosphorus. When phosphorus is to be added to metal, a little of this hardener is employed. Copper is a soft, ductile metal, with its melting point at about 2,000'' F. Mol- Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 59 len copper has the marked property of absorbing various ^ases. It is for this reason that it is so difficult to make sound castinjgs of dear copper. Molten copper combines readilj with the oxygen of the air» forming oxide of copper, which dis- soItcs in the copper and mixes homo- gvneoosl^ with it. A easting made from such metal would be rrxj spongy. The bad effect of oxy- grn is intended to be overcome by adding Eiac to the extent of 1 per cent or more. This result can be much more effectively attained by the use of aluminum, man- fCane«e; or phosphorus. The action of these substances is to combine with the oxygen, and as the product formed sepa- rates and goes to the surface, the metal is left in a sound condition. Aluminum and manganc»e deoxidize copper and bronze very effectively, and the oxide formed goes^ to the surface as a scum. When a casting is made from such metal, the oxide or scum, instead of freeing it- felt from the casting perfectly, generally remains in the top part of the casting mixed vith the metal, as a fractured surface will show. Phosphorus deox- iticces copper, and the oxide formed leaves the metal in the form of a gas, so that a casting made from such metal %how9 a dean fracture throughout, al- though the metal is not so dense as when aluminum or manganese is used. Copper also has the property of ab- sorbing or occluding carbon monoxide. Bat the carbonic oxide thus absorbed is to a different condition from the oxv- gen abaorbed. When oxygen is an- sorbed bv copper, the oxygen combines cbemicauy witn the copper and loses its own identity as a gas. But when coal ^ is absorbed bv the copper, it keeps its own physical iaentity and simnly ex- ists in toe copper in a state of solution. AO nataral waters, such as lake water, river water, spring water, etc., contain air in solution or ocdusion. When such vatcr is cooled and frozen, just at the time of changing from the liquid to the solid state, the dissolved gas separates and forms air bubbles, which remain entaagled in the ice. The carbonic otide which is dissolved or occluded in copper acts in exactly the same way. Hydrogen acts^ in exactly the same manacT as carbonic oxide. Sulphur also hss a bad effect upon copper and bronze. S«lp%ur eombines with copper and other arlala, forming sulphide of copper, etc. When molten copper or bronze contain- ing Fulpliur comes in contact with air it absorbs some oxygen* and this in turn eombsoea with tne sulphur present. forming sulphur dioxide, which is a gas which remains occluded in the metal. Tin is a soft, white metal, melting at 440** F. Toward gases it acts something like copper, but not in so marked a de- gree. Although copper and tin are both soft, vet when mixed they make a harder metal. When bronze cools from the molten state, the copper and the copper- tin alloy tend to crystallize by themselves. The quicker the cooling occurs the less separation will there be, and also the fracture will be more homogeneous in ap- pearance. Gun bronze contains copper and tin in the proportion of 9 or 10 parts of copper to 1 of tin. This is the metal used when an ordinary bronze casting is wanted. A harder bronze is copper and tin in the ratio of 6 to 1. This is often used as a bearing metal. When either of these .metals is to be turned in the machine shop, they should contain about 3 per cent of lead, which will make them work very much better, but it also decreases their tensile strength. Bear- ing metal now generally contains about 10 per cent of lead, with copper and tin in varying ratios. The large percentage of lead is put in that the metal may wear awa^ slower. Lead, although a metal having properties similar to un, acts en- tirely different toward copper. Copper and tin have a good deal of affinity for each other, but copper and lead show no attraction at all for each other. Cop- per and tin mix in all proportions, but copper and lead mix only to a very limit- ed extent. About 3 per cent of lead can be mixed with copper. With bronze about 15 per cent to 20 per cent of lead can be mixed. In bearing bronze the lead keeps its own physical properties, so that tne constituent lead melts long before the metal attains a red heat. U sometimes happens when a bearing runs warm that the lead actually sweats out and forms pimples on the metal. Or, sometimes, m remelting a bearing bronze casting the lead may be seen to drop out while the metal is warming up. All of these metals, however, shoiud contain something to flux or deoxidize them, such as zinc, manganese, aluminum, silicon, antimony, or phosphorus. The phosphor bronze bearing metal in vogue has the following composition : Cop- per, 79.7 per cent; tin, 10 per cent; lead, 10 per cent; and phosphorus, O.Sper cent. Melt 140 pounds of copper m a No. 70 pot, covering with charcoal. When copper is all rndted, add 17) pounds of tin to 17} pounds of lead, and allow the metal to become sufficiently warm* but Digitized by VjOOQ IC 60 ALLOYS not any hotter than u needed. Then add 10 pounds of "hardener** (made as previously described) and stir well. Re- move from furnace, skim off the char- coal, cool the metal with gates to as low a temperature as is consistent with get- ting a good casting, stir well asain, and pour. The molds for this kina of work are faced with plumbago. There are several nrms that make phosphor-bronze bearings with a com- position similar to the above one, and most of them, or perhaps all, make it by melting the metals and then charging with pnosphorus to the extent of 0.7 to 1 per cent. But some metal from all brands contains occluded fa,a. So that after such metal is cast (in about two minutes or so) the metal will ooze or sweat out through the gate, and such a casting will be found to be porous. But not one such experience with metal made as described above has yet been found. This practical point should be heeded, viz., that pig phosphor bronze should be brought to the specifications that the metal should have shrunk in the ingot mold in cooling, as shown by the con- cave surface of the upper side, and that it should make a casting in a sand mold without rising in the gate after being poured. In bearing metal, occluded gas is very objectionable, because the gas, in trying to free itself, shoves the very hard cop- per-tin compound (which has a low melting point and remains liquid after the copper has begun to set) into spots, and thus causes hard spots in the metal. Phosphorus is very dangerous to han- dle, ana there is great risk from fire with it. so that many would not care to handle the phosphorus itself. But phosphor copper containing 5 per cent of phos- ?horus, and phosphor tin containing 2 to per cent of pnosphorus, and several other such alloys can be obtained in the market. It mav be suggested to those who wish to make phosphor bronze, but do not want to handle pnosphorus itself, to make it by using the proper amounts of one of these high phosphorus alloys. In using phosphorus it is only necessary to use enough to thoroughly deoxidize the metal, say O.S per cent. More than this will make the metal harder, but not any sounder. Phosphor bronze is not a special kind of alloy, but any bronze can be made into phosphor bronze; it is, in fact, sim- ply a deoxidized bronze, produced under treatment with phosphorus compounds. Although the effect of phosphorus in improving the quality of bronze has been known for more than fifty years, it is only of late that the mode for preparing phos- phor bronze has been perfected. It is now manufactured in many localities. Besides its action in reducing the oxides dissolved in the alloy, the phosphorus exerts another very material influence upon the properties of the bronze. The ordinarv oronzes consist of mixtures in which the copper is really the only cry»- tallized constituent, since the tin crys- tallizes with ffreat difficulty. As a con- sequence of tnis dissimilarity in the na- ture of the two metals, the alloy is not so solid as it would be if both were crys- tallized. The phosphorus causes the tin to crystallize, and the result is a more homogeneous mixture of the two metals. If enough phosphorus is added, so that its presence can be detected in the finished oronze, the latter may be con- sidered an alloy of crvstallized phosphor tin with copper. If the content of phos- phor is still more increased, a part of the copper combines with the phosphorus, and the bronze then contains, besides copper and tin, compounds of crystal- lized copper phosphide with phosphide of tin. The strength and tenacity of the bronze are not lessened by a larger amount of phosphorus, and its hardness is considerably increased. Most phos- phor bronzes are equal in this respect to the best steel, and some even surpass it in general properties. The phosphorus is added to the bronze in the form of copper phosphide or phos- phide of tin, the two being sometimes used together. They must be specially prepared for this purpose, and tne be»t metnods will be here given. Copper phosphide is prepared by heating a mix- ture of 4 parts of superphosphate of lime, 2 parts ot granulated copper, and I part of finely ptuverized coal in a crucible at a I temperature not too hig^h.^ The melted , copper phosphide, containing 14 per cent of phosphorus, separates on the bottom of the crucible. Tin phosphide is prepared as follows: Place a bar of sine in an aoueous solution of tin chloride. The tin will be separated in the form of a sponge-like mass. (\>l- lect it, and put it into a crucible, up«)n the bottom of which sticks of phospluirus have been placed. Press the tin tightly into the crucible, and expose to a fentfe heat. Continue the heating until flames of burning phosphorus are no longer observed on the crucible. The pure tin phosphide, in the form of a coarselv crystalline mass, tin- white in color, witl be found on the bottom of the crucible. To prepare the phosphor bronze, the Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 61 alloj to be treated is melted in the usual ««^, and small pieces of the copper phos- phide and tin pnospbide are added. Phosphor bronse, properly prepared, haa nearly the same melting point as that of ordinary bronze. In cooling, how- erer, it has the peculiarity of passing ilirectly from the lic^uid to tne solid state, without first becoming thicklv fluid. In s melted state it retains a perfectly bright •urface, while ordinary oronze in this rondition is always covered with a thin film of oxide. If phosphor bronze is kept for a long time at tne melting point, there is not sny loss of tin, but the amount of phos- pborus is slightly diminished. The most valuable properties of phos- phor bronze are its extraordinary te- nacity and strength. It can be rolled, hammered, and stretched cold, and its strength is nearly double that of the best ordinary bronze. It is principally used in cases where great strength and power «f resistance to outward influences are re- quired, as, for instance, in objects which are to be exposed to the action of sea water. Phosphor bronze containing about 4 pfr cent of tin is excellently well adapted lor sheet bronze. ^ With not more than 5 per cent of tin, it can be used, forged, lor firearms. Seven to 10 per cent of tin gives the greatest hardness, and such hronze is especially suited to the manu- fmrtnre of axle bearings, cylinders for fteam fire engines, cogwheels, and, in general, for parts of machines where irreat strength and hardness are reouired. Phosphor bronze, if exposed to the air, 9oon oecomes covered with a beautiful, ddsely adhering patina, and is therefore veil adapted to purposes of art. The amount of phosphorus added varies from 0,'iS to S.5 per cent, according to the purpose of the bronze. The com- position of a number of kinds of phos- phor bronze is given below: ^^! Tin per 1 *"" Zino Lead Iron Phot- pho- rus I 85.55- 0.85 S.77 0.62 trs. 0.05 IT 4-15 8-«6 7.65 4-15 4-15 0.5-8 III 4-15 11.00 .25-2 IV n.si V 74.50 8.00 17.00 VI.7S.50 6.00 19.00 VI1:74.50 11.00 11.00 nil. 85.50 8.00 8.00 IX. 90.S4 8.90 0.76 X. ©©.BO 8.56 . , . . 0.196 1104.71 1 4.S9 .. .. 0.058 I for axle bearings, II and III for harder and softer axle bearings, IV to VIII for railroad purposes, I V especially for valves of locomotives, V and Vl axle bearings for wagons, VII for connecting rods, VIII for piston rods in hydraulic presses. Steel Bronze. -^Copper, 60; ferro- manganese (containing 70 to 80 per cent manganese), 40; zinc, 15. Silicon Bronze. — Silicon, similarly to phosphorus, acts as a deoxidizing agent, and the bronzes produced under its influence are very ductile and elastic, do not rust, and are verj strong. On ac- count of these qualities silicon bronze is much used for telegraph and telephone wires. The process of manufacture is similar to that of phosphor bronze; the silicon is used in the form of copper sili- dde. Some good silicon bronzes are as follows: I II Copper 97.12 97.37 Tin 1.14 1.32 Zinc 1.10 1.27 Silicon 0.05 0.07 Sim Bronze.— The alloy called sun bronze contains 10 parts of aluminum, 80 to 50 parts of copper, and 40 to 60 parts of cobalt. The mixture known by the name of metalline has 25 per cent of aluminum, 80 of copper, 10 of iron, and 85 of cobalt. These alloys melt at a point approaching the melting point of copper, are tenacious, ductile, and very hara. Tobin Bronze.— This alloy is nearly similar in composition and properties to Delta metal. I II III IV Copper... 61.203 59.00 61.20 82.67 Zinc 27.440 38.40 37. 14 3.23 Tin 0.906 2.16 0.90 12.40 Iron 0.180 0.11 0.18 0,10 Lead 0.859 0.31 0.35 2.14 Silver 0.07 ^'"?'£'°-} 0.005 The alloj marked IV is sometimes called deoxidized bronze.^ Violet-colored bronze is 50 parts cop- per and 50 parts antimony. CADMXUM ALLOTS: See also Fusible Alloys. Lipowitz'8 Alloy.— I.— This alloy is composed of cadmium, 3 parts; tin, 4; bismuth, 15; and lead, 8. The simplest method of preparation is to heat the metals, in small pieces, in a crucible, stirring constantly, as soon as fusion Digitized by VjOOQ IC 62 ALLOYS be^ns, with & stick of hard wood. The stirring is important, in order to prevent the metals, wnose specific gravity varies considerably, from being deposited in layers. The alloy softens at UO"" F. and melts completely at IBS'* F. The color is silvery wnite, with a luster like polished silver, and the metal can be bent, ham- mered, and turned. These properties would make it valuable for many pur- poses where a beautiful appearance is of special importance, but on account of tne considerable amount of cadmium and bismuth which it contains, it is rather expensive, and therefore limited in use. Casts of small animals, insects, lizards, etc., have been prepared from it, which were equal in sharpness to the best galvanoplastic work, rlaster of Paris is poured over the animal to be cast, and after sharp drvins, the animal is removed and the mold filled up with Lipowitz*s metal. The mold is placed in a vessel of water, and by heating to the boiling point the metal is melted and deposited in the finest impressions of the mold. This allov is most excellent for solder- ing tin, lead, Britannia metal, and nickel, beinff especially adapted to the last two metals on account of its silver-white color. But here again its costliness pre- vents its general use, and cheaper alloys possessing the same properties nave been sought. In cases where the silver- white color and the low melting point are not of the first importance, the allovs given below may very well be used in the place of it. II. — Cadmium alloy (melting point, 170^F.): Cadmium, « parts; tin, 8; lead. 11; bismuth, 16. III. — Cadmium alloy (melting point, 167«F.): Cadmium, 10 parts; tin, 3; lead, 8; bismuth, 8. Cadmium alloys (melting point, 203^ IV V VI Cadmium 1 1 1 parts Tin « 3 1 " Bismuth 3 6 2" VII. —-A very fusible alloy, melting at 150° F., is composed of tin, 1 or 2 parts; lead, 2 or 3; bismuth, 4 or 15; cadmium, lor 2. VIII.— Wood's alloy melts between 140° and 161.5° F. It is composed of lead, 4 parts; tin, 2; bismuth, 5 to 8; cadmium, 1 to 2. In color it resembles platinum, and is malleable to a certain extent. IX.— Cadmium alloy (melting point. 179.5° F.): Cadmium, 1 part; lead, 6 parts; bismuth, 7. This, like the pre- ceding, can be used for soldering in hot water. X. — Cadmium alloy (melting point, 800° F.) : Cadmium, 2 psirts; tin, 4; lead, 2. This is an excellent soft solder, with a melting point about 86 degrees below that of leadand tin alone. Cadmium AUotb with Gold, Silver, and Copper.— I. — Gold, 750 parts; silver, 166 parts; cadmium, 84 parts. A malleable and ductile alloy of green color. n.— Gold, 750 parts; silver, 125 parts; and cadmium, 125 parts. Malleable and ductile alloy of yellowish-green hue. III. — Gold, 746 parts; silver, 114 parts; copper, 07 parts; and cadmium, 48 parts. Likewise a malleable and ductile allov of a peculiar green shade. All these alloys are suitable for olating. As regards their production, eacn must be carefully melted together from its ingredients in a covered crucible lined with coal dust, or in a graphite crucible. Next, the allov has to be remelted in a graphite crucible with charcoal (or rosin powder) and borax. If, in spite thereof, a considerable portion of the cadmium should have evaporated, the alloy must be re-fused once more with an addition of cadmium. ALLOYS FOR CASTING COINS, ME- DALLIONS, ETC. Alloys which fulfill the requirements of the medalist, and capable, therefore, of reproducing all details, are the following: I II Tin 8 6 parts Lead 18 8 " Bismuth 6 14 " III. — A soft alloy suitable to take im- pressions of woodcuts, coins, metals, en- gravings, etc., and which must melt at a low degree of heat, is made out of bis- muth, 3 parts; tin, 1) parts; lead, 2) parts; ana worn-out type, 1 part Acid-proof Alloy. — This allo^ is char- acterized b^ its power of resisting the action of acids, and is therefore especially adapted to making cocks, pipes, etc., which are to come in contact with acid fluids. It is composed of copper, sine, lead, tin, iron, nickel, cobalt, and an- timony, in the following proportions: Copper 74.75 parts Zinc 0.61 " Lead 16.35 - Tin 0.91 " Iron 0.43 " Nickel ) o«A •• Cobalt f ®** Antimony 6.78 •• Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 63 Albftta MielaL — Copper, 40 parts; zinc, S2 parts; and nickel, 8 parts. Alfenide KetaL — Copper, 60 parts; zinc. 30; nickel, 10; traces of iron. Badi Metal.— This alloy is used es- pecially in England for the manufacture of teapots, ana is very popular owing to the fine white color it poAsesses. It takes a high polish, and articles made from this alloy acquire in the courae of time, upon only being rubbed with a white cloth, a permanent silver luster. The composition of Bath metal is cop- per, 5$ parts; zinc, 45 parts. Baodoin Metal. — ^Iliis is composed of 7i parts of copper, 16.6 of nickel, 1.8 of coImJI, 1 of zinc; } per cent of aluminum may be added. CASTIHG COPPER: Macht*& Yellow MetaL— L— This alloy consists of 83 parts of copper and 25 of cine. It has a dark golden-yellow color, great tenacity, and can be forced at a red heat, properties which maKe it es- pecially suitable for fine castings. IL — ^Yeflow.— Copper, 67 to 70 parts; cine, 33 to 30 parts. III. — ^Red. — Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts. Copper Anenic. — Arsenic imparts to copper a rtry fine white color, and makes it "^trr hard and brittle. Before Ger- man siNer was known, these alloys were sometimes used for the manufacture of such cast artides as were not to come in contact with iron. When exposed to the air. they soon lose their whiteness and take on a brownish shade. On account of this, as well as the poisonous character fd ihte arsenic, they are very little used at the present time. Alloys of copper and arsenic are best prepared by pressing irmly into a crucible a mixture of 70 parts of copper and 30 of arsenic (the copper to be used in the form of fine tharin^) and fusing this mixture in a fomace with a good draught, under a coTcr of glass. Copper Iron. — The alloys of copper asd troD are little used in the industries of the present day, but it would seem that in earlier times they were frequently prepared for the purpose of giving a con- fiidrrable degree of nardness to copper; f*«r IB antique casts, consisting princi- pally of copper, we regularly find large ciaatitics of iron, which leads to the sup- pnMtion that they were added intention- Tliese alloys, when of a certain com- position, have considerable strength and nardness. With an increase in the quan- tity of the iron the hardness increases, but the solidity is lessened. A copper and iron alloy of considerable strength, and at the same time very hard, is made of copper, 66 parts; iron, 34. These alloys acquire, on exposure to air, an ugly color inclining toward black, and are therefore not adapted for arti- cles of art. Copper NickeL — A. Morrell, of New York, has obtained a patent on a nickel- copper alloy which he^ claims is valu- able on account of its noncorrosive qualities, therefore making it desirable for ships, boiler tubes, and other uses where the metal comes much in contact with water. The process of making the metal is b^ smelting ore containing sul- phide of mckel and copper, and besem- erizing the resultant matter. This is calcined in order to obtain the nickel and copper in the form of oxides. The latter are reduced in reverberating fur- nace with carbon, or the like, so as to produce an allov which preferably con- tains 2 parts of nickel and 1 part of copper. Delta MetaL — An allo^ widely used for making parts of machinerv, and also for artistic purposes, is the so-called Delta metal. Tnis is a variety of brass hardened with iron; some manufacturers add small quantities of tin and lead; also, in some cases, nickel. The follow- ing analysis of Delta metal (from the fac- tory at Diisseldorf) will show its usual composition: I II ni IV V Copper 55.04 55.80 55.82 54.22 58.65 Zinc 41.61 40.07 41.41 42.25 38.95 Lead 0.72 1.82! 0.76 1.10 0.67 Iron 0.87 1.28 0.86 0.90 1.62 Manganese 0.81 0.96 1.38 1.09 .... Nickel tra- tra- 0.06 0.16 0.11 ces. ces. Phosphorus 0.0l3 0.011 tra- ces. 0.02 .... I is cast, II hammered. III rolled, and IV hot-stamped metal. Delta metal is produced by heating zinc very strongly in crucibles (to about 1600® F.), and adding ferromanganese or "spiegel- eisen/' producing an alloy of 95 per cent zinc ana 5 per cent of iron. Copper and brass and a very small amount of copper phosphate are also added. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 64 ALLOYS Gong MetftL — A sonorous metal for cymbals, gongs, and tam-tams consists of 100 parts of copper with 25 parts tin. Ignite tne piece after it is cast and plunge it into cola water immediately. Productioii of Miaargent — This allov consists of copper, 500 parts; nickel, 350; tungsten, 25, and aluminum, 5. The metal obtained possesses a handsome white color and greatly resembles silver. Kinof or. — ^The so-called Mi nof or metal is composed of copper, tin, antimony, zinc, and iron in the following proportions: I II Copper 8.86 4 Tin 67.58 66 Antimony 17.00 20 Zinc 8.04 9 Iron 1 Minarsent and Minofor are sometimes used in England for purposes in which the ordinary Britannia metal, 2 parts tin and 1 part antimony, might equally well be employed; the latter surpasses both of them in beauty of color, but they are, on the other hand, harder. Retz Alloy. — This alloy, which resists the corrosive action of alkalies and acids, is composed of 15 parts of copper, 2.84 of tin, 1.82 of lead, and 1 of antimony. It can be utilized in the manufacture of receivers, for which porcelain and ebo> nite are usually employed. Ruoltz Metal. — This comprises 20 parts of silver, 50 of copper, SO of nickel. These proportions may, however, vary. Tisner's Metal. — This alloy contains arsenic, is of a beautiful tombac red color, and verv hard. Its composition varies a (^I'^At deal, but the peculiar alloy which gives the name is composed of copper, 97 parts; zinc, 2 parts; arsenic, 1 or 2. It may be considered a brass with a yery high percentage of copper, and hardened by tne addition of arsenic. It is sometimes used for axle bearings, but other alloys are equally suitable for this purpose, and are to be preferred on account of the absence of arsenic, which is always dangerous. FILE ALLOYS.— Many copper-tin al- lovs are employed for the making of files which, in distinction from the steel files, are designated composition files. Such alloys have the following compositions: Geneva Compositioii Files.— I II Copper 04.4 62 Tin 18.0 20 Zinc 10.0 10 Lead...,,...,,,.. 7.6 8 Vogel's Compodtioii Files.— Ill IV V Copper 57.0 61.5 73.0 Tin 28.5 81.0 19,0 Zinc 78.0 8.0 Lead 7.0 8.5 8.0 VI. — Another alloy for composition files is copper, 8 parts; tin, 2; zinc, 1, and lead, 1 — fused under a cover of borax. EASILY FUSIBLE OR PLASTIC AL- LOYS. (These have a fusing point usually below 800« F.) (See also Solders.) I. Rose's Alloy. — Bismuth, 2 parU; lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Melting point, 200** F. II. Darcet Allov. — This is composed of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 8 of tin. It melts at IIQ"* F. To impart greater fusibility, -jV part of mercury is added; the fusing is then lowered to 149® F. III.— Newton alloy melts at 2! 2° F.. and is composed of 5 parts of bismuth, 2 of lead, and 8 of tin. IV.— Wood's MetaL— Tin 2 parts Lead 4 parts Bismuth 5 to 8 parts This silvery, fine-grained alloy {uf^ea between 151* and 162* F., and is ex- cellently adapted to soldering. V. — Bismuth, 7 parts; lead, 6 parts; cadmium, 1 part. Melting point. 180* F. VI.— Bismuth, 7 to 8 parts; lead, 4; tin, 2; cadmium, 1 to 2. Melting point, 149* to 160* F. Other easily fusible alloys : VII VIII IX Lead 1 2 8 Tin 1 2 8 Bismuth 1 I 1 Melting Point. . . . 258* F. 283* 811* Fusible Allojrs for Electric Installa- tions. — These alloys are employed in electric installations as current inter- rupters. Serving as conductors on a short length of circuit, they melt as soon as the current becomes too strong. Fol- lowing is the composition of some of these alloys. Fusing temper- ature Lead Tin Bin- muth 500 mtuiu I ... 203* F. 250 500 II... 193* F. 397 532 71 III... 168* F. 344 94 500 62 IV.. 153* F. 260 148 5221 70 V ... 150* F. 249 142 501; 108 VI... 145* F. 267 136 500| 100 Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 65 These alloys are prepared by melting tlie lead in a stearine path and adding successively, and during the cooling, first, the cadmium; second, the bismuth; third, the tin. It is absolutely necessary to proceed in this manner, since these metals fuse at temperatures ranging from 850* F. (for lead), to 561*» F. (for tin). Fusible Safety Alloyi for Steam Boilers. — I. II.. III. IV. V. VL. VIL vin.. IX. X. XI. Bis- muth Lead 5 ZiAO 8 Melttns point 212" F. 8 4 285* F. 8 8 253* F. 10 8 266" F. 12 8 270* F. 16 14 280* F. 16 12 286« F. 22 24 809« F. 32 86 820* F. 82 28 880* F. SO 24 840*F. Atmoa. pres- sure 1 1.5 2 2.5 8 8.5 4 5 6 7 8 E! Lipowitz MetaL — This amalgam is pre- pared as follows: Melt in a dish, cad- mium« 8 parts, by weight; tin, 4 parts; bin. The production of small statues M snrccssfully carried out by making a hoQow gypsum mold of the articles to be cast and heating the mold evenly to about 140® F. A corresponding quan- tity of the molten amalgam is then poured in and the mold moved rapidly to and fro, so that the allov is thrown asainst the sides all over. The shaking should be continued until it is certain that the amal- Esm has solidified. When the mold as cooled off it is taken apart and the seams removed by means of a sharp knife. If the operation is carried on correctly, a chasing of the cast mass be- comes unnecessary, since the alloy fills out the finest depressions of the mold with the greatest sharpness. Amalgam for Plaster.— Tin, 1 nart; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 1 part. Melt the bismuth and the tin together, and when the two metals are in fusion add the mercury while stirring. For use, rub up the amalgam with a uttle white of egg and brush Uke a varnish on the plaster articles. Plastic Metal Composition. —I. Copper oxide is reduced by means of hydrogen or copper sulphate by boiling a solution of the same in water with some zinc filings in order to obtain entirely pure copper. Of the copper powder obtained in this man- ner, 20, 80, or 86 parts, bv weight, accord- ing to the decree of hardness desired for the composition (the greater the quantitpr of copper used the harder will the composi- tion become), are thoroughly moistened in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar with sulphuric acid of 1.85 specific gravity; 70 parts, b)r weight, of mercurv are then added to this paste, the whole being con- stantly stirred. When all the copper has been thoroughly amalgamated with the mercury, the sulphuric acid is washed out again with boiling water, and in 12 hours after it has become cold the com- position will be so hard that it can be polished. It is impervious to the action of dilute acids, alcohol, ether, and boil- ing water. It contains the same specific gravity, alike in the soft or the hard con- dition. When used as a cement, it can at any time be rendered soft and plastic in the following manner: If applied while hot and plastic to the deoxidized surfaces of two pieces of metal, these latter will unite so firmly that in about 10 or 12 hours the metal may be subjected to any mechanical process. The prop- erties of this composition render it very useful for various purposes, and it forms a most effective cement for fine metal articles which cannot be soldered in fire. II. — Bismuth, 5.5 parts; lead, 8; tin, 1.5. III. Alloy d'Homburg. — Bismuth, Digitized by VjOOQ IC 66 ALLOYS 3 parts; lead, 8; tin, 3. This alloy is fusible at 251® F., and is of a silvery white. It is employed for reproductions of medals. IV. Alloy Valentine Rose. — Bismuth, 4 to 6 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 to 3 parts. This alloy fuses at iW to 250'' F. V. Alloy Rose pere. — Bismuth, 2 parts; leaa, 2; tin, 2. This alloy fuses at 199« F. The remainder are plastic alloys for reproducing cuts, medals, coins, etc.: Vl. — Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part. VII. —Bismuth, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts. Vni.— Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 parts. IX. — Bismuth, 5 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 3 parts. X. — Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; Un, 2 parts. Quick-Water. — That the amalpm mav easiljr take hold of bronze objects and remain there, it is customary to cover the perfectly cleansed and shining article witn a thin coat of mercury, which is usually accomplished by dipping it into a so-called quicK-water bath. In the form of minute globules the mercury immediately separates itself from the solution and clings to the bronze object, which thereupon presents the appearance of being plated with silver. After it has been well rinsed in clean water, the amalgam may be evenly and without difficulty applied with the scratch brush. This quick- water (in reality a solution of mercurous nitrate), is made in the sim- plest manner bj^ taking 10 parts of mer- cur;i^ and pouring over it 11 parts of nitric acid of a specific gravity equal to 1.33; now let it stand until every part of the mercury is dissolved; then, while stirring vigorously, add 540 parts of water. This solution must be kept in closed flasks or bottles to prevent im- purities, such as dust, etc., from falling into it. The preparatory work on the object to be gildea consists mainlv in cleansing it from every trace of oxicfation. First. It must be well annealed by placing it in a bed of glowing coal, care being exer- cised that the heating be uniform. When cooled, this piece is plunged into a highly diluted sulphuric-acid bath in order to dissolve in a measure the oxide. Next It is dipped in a 36® nitric-acid bath, of a specific i^ravitv equal to 1.33, and brushed off with a long brush; it is now dipped into nitric acid into which a little lampblack and table salt have been thrown. It is now ready for washing in clean water and drying in unsoiled sawdust. It is of the greatest importance that the surface to be ^Ided should ap- pear of a pale yellow tint all over. If it be too smooth the gold will not take hold easily, and if it be too dull it will require too much gold to cover it. GOLD ALLOYS: Colored Gold AlloyB.— The allojrs of gold with copper have a reddish tinge; those of gold with silver are whiter, and an alloy of j^old, silver, and copper to- gether is distinguished by a greenish tone. Manufacturers of gold ware make use of these different colors, one piece being frequently composed of several pieces of varying color. Below are given some of these alloys, with their colors: Gold SUver Copper Stoel Ciwl- mium L. 2.6 1.0 II.. 75.0 16.6 '8*4 III.. 74.6 11.4 9.7 4.3 IV.. 75.0 12.6 12.5 v.. 1.0 2.0 .... VI.. 4.0 3.0 i.6 VII.. 14.7 7.0 6.0 VIII. . 14.7 0.0 4.0 IX.. 3.0 1.0 1.0 X.. 10.0 1.0 4.0 XL. 1.0 .... 1.0 XII.. 1.0 .... 2.0 XIII.. 30.0 3.0 .... 2.0 XIV.. 4.0 .... .... 1.0 XV.. 20.0 11.0 XVI.. 1.3 i.6 Nos. I, II, III, and IV are green gold; No. V is pale yellow; Nos. VI, VII. and VIII bright vellow; Nos. IX and X pale red; Nos. XI and XII bright red; Nos. XIII. XIV. and XV gray; while No. XVI exhibits a bluish tint. The finished gold ware, before being put upon the market, is subjected to a special treat- ment, consisting either in the simple pickling or in the so-called coloring, which operation is conducted especially with alloys of low degree of fineness, the object being to give the layers a super- ficial layer of pure gold. The presence of silver considerably modifies the color of gold, and the jewel- er makes use of this property to obtain alloys of various shades. The following proportions are to be observed, vis.: Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 67 Gdd Silyer Copper Color of Gold per per per 1.000 f.OOO 1.000 I. Green 750 260 ... II. Dead leaves 700 800 ... III. Sea green 600 400 ... IV. Pink 750 200 60 T. English yellow.. 760 126 126 VI. English white... 760 160 100 VII. Whiter 760 170 80 VUL Less white 760 100 60 IX. Red 760 ... 260 Other colored gold alloys are the fol- lowing: X. Blue. — Fine gold, 76; iron, 26. XI. Dark Gray. — Fine gold, 94; iron, 6. XII. Pale Gray. — Fine gold, 101; iron. 0. XIII. CasselTeUow. — Fine gold, 76; fine silver, 12); rose copper, 12). The above figures are understood to be by weight. Tne sold solders, known in France ander the names of aoudures au quart (IS) carat), au tiert (12 carat), and au deux <9 caral), are composed of S, 2, or 1 part of gold respectively, with 1 part of an alloy cronsisting of two-thirds silver and ooe-thiid copper. Gold also forms with alttminom a series of alloys of greatly vaiy- iog coloration, the most curious of them, composed of 22 parts of aluminum for 88 parts of gpld, possessing a pretty purple shade. But all these alloys, of a nignly cryttaDiDe base, are very brittle and can- not be worked, for which reason their handsome colorings have not yet been capable of being utilized. RiMinelIng Alloys. — I. Transparent — ^This alloy should possess the property of transmitting ravs of light so as to give the highest possible effect to the enamel. The alloy of gold for transparent green fhoald be pale; a red or copper alloy doe^ not do for green enamel, the copper has a tendency to darken the color and thttf take away a part of its brilliancy. The following alloy for transparent fTcen possesses about the nearest print, in col(ir» to the enamel — which snould ivpresent, as near as possible, the color and brilliancy of the emerald — that can be arrived at: ois. dwta. grs. I^Begpld 0 18 8 Fine silver 0 1 6 Fine copper 0 0 10 No borax must be used in the melting of this alloy, it being of a more fusible aatttiv than the ordinary alloy, and will Dot take so high a heat in enameling. IL Fjcd EoaineL — The enamel which forms this color being of a higher fusing point, if proper care be not taken, the gold will melt first, and the work become ruined. In the preparation of red enam- el, the coloring matter is usually an oxide of gold, and this so raises the tempera- ture at which it melts that, in order to prevent any mishap, the gold to be enam- eled on should be what is called a 22- carat red, that is, it should contain a preponderance of copper in the alloying mixture so as to raise tne fusing point of the gold. The formula is: OS8. dwts. gn. Fine gold 0 18 8 Fine silver 0 0 10 Fine copper 0 1 6 Gold-leaf Alloys. — All gold made into leaf is more or less alloyed. The gold used by the goldbeater is alloyed ac- cording to the variety of color required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be in- capable of bein^ reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is unde- sirable on account of its greater cost. It also adheres by contact of one leaf with another, thus causing spoiled material and wasted labor; but for work exposed to the weather it is much preferable, as it is more durable and does not tarnish or change color. The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by beaters with the proportion of alloy they contain: Gold Silver Copper I. Red gold... 466-460 ..! 20-24 II. Pale red. .. 464 ... 16 III. Extra deep. 466 12 12 IV. Deep 444 24 12 V. Citron 440 SO 10 VI. Yellow .... 408 72 .... VII. Pale yellow 884 96 VIII. Lemon .... 360 120 IX. Green or pale 312 168 X. White 240 240 . . . . Gold-Plate Alloys.— Gold, 92 parts; copper, 8 parts. 11. — Gold, 84 parts; copper, 16 parts. III. — Gold, 76 parts; copper, 26 parts. IMITATION GOLD. I. — One hundred parts, by weight, of copper of the purest quality; 14 of zinc or tin; 6 of magnesia; % of sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream of tartar. The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream of tartar in powder are added separately and gradually. The whole mass is kept stirred for a half hour, the zinc or tin being dropped in piece by piece, the stir- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 68 ALLOYS rinff being kept up till they melt. Fi- nally the cruciole is covered and the mass is kept in fusion 85 minutes and, the same being removed, the metal is poured into molds, and is then ready for use. The allov thus made is said to be fine-grained, malleable, takes a high polish, and does not easily oxidize. II. — An invention, patented in Ger- many, covers a metallic allo^, to take the place of gold, which, even if exposed for some time to the action of ammonia- cal and acid vapors, does not oxidize or lose its gold color. It can be rolled and worked Tike gold and has the appearance of ffenuine gold without containing the slightest admixture of that metal. The alloy consists of copper and antimony in the approximate ratio of 100 to 6, and is produced by adding to molten copper, as soon as it has reacned a certain degree of heat, the said percentaee of antimony. When the antimony has Rkewise melted and entered into intimate union with the copper, some charcoal ashes, magne- sium, and lime spar are added to the mass when the latter is still in the crucible. III. Aluminum Gold. — This allov, called Nuremberg gold, is used for mak- in(( cheap gold ware, and is excellent for this purpose, as its color is exactly that of pure gold, and does not change in the air. Articles made of Nuremberg fold need no gilding, and retain their color under the hardest usase; even the fracture of this allo^ shows the pure gold color. The composition is usually §0 parts of cop- per, 2.5 of ^old, and 7.5 of aluminum. IV. — Imitation gold, capable of being worked and drawn into wire, consists ot 050 parts copper, 45 aluminum, and 2 to 5 of silver. v.— Chrysochalk is similar in com- position to Mannheim gold: I II Copper 90.5 58.68 Zinc 7.9 40.«2 Lead 1.6 1.90 In color it resembles gold, but quickly loses iU beauty if exposed to the air. on account of the oxidation of' the copper. It can, however, be kept bright for a long time by a coating of colorless varnish, which ^ excludes the air and prevents oxidation. Chrysochalk is used ^ for most of the ordinary imitations of gold. Cheap watch chains and jewelry are manufactured from it, and it is widely used by the manufacturers of imitation bronze ornaments. Mamiheim Gold or Similor.— Mann- heim gold is composed of copper, zinc, and tin, in proportions about as follows: I II Copper 88.7 89.8 Zinc 9.8 9.9 Tin 7.0 0.6 It has a fine yellow color, and was formerly much used in makin|; buttons and pressed articles resemblinjg gold. Later alloys, however, surpass it in color, and it has fallen somewhat into disuse. One variety of Mannheim gold, so called, contains 1.40 parts of brass (composition 3 Cui 1 Zn) to 10 of copper and 0.1 of zinc. Mosaic Gold. — This is an alloy com- posed— with slight deviations ^of 100 Earts of copper and 50 to 55 of zinc. It as a beautiful color, closely resembling that of gold, and is distinguished by a very fine grain, which makes it especially suitable for the manufacture of castings which are afterwards to be gilded. The best method of obtaining a thoroughly homogeneous mixture of the two metals is first to put into the crucible one-half of the zinc to be used, place the cover upon it, and fuse the mixture under a cover of borax at as low a temoerature as possible. -Have ready the otner half of the zinc, cut into small pieces and heated almost to melting, and when the contents of the crucible arc liquid throw it in, a small portion at a time, stirring constantly to effect as intimate a mixture of the metals as possible. Orelde or Oroide (French Gold).— The so-called French gold, when polished, so closely resembles genuine gold in color that it can scarcely be distinguished from it. Besides its beautiful color, it has the valuable properties of being very ductile and tenacious, so that it can ca.Hily he stamped into any desired shape; it also takes a high polish. It is frequently used for the manufacture of spoons, forks, etc., but is unsuitable for this pur- pose on account of the large amount t>f copper contained in it, rendering it in- jurious to health. The directions for preparing this alloy vary greatly. The products of some Paris factories show the following composition: I II III Copper 90 80.5 86. "il Zinc 10 14.5 31.5^ Tin 0.4H Iron 0.^4 A special receipt for orelde is the fol- lowing: IV. — Melt 100 parts of copper and add, with constant stirring, 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of sal ammoniac, 1.8 of lime, and 9 of crude tartar. Stir again Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 69 thoroni^hly, and add 17 parts of (^anu- lated zinc, and after mixing it with the cupper by vigorous stirring keep the alloy liquid for one hour. Then care- fully remove the scum and pour off the alloy. Pinchbeck* — This was first manufac- tured in England. Its dark gold color in the best imitation of gold alloyed with copper. Being verv ductile, it can easily hf rolled out into tnin plates, which can be given any desired shape by stamping. it does not readily oxidize, and thus futfilb all the requirements for making cheap jewelry, which is its principal use. Copper 88.8 93.6 Zinc ll.« 6.4 Or Copper 2.1 1.28 Zinc 0.7 Brass 1.0 0.7 FBUadxum Gold. — Alloys of gold, cop- per, silver, and palladium have a brown- ish-ird color and are nearly as hard as iron. Thev are sometimes (although rarely) uwi for the bearings for the axles of the wheels of fine watches, as they invite little friction and do not rust in the air. The composition used in the Swiss and Eng- lish watch factories consists usually of gold 18 parts, copper 18 parts, silver 11, and palladium 6. Talmi Gold. — The name of talmi gold va.4 first applied to articles of jewelry, chains, earrings, bracelets, etc., brougnt fr«im Paris, and distinguished by beau- tiful workmanship, a low price, and great durability. Later, when this al- uty had acquired a considerable reputa- tion, articles were introduced under the 4&me name, but which were really made of other metals, and which retained their lieaatif ul gold color only as long as they were not used. The fine varieties of talmi rold are manufactured from brass, cop- ficr, or tombac, covered with a thin plate of gold* combined with the base by roU- ing« under strong pressure. The plates are then rolled out by passing through nillrr!*, and the coating not only acquires 'ontiderable density, but aaheres so '^loMcly to the base that the metal will ke^ Its beautiful appearance for years. Of late, many articles of talmi gold Uve been introduced whose gold coat- ing U produced by electroplating, and if tn many cases so thin that hard mbbing wul bring through the color of thr beae. Such articles, of course, are aot durable. In genuine talmi gold, the rvMliag. even though it may be thin, ad- heres very closdy to the base, for the rea- son that the two metals are actually welded by the rolling, and also because alloyed gold is always used, which is much harder than pure gold. The pure gold of electroplating is very soft. The composition ot sotne varieties of talmi gold are here given. It will be seen that the content of gold varies greatly, and the durability of the alloy wiQ, of course, correspond to this. The alloys I, II, III are genuine Paris talmi ^old; IV, V, and VI are electroplated imitations; and VII is an alloy of a wrong composition, to which the gold does not adhere firmly: Copper Zino Tin Iron Gold I. 80.0 0.8 .... 1.3 n. 00.8 8.3 .... .... 0.0 III. 00.0 8.0 • « . • .... 0.0 IV i ^^"^ *^V 88.2 80.0 11.4 .... 0.5 ^- 83.1 12.4 17.0 .... 0.8 VI W.5 ^- 84.5 6.6 15.8 .... 0.05 VII. 86.0 12.0 1.1 0.3 .... Japanese Alloys. — In Japan some specialties in metallic alloys are in use of which the composition is as follows: Shadke consists of copper with from 1 to 10 per cent of gold. Articles made from this alloy are laid in a pickle of blue vitriol, alum,^ and verdigris, until they acquire a bluish-black color. Gui-shi-bu-ichi is an alloy of copper containing 30 to 50 per cent of silver. It possesses a peculiar gray shade. Mokume consists of several composi- tions. Thus, about 30 gold foils (gen- uine) are welded together with shadke, copper, silver, and gui-shi-bu-ichi and pierced. The pierced holes are, after firmly hammering together the plates, filled up with the above-named piclde. The finest Japanese brass consists of 10 parts copper and 8 parts zinc, and is called siachu. The bell metal kara kane is composed of copper 10 parts, tin 10 parts, iron 0.5 part, and zinc 1.5 parts. The copper is first fused, then the re- maining metals are added in rotation. GERMAN SaVER OR ARGENTAlf . The composition of this allo^ varies considerably, but from the adjoined fig- ures an average ma^ be found, whicn will represent, approximately, the normal composition: Copper 50 to 66 parts Zinc 10 to 31 parts Nickel 13 to 18 parts The properties of the different kinds, such as their color, ductility, fusibility, Digitized by VjOOQ IC 70 ALLOYS etc., Tary with the proportions of the single metals. For making spoons, forks, cups, candlesticks, etc., the most suitable proportions are 50 parts of copper, 25 of sine, and 25 of niclcel. This metal has a beautiful blue- white color, and does not tarnish easily. German silver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon, if allowed to fall upon the floor, will break; this, of course, indicates faulty composition. But the following table will snow how the character of the alloy changes with the varying percent- age of the metals composing it: Copp«r Zine Nickel Quality I. 8 3.5 4 Finest quality. II. 8 3.5 6 Beautiful, but refractory. IIL 8 6.5 8 Ordinary, readily fus- ible. IV. 52 26.0 22 First quality. Second quality. V. 50 30.0 11 VI. 63 31.0 6 Third quality. The following analyses give further particulars in regard to different kinds of German silver: For aheet (French).. (French).. (French).. Vienna Vienna Vienna Berlin Berlin Engli.er is used in the form of fine grains, obtained by pouring melted copper into cold water. These copper grains are mixed with the dry oxide of manganese, and the mixture put into a crucible holding about 66 pounds. Enough space must be ItSi in the cruci- ble to allow a thick cover of charcoal, as the manganese oxidizes easily. The crucible is placed in a well-arm wing wind furnace and subjected to a strong white heat. The oxide of manganese is completely reduced to manganese, which at once combines with the copper to form an alloy. In order to prevent, as far as possible, the access of^air to the fusing mass, it is advisable to cover the crucible with a lid which has an aperture in the center for the escape of the carbonic oxide formed during the reduction. When the reduction is complete and the metals fused, the lid is removed and the contents of the crucible stirred with an iron rod, in order to make the alloy as homogeneous as possible. By re- peated remelting of the cupromanganese a considerable quantity of the man- S.nese is reconverted into oxide; it is, erefore, advisable to make the casts directly from the crucible. When poured out, the alloy rapidly solidifies, and re- sembles in appearance good German silver. Another reason for avoiding re- melting is that the crucible is strongly attacked by the cupromanganese, and can be used but a few times. The best kinds of cupromanganese contain between 10 and 80 per cent of manganese. They have a beautiful white color, are hard, tougher than cop- per, and can be worked under the ham- mer or with rolls. Some varieties of cupromanganese which are especially valuable for technical purposes are given below: I II III IV Copper 75 60 65 60 Manganese. 25 25 20 20 Zinc 15 5 .. Tin 10 Nickel 10 10 Manganln. — This is an alloy of copper, nickel, and manganese for electric re- sistances. MIRROR ALLOYS: Amalguni for Mirron. — ^I. — Tin, 70 parts; mercury, SO parts. II. — For curved mirrors. Tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 9 parts. III.— For glass balls. Tin, 80 parts; mercury, 20 parts. IV. — Metallic cement. Copper, SO parts; mercury, 70 narts. V. — Mirror metal. — Copper, 100 parts; tin. 50 parts; Chinese copper, 8 parti; lead. 1 part; antimony, 1 part. RftflMtor Mfttak. — I. — (Cooper*s.) Copper, 35 parts; platinum, 6; zinc, 2; tin, 16.5; arsenic. 1. On account of the hardness of this alloy, it takes a very high polish; it is impervious to the effects of the weather, and b therefore remark- Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 7» Mj well adapted to the manufacture of miiToni for fine optical instruments. II.— (Duppler's.) Zinc, 20 parts; sil- ver. 80 parts. III.— Copper, 60.22 parts; tin, 38.11 parts; arsemc* 0.67 part. IV. — Copper, 64 parts; tin, 82 parts; arsenic, 4 parts. v.— Copper, 82.18 parts; lead, 0.22 parts: antimonv, 8.60 parts. VI.— (Little's.) Copper, 60.01 parts; tin, 30.82 parts; sine, 2.44 parts; arsenic, 1.83 parte. ^ecttlum KetaL — Alloys consisting of 2 parts of copper and 1 of tin can be very brilliantly polished, and will ftcrye for mirrors. Gt>od speculum metal ihould hare a very fine-grained fracture, should be white and very hard, the high- ert dei^ree of polish depending upon these qualities. A composition to meet these nquiremento must contain at least 35 to 36 per cent of copper. Attempts have frequently been made to increase the hardness of ^eculum metal by additions of nickel, antimony, and arsenic. With the exception of mckd, these substances have the effect of causing the metal to lose its high luster easuy,^ any consid- erable quantity of arsenic in particular having this effect. The real speculum metal seems to be a eombination of the formula Cu4Sn, compoaed of copper 68.21 per cent, tin 31.7. An alloy of this nature is some- times separated from ordnance bronze by incorrect treatment, causing the so- rslled tin spoto; but this has not the pure vhile QoHoT which distinguishes the spec- ulum metal containing 31.5 per cent of tin. By increasing the percentage of copper the color gradually shades into yellow; with a larger amount of tin into blue. It is dangerous to increase the tin too much, •s this changes the other properties of the sOoT, and tt becomes too brittle to be worked. Below is a table showing differ- ent rompcksitioiis of speculum metal. The stan scribed. The following alloys can be rolled into sheet or drawn into wire: I II III Silver 88.8 84 40 0 Copper 41.8 42 44 6 Nickel 8.6 8 4.0 Zinc 16.8 16 10 R Japanese (Gray) Silver.— An alloy t« prepared in Japan which consL^ts of equal parts of copper and silver, and wnich IS given a beautiful gray color br boiling in a solution of alum, to which copper sulphate and verdigris are added. The so-called **mokum,'* also a Japanese alloy, is prepared by placing thin platm of gold, silver, copper, and tne alloy jii«t described over each other and stretch- ing them under the hammer. The rn»» sections of the thin plates obtained in this way show the colors of the differrnt metaU, which give them a peculiar striped appearance. Mokum is |irin> cipall^ used for decorations upon gold and silver articles. Silver-Zinc. — Silver and zinc have great affinity for each other, and allov« of these two metals are therefore eaMly made. The required quantity of zin<\ wrapped in paper, is thrown into the melted and strongly heated silver, the mass is thoroughly stirred with an iron rod, and at once poured out into mold». Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtaine^l which are both ductile and flexible. An all- rortion of zinc the alloy becomes brittle. n preparing the alloy, a somewhat larger quantity of zinc must be taken than toe Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALLOYS 77 finished alloy is intended to contain, as a imall amount always volatilizes. Imitation SUver Alloys. — There are a number of alloys, composed of different metals, which resemble silver, and may be brieflv mentioned here. L — Warne*s metal is composed of tin 10 parts, bismuth 7, and cobalt S. It is white, fine-grained, but quite difficult to fuse. II. — Tonca's metal contains coppei 5 parts, nickel 4, tin 1, lead 1, iron 1, zinc 1, antimony 1. It is hard, difficult to fuse, not very ductile, and cannot be recommended. III. — Trabuk metal contains tin 87.5, nickd 5^, antimony 5, bismuth 5. IV. — Tourun- Leonard's metal is com- posed of 500 parts of tin and 64 of bell metal. V. — Silveroid is an alloy of copper, nickel, tin, zinc, and lead. VI.— Minargcnt. Copper, 100 parts; nickel. 70 parts; tungsten, 5 parts; alu- minum, I part. \1I. — Nickel, 28 parts; aluminum, S parts: copper, 5 parts; iron, 65 parts; tunnten, 4 parts. VIII.— Aigasoid.. Tin, 4.0S5; lead, $.544; copper, 55.780; nickel, 18.406; sine, 2S.198; iron, trace. SOLDERS: See Solders. STEEL ALLOTS: See abo Steel. For Locomotiye Cylinders. — This mix- ture consists of 20 per cent steel castings, old steel springs, etc.; 20 per cent No. 2 coke iron, and 60 per cent scrap. From this it is stated a good solid metal can be obtained, the castines being free from honeycombing, and finishing better than the ordinary cast-iron mixture, over which it has the advantage of 24 per cent great- er strength. Its constituents are: Sili- con, 1.51; manganese, 0.33; phosphorus, 0.65; sulphur, 0.068; combined carbon, V.62; leraphite, 2.45. Nickel steel is composed of nickel 36 per cent, steel 64 per cent. Tnng^sten steel is crucible steel with 5 to 12 per cent tungsten. STEREOTYPE METAL. Lead 2 parts Tin 3 parts Bismuth 5 parts The melting point of this alloy is 196® F. Tbe alloy is rather costly because of the amount of bismuth which it contains. The following mixtures are e&eaper: I II ni IV Tin 18 1 2 Lead 1 5 1.5 2 Bismuth.... 2 8 3 5 Antimony 1 Tin ALLOYS: Alloys for Dentists' Holds and Dies. — I. — Very hard. Tin, 16 parts; anti- mony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. II.— Softer than the fonner. Tin, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part; antimony, 1 part. III.— Very hard. Tin, 12 parts; an- timony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part. Cadmium Alloy, about the Hardness of Zinc. — Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1 part; cadmium, 1 part. Itn-Lead. — Tin is one of those metals which is not at all susceptible to the action of acids, while lead, on the other hand, is very easily attacked by them. In such alloys, consequently, used for cooking utensils, the amount of lead must be limited, and should properly not exceed 10 or 15 per cent; but cases have been known in wnich the so-called tin con- tained a third part, by weight, of lead. Allovs containing from 10 to 15 per cent of lead have a oeautiful white color, are considerably harder than pure tin, and much cheaper. Many alloys of tin and lead are very lustrous, and are used for stage jewelry and mirrors for reflect- ing the lignt of lamps, etc. An especially bnlliant alloy is called "Fahlun bril- liants." It is used for stage jewelrv, and consists of 29 parts of tin and 19 of lead. It is poured into molds faceted in the same way as diamonds, and when seen by artificial light, the effect is that of dia- monds. Other alloys of tin and lead are employed in the manufacture of toys. These must fill the molds well, and must also be cheap, and therefore as much as 50 per cent of lead is used. Toys can also be made from type metal, which is even cheaper than tne alloys of tin and lead, but has the disadvantage of readily breaking if the articles are sharply bent. The alloys of tin and lead give very good castings, if sharp iron or brass molds are used. Lead 19 parts Tin 29 parts This alloy is very bright and possesses a permanent sheen. It is well adapted for the making; of artificial gems for stage use. It is customary in carrying out the process to start with two parts of tin and one part of lead. Tin is added until a sample drop which is allowed to fall upon an iron plate forms a mirror. The artificial gems are produced by Digitized by VjOOQ IC 78 ALLOYS dipping into the molten alloy pieces of glass cut to the proper shape. The tin coating of metal which adheres to the glass cools rapidlv and adheres tena- ciously. Outwardly these artificial gems appear rough and gray, but inwardly they are highly reflective and quite deceptive when seen in artificial light. If the reflective surfaces be coated with red, blue, or green aniline, various colored effects can be obtained. In- stead of fragile glass the gems may be produced by means of well-polished pieces of steel or bronze. Other Tin-Lead Alloys. — Percentage of lead and specific gravity. P.O. 8.G. P.O. 8.O. 0 7.290 «8 8.105 1 7.816 «9 8.137 2 7.342 30 8.169 3 7.369 31 8.202 4 7.396 32 8.236 5 7.423 33 8.268 6 7.450 34 8.302 7 7.477 35 8.336 8 7.505 36 8.379 9 7,533 37 8.405 10 7.562 38 8.440 11 7.590 39 8.476 12 7.619 40 8.512 13 7.648 41 8.548 14 7.677 42 8.584 15 7.706 43 8.621 16 7.735 44 8.658 17 7.764 45 8.695 18 7.794 46 8.732 19 7.824 47 8.770 20 7.854 48 8.808 21 7.885 49 8.846 22 7.916 50 8.884 23 7.947 60 9.299 24 7.978 70 9.736 25 8.009 80 10.225 26 8.041 90 10.767 27 8.073 100 11.370 Tin Statuettes, Buttons, etc— I.— Tin 4 parts Lead 3 parts This is a very soft solder which sharp- ly reproduces all details. Another easily fu.orcelain dish or other suitable vessel till it liquefies, then raise and continue the heat, not allowing it to exceed 400'', till aqueous vapor ceases to be disrn- ftiged, and the salt has lost 47 per cent uf lis weight. Reduce the residue to pow- der, and preserve it in a well-stoppered hottle.—Cooiey. II. — Heat ordinary alum (alumina alum^ with constant stirring in an iron pan in which it will first melt quietly, and then commence to form blisters. Continue heating until a dry white mass of a loose character remains, which is powdered and kept in well-closed glasses. ALUM BATH: See Photography. ALUM SOAP: See Soap. Alummum and its Treatment HOW TO COLOR ALUMINUM: Blanching of Aluminum. — Aluminum is one of the metals most inalterable by air; nevertheless, the objects of aluminum tarnbh quickly enough without being Digitized by VjOOQ IC ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT 81 altered. They may be restored to their mat whiteness in the following manner: Immerse the aluminum articles in a boiling hath of caustic potash; next plunge them auickly into nitric acid, rinse and let dry. It must be under- stood that this method is applicable only to pieces entirely of aluminum. Decolorized Aluminum. — Gray or un- Mffhtly aluminum may be restored to its white color bv washing with a mixture of SO parts of borax cfissolved in 1,000 parts of water, with a few drops of am- munla. added. Hat Aluminum, — In order to impart to aluminum the appearance of mat >ilTer, pluni^e the article into a hot bath composed of a 10-per-cent solution of cauistic soda saturated with kitchen salt. Leave it in the bath for 15 to 20 seconds, then wash and brush; put back into the bath for half a minute, wash anew and dry in sawdust. To Blacken Aluminum. ~I. —-The sur- face of the sheet to be colored is polished with verv fine emery powder or finest rrnenr cloth. After polishing pour a thin layer of olive oil over the surface and heat slowly over an alcohol flame. Lari^e sheets must, of course, be heated in the drying oven. After a short while pour on oil again, in order to obtain ab- solute uniformity of the coating, and heat the plate once more. Under the action cif the heat the plate turns first brown, then black, according to the decrees of heat. When the desired coloration has been attained, the plate is polished over a^ain, after cooling, with a woolen rag Of soft leather. IL— White arsenic 1 ounce Sulphate of iron . ... 1 ounce Hydrochloric acid . . 12 ounces Water 12 ounces When the arsenic and iron are dis- solved by the acid add the water. The aluminum to be blackened should be well cleaned with fine emery powder and washed before immersing in the Klackeoing solution. When the deposit of black is deep enough dry off with fine uvdust and lacquer. Diecofatiiig Altuninum. — A process for decorating aluminum, patented in Ger- many, prescribes that the objects be first ''orroded, which is usually done with caustic soda lye, or, better still, by a new method which consists in heating S parts of sulphuric acid with 1 part of water to 140* to 158* F., in an enameled vessel. Into tliis liquid dip the aluminum arti- cles, rinsing them off clean and then dry- ing them well. The corroded articles are now placed in a bath consisting of 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), 1.50 parts of antimony, 250 parts of chemically pure hydrochloric acid, 100 parts of manganous nitrate, and 20 parts of purified and finally elutriated graph- ite. In this bath, which is heated to 86°-95« F., the objects are left until fumes develop around them, which takes place in a few seconds. Now they are put over a coal fire or similar arrange- ment until the alcohol is burned up and there is no more smoke. After they are somewhat cooled off, they are laid into cold water and worked with a brush, then rinsed with water and well dried. The pieces are now provided with a gray me- tallic coating, consisting mainly of anti- mony, manganese, and graphite. This metallic layer renders them capable of re- ceiving a lacquer which is best prepared from 1,000 parts of alcohol (00 per cent), 50 parts of sandarac, 100 parts of shellac, and 100 parts of nigrosine (black aniline color). Then the articles are quickly but thoroughly rinsed off, dried in warmed air for % few minutes, and baked in ovens or over a moderate coal fire until they do not smoke any more and no more doss can be seen. Finally they are rubbed with a cotton rag saturated with thin linseed-oil varnish, and the ob- lects thus treated now appear dull black, like velvet. The covering withstands all action of the weather, so that cooking vessels coated with this varnish on the outside can be placed on the fire without injury to the coating. If the articles are engraved, the aluminum appears almost glossy white under the black layer at the engraved places. When the pieces have been provided with the gray metallic coating, colored lacquer may also be applied with the brush. In this manner paintings, etc., may be done on alu- minum, while not possible on unprepared aluminum surfaces, which will not retain them. Making Castings in Aluminum, — The method adopted in preparing molds and cores for aluminum work is neces- sarily somewhat the same as for brass, but there are particular points which need attention to insure successful work. Both in the sand and the making of the molds there are some small differences which make considerable variation ^ in the results, and the temperature at which the metal is poured is a consideration of some importance. In selecting the sand, which should Digitized by VjOOQ IC 82 ALUMINIUM AND ITS TREATMENT not have been previously used, that of a fine f^rain should be chosen, but it should not have any excess of aluminous matter, or it will not permit of the free escape of gases and air, this being an important matter. Besides this, the sand must be used as dry as possible consistent with its holding against the flow of the metal, and having only moderate compression in ramming. In making the molds it is necessary to remember that aluminum has a large contraction in cooling, and also that at certain temperatures it is very weak and tears readily, while all metals shrink awav from the mold' when this is wholly outside the casting, but they shrink on to cores or portions of the mold partly inclosed by metal. Thus, if casting a plate or bar of metal, it will shrink away from the mold in all direc- tions; but if casting a square frame, it shrinks away from the outside only, while it shrinks on to the central part or core. With brass, or iron, or such metals, this is not of much importance, but with some others, including alumi- num, it is of {H'^at importance, because if the core or inclosed sand wilt not give somewhat with the contraction of the metal, torn or fractured castings wilt be the result. Both for outside and inside molds, and with cores used with alu- minum, the sand should be compressed as little as possible, and hard ramming must in every case be avoided, particu- larly where the metal surrounds tne sand. The molds must be very freely vented, and not only at the joint of the mold, but by using the vent wire freely through the body of the mold itself; in fact, for brass the venting would be considered excessive. With aluminum it is, how- ever, necessary to get the air off as rapid- ly as poHMJble, because the metal soon gets sluggiiih in the mold, and unless it runs up quickly it runs faint at the edges. The ingates should be wide and of fair area, but need careful making to prevent their drawing where they enter the cast- ing, the method of doing this being known to most molders. If it is considered desirable to use a specially made-up facing sand for the mold«i where the metal is of some thick- nenn, the use of a little pea or bean meal will be all that is neccHsary. To use this, first dry as much sand as may be re- quired and pass through a ){0-nieHh sieve, and to each bushel of the fine •tnnd rub in about 4 quarts of meal, afterwards again pHHsing through the Nirve to insure regular mixing. Tlii« sand should then l>e «laiup<*d as required, being careful that all parts are equally moist, rubbinj; on a board being a good way to get it touf^h, and in good condition, with the minimum of moisture. The molds should not be sleeked with tools, but they may be dusted over with plumbago or steatite, smoothing with a camel 8- hair brush, in cases in which a very smooth face is required on the castings. Preferably, however, the use of the brush even should be avoided. Patterns for aluminum should be kept smooth and well varnished. In melting the metal it is necessarv to use a ptumMgo crucible which is cfean and wnich has not been used for other metals. Clay or silica crucibles are not good for this metal, especially silica, on account of the metal absorbing silicon and becoming hard under some condi- tions of melting. A steadv fire is otrr*^ sary, and the fuel should^ reach only about halfway up the crucible, as it is not desirable to overheat the crucible or metal. The metal absorbs heat for some time and then fuses with some ra- pidity, hence the desirability of a steady neat; and as the metal should be poured when of a claret color under the film of oxide which forms on the surface, too rapid a heating is not advisable. The molding should always be well in ad- vance of the pouring, because the metal should be used as soon as it Is ready; for not only is waste caused, but the metal loses condition if kept in a molten state for long periods. The metal should be poured rapidly, but steadily, and wheo cast up there should not be a large bead of metal left on top of the runner, lo fact, it is rather a disadvantage to ]ea%*e a large head, as this tends to clraw rather than to feed the casting. With properly prepared molds, and careful melting, fluxes are not required, but ground cryolite — a fluoride of sodium and aluminum— is sometimes used to increase the fluidity of the metal. In using this, a few ounces according to the bulk of metal to be treated is put into the molten metal before it is taken from the furnace, and well stirred in. and as soon as the reaction apparently ceases the pot is lifted and the metal at once skimmed and poured. The use of sodium in anv form with aluminum U very undesirable, however, and should be avoideae cases more readily. To start with the question of the tool, this should be made as what is known as a ''shearing tool," that is, instead of a short, stubby point, such as would be used in turning brass, the point should be len|;thenea out and a lot of clearance provided on the inside of the tool, so as to give the chips of the metal a good chance to free themselves and not cause a clogging around the point of the tool — a simi- lar tool, for instance, to what would be used for turning wood. The best lubricant to be used would be coal oil or water, and plenty of it. The latter is almost as good as coal oil if enough of it is used, and with either of these lubricants and a tool properly made, there should be no difficulty what- soever in the rapid working of aluminum, either on the lathe or on automatic screw machines. To go from the lathe to the drawing press, tne same tools here would be used m drawing ud shapes of aluminum as are used for arawing up brass or other metals; the only precaution necessary in this instance being to use a proper lubricant, which in this case is a cheap grade of vaseline, or in some cases lard oil, but in the majority of instances better results will be secured by the use of vaseline. Aluminum is probably sus- ceptible of deeper drawing with less occasion to anneal than any of the other commercial metals. It requires but one-third or one-fourth of as much an- nealing as brass or copper. For in- stance, an article which is now manu- factured in brass, requiring, say, three or four operations before the article is fin- ished, would probably have to be an- nealed after every operation. With aluminum, however, if the proper grade is used, it is generally possible to perform these three operations without annealing the metal at all, and at the same time to produce a finished article which, to all intents and purposes, is as stiff as an article made of sneet brass. Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact of starting with the proper grade of metal, for either through ignorance or by not observini^ this point is the founda- tion of the majority of the complaints that aluminum "has been tried and found wanting." If, however, it should be found necessary to anneal aluminum, this can be readily accomplished by heating it in an ordinary muffle, being careful that the temperature shall not be too high— about 650*» or 700*» F. The best test as to when the metal has reached the proper temperature is to take a soft pine stick and draw it across the Digitized by VjOOQ IC 84 ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT metal. If it chars the stick and leaves a black mark on the metal, it is suffi- ciently annealed and is in a proper con- dition to proceed with further opera- tion. Next taking up the question of spin- ning aluminum, success again depends particularly on starting witn the proper metal. Tne most satisfactory speed for articles from 5 to 8 inches in diam- eter is about 2,600 revolutions a minute, and for larger or smaller diameters the speed should be so regulated as to give the same velocity at tne circumference. Aluminum is a very easy metal to spin and no difficulty should be found at all in spinning the proper grades of sheets. Several factories tnat are using large quantities of aluminum now, both for spinning and stamping, are paying their men by the piece tne same amount that thev formerly paid on brass and tin work, and it is stated that the men working on this basis make anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent more wages by working alu- minum. After aluminum has been manufac- tured into the shape of an article, the next process is the finishing of it. The best polish can be obtained by first cutting down the metal with an ordinary rajj bun on which use tripoli, and then finish it with a dry red rouge which comes in the lump^ form, or that which is known as "Wnite Diamond Rouge." One point, however, that it is necessary to observe carefuUv is that both the tripoli and the rouge should be procured ground as fine as it is possible to grind them; for, if this is not done, the metal will have little fine scratches all over it, and will not appear as bright and as handsome as it other- wise would. If it is desired to put on a frosted ap- pearance, this can either be done by scratch brushing or sand blasting. A brass wire scratch brush, made of crimped wire of No. 82 to No. 86 B. & S. gage, with three or four rows of bris- tles, will probably give the best results. This work of scratch brushing can be somewhat lessened, however, if, before applying the scratch brush to the surface of the aluminum, the article is first cut down by the use of a porpoise-hide wheel and fine Connecticut sand, placing the sand between the surface of the alumi- num and the wheel, so that the skin and the irregularities on the surface are re- moved, and then putting the article on a buffing wheel before attempting to scratch brush it. This method, how- ever, is probably more advantageous in the treating of aluminum castings than for articles manufactured out of the sheet metal, as in the majority of cases it is simply necessary before scratch brushing to cut down the article with tripoli, and then polish it with rouge as already de- scribed, before putting on the scratch brush; in this way the brush seems to take hold quicker and better, and to pro- duce a more uniform polish. An effect similar to the scratch-brush finish can be got by sand blasting, and by first saiid blasting and then scratch brushing^ the sheets, a good finish is ob- tained with very much less labor than by scratch brushing alone. Another very pretty frosted effect is procured by first sand blasting and then treated as here- inafter described by "dipping** and "frosting," and many variations in the finish of aluminum can be got by varying the treatment, either by cutting down with tripoli and polishing, scratch brush- ing, sand blasting, dipping, and frosting, and by combinations of those treatment^. A very pretty mottled effect is secured on aluminum by first polishing and then scratch brusning and then holding the aluminum against a soft pine wheel, run at a high rate of speed on a lathe, and by caref ulmanipulation, quite regular forinn of a mottled appearance can be obtained. The dipping and frosting of aluminum sheet is probably the cheapest way of producing a nice finish. First remove all grease and dirt from the article by dipping in benzine, then dip into water in order that the benzine adhering to the article may be removed, so as not to affect the strength of the solution into which it is next dipped. After they have been taken out of the water and well shaken, the articles should be plunged in a strong solution of caustic soda or caus- tic potash, and left there a sufBcient length of time until the aluminum starts to turn black. Then they should hr- removed, dipped in water again, and then into a solution of concentrated iiilric and sulphuric acid, composed of 24 p«rt> of nitric acid to 1 part of sulphuric aciii. After being removed, the article shuuUl be washed thoroughly in water and drie«i in hot sawdust in the usual way. This finish can also be varied somewhat by making the solution of caustic soda i»f varyinir degrees of strength, or by adding a small amount of common salt to the solution. In burnishing the metal use a blooii> stone or a steel burnisher. In burnish > ing use a miscture of melted va-seline an«l coal oil, or a solution composed of "i tablespoonfuls of ground borax dissolve'*! in about a quart of hot water, with a fow Digitized by VjOOQ IC AMALGAMS 85 drops of ammonia added. In engrav- ing^, which adds materially to the ap- pearance of finished castings, book cov- ers« picture frames, and similar articles made of sheet, probably the best lubri- cant to use on an engraver's tool in order to obtain a clean cut, which is bright, is naphtha or coal oil, or a mixture of coal oil and vaseline. The naphtha, how- ever, is preferred, owing to tne fact that it does not destroy the satin finish in the neighborhood of the cut, as the other lubricants are very apt to do. There is, however, as much skill required in using and making a tool in order to give a Kright, clean cut as there is in the choice of the lubricant to be used. The tool >hould be made somewhat on the same piao as the lathe tools already outlined. That is, they should be brought to a !»h&rp point and be "cut back^* rather far. so as to give plenty of clearance. There has been one class of work in aluminum that has been developed lately and only to a certain extent, in vhi«ui there are great possibilities, and that is in drop forging tne metal. Some very superior bicycle parts have been manufactured bv dropiorging. This can be accomplished prooably more readily with aluminum than with other metals, for the reason that it is not necessary vitb all the alloys to work them hot; C4fii2«equently, they can be worked and nandled more rapidly. ALUHmUM^ TO CLEAN: See Cleamng Preparations and Meth- itd*. ALUmHUM ALLOTS: Sec Alloys. ALUmHUM BRONZE: See Alloys under Bronzes. ALUimrUM CASTINGS: See Ca«ting. ALtnamrM paper : See Paper. ALxmaxm plating: See Plating. ALUimrUM POLISHES: See Polishes. Amalgams Sw also Easily Fusible Alloys under VO.jy'^. The name aroa^ani is given to al- .••rf of roetals containing mercurv. The trrm comes to us from the alchemists. It ligtttfies softening, because an excess of mercury dissolves a large number of metals. Preparation of Amalgams. — Mercurv forms amalgams with most metals. It unites directly and readily, either cold or hot, with potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, cadmium, tin, antimonv, lead, bismuth, silver, and gold; directly, but more dif- ficultly, witn aluminum, copper, and palladium. This combination takes place oftenest at the ordinary temper- ature; certain metals, however, like aluminum and antimony, combine only when heated in presence of quicksilver. Quicksilver has no direct action on metals of high fusing points: manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, uranium, platinum, and their congeners. Still, amalgams of these metals can be obtained of buty- rous consistency, either by electrolysis of their saline solutions, employing quick- silver as the negative electrode, or by the action of an alkaline amalgam (potas- sium or sodium), on their concentrated and neutral saline solutions. These same refractory metals are also amalga- mated superficially when immersed in the amalgam of sodium or of ammonium in presence of water. Processes for preparing amalgams by double decomposition between an alkaline amalgam and a metallic salt, or by elec- trolysis of saline solutions, with employ- ment of mercury as the negative elec- trode, apply a fortiori to metals capable of combining directiv with the quick- silver. The latter of these methods is especially utilized for the preparation of alKaline earthy metals by electrolvtic decomposition of the solutions of their salts or hydrated oxides with quicksilver as a cathode. General Properties of Amalgams. — Amalf^ams are liquid when the quick- silver IS in great excess; solid, but readily fusible, when the alloyed metal pre- dominates. They have a metallic luster, and a metallic structure which renders them brittle. They even form crystallized metallic combinations of constant propor- tions, dissolved in an excess of quick- silver, when the excess is separated by compression in a chamois skin, or by filtration in a glass funnel ^ of slender stem, terminating with an orifice almost capillary. According as the fusing heat of a metal is less or greater than its combination heat with quicksilver, the amalgamation of this metal produces an elevation or a lowering of temperature. Thus potas- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 86 AMALGAMS sium, sodium, and cadmium, in alloy with quicksilver, disengage heat; while zinc, antimony, tin, bismuth, lead, and silver combine with mercury with ab- sorption of heat. The amalgamation of 162 parts of quicksilver with 21 parts of lead, 12 parts of tin or of antimony, and 28.5 parts of bismuth, lowers the tem- perature of the mixture 79^ F. Amalgams formed with disengage- ment of heat are electro-negative with reference to the metals alloyed with the c^uicksilver. The products with absorp- tion of heat are electro-negative with ref- erence to the metals comoined with the quicksilver; consequently, in a batterv of elements of pure cadmium and amal- gamated cadmium, the cadmium will be the negative pole; in case of zinc and amalgamated zinc, the zinc will be the positive pole. Heat decomposes all amalgams, va- porizing the mercurv and leaving the metal allocs as a residue. Water is decomposed b^ the amal- gams of potassium and sodium, because the heat of formation of these amalgams, although considerable, is even less than the heat disengaged by potassium and sodium, on decomposing water. The alkaline amalgams may, therefore, serve as a source of nascent hydrogen in pres- ence of water, giving rise to an action less energetic, and often more advan- tageous, tnan that of the alkaline metals alone. Thus is caused the freouent em- ploj^ment of sodium amalgam lorhydro- genizing a large number of bodies. As a conseouence of their action on water, the alkaline amalgams are changed by moist air, with production of free alkali or alkaline carbonate. Applicationg of Potassium Amalgams. — I. — They furnish a process for prepare ing potassium bv the decomposition of potash by the electric current, by em- ploying quicksilver as the cathode, and vaporizing the Quicksilver of the amal- gam formed by neating this in a current of dry hydrogen. II. — They can serve for the prepara- tion of the amalgams of the metals, other than those of the alkaline group, by de- curpose an amalgam of i parts of quicksilyer, 1 part of cad- mium» and 2 parts of tin may oe used. Api^icatioiiB of Zinc Amalgams. — The principal employment of zinc amalgams is their use as a cathode or negative elec- trode in the batteries of Munson, Dan- iels, and Lechanche. This combination i« designed to render the zinc non-attack- able bj the exciting liquid of the battery with open circuit. The action of the mercury is to prevent the zinc from form- ing a larae number of small voltaic ele- ments when foreign bodies are mingled with the metal; in a word, the giving to ordinary zinc the properties of pure zinc, and consequently of causing a great sav- ing in expense. roT amalgamating a zinc plate it is plunMd for a few seconds into water in wbic£ there is one-sixteenth in volume of sulphuric acid, then rubbing with A ropper-wire brush which has been dipp^in the quicksilver. The mercury tales more readily on the zinc when, after the zinc has been cleaned with water sharpened^ with sulphuric acid, it is moistened with a solution of corro- nve sublimate, which is reduced and furnishes a fint very thin coat of amal- gam, on which the quicksilver is im- mediately fixed by simple immersion without nibbing. The zinc of a battery may be amalga- mated by putting at the bottom of the compartment containing each element, a little quicksilver in sucn a way that the line touches the liquid. The amalga- mation ts effected under the influence of the cttrrent, but this process applies only on condition that the zinc alone touches th^ bottom of the vessel containing the quickfilTer. Applicaiiofis of Manganese Amalgams. — Tbcse may serve for the preparation of manganese. For this purpose it is •ufficieot to distill in a current of pure L>dlrogen. The manganese remains in tbe form of a grayish powder. Appficatioiis of Tin Amalgams. — I. — Ttamng of j^ass. This operation is arcompliftbed in the following manner: On a cast-iron table, quite horizontal, a sheet of tin of the dimensions of the glass is spread out and covered with a layer of quicksilver, 5 or 6 millimeters in thick- ness. The ^lass is made to slide on the sheet of tin m such a way as to drive off the excess of quicksilver; when the two surfaces are covered without interposi- tion of air, weights are placed on the glass. In a few days, the glass may be removed, having been covered with an adhering pellicle of amalgam of 4 parts of tin and 1 part of quicksilver. (See also Mirrors.) II. — An amalgam consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 part tin may be used for covering the cushions of frictional elec- tric machines. This amalgam is pre- pared bv first melting the zinc and tin in a crucible and adding the quicksilver previously heated. III. — Mention has been made of the cadmium amalgam employed for plug- ging teeth, an amalsam of 2 parts of quicksilver, 2 parts of tin, and 1 part of cadmium. For the same purpose an amalgam of tin, silver, and gola is em- ployed. (See also Cements, Dental.) Applications of Copper Amalgams. — I. — An amalgam of SO per cent of copper has been employed tor filling teeth. This use has been abandoned on account of the inconvenience occasioned by the great changeableness of the product. II. — The amalgam of 30 per cent of copper, designated by the name of "me- taAic mastic," is an excellent cement for repairing objects and utensils of porce- lain. For this employment, the broken surfaces are heated to 662^ F., and a little of the amalgam, previously heated to the consistency of melted wax, is applied. III. — Copper amalgam, of 30 to 45 per cent of copper, rendered plastic by heating and grinding, may serve for ob- taining with slight compression copies of delicate objects, which may, after hard- ening of the amalgam, be reproduced, either in wax or by galvanic process. IV. — According to Debray, when a medal, obtained with an amalgam of 45 per cent of copper, by compression in the soft state, in molds of gutta percha, is heated progressively to redness in an atmosphere of hydrogen, the quicksilver is volatilized gradually, and the particles of copper come together without fusion in such a way as to produce a faithful reproduction, formed exclusively of me- tallic copper, of the original medal. V. — In the metallurgy of gold the crushers are furnished with amalgH- mated plates of copper for retaining the gold. The preparation of these plates. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 88 AMALGAMS which are at least 0.128 inches in thick- ness, is delicate, requiring about two weeks . They a re freed from greas v mat- ter by rubbing with ashes, or, better, with a little sand and caustic soda, or if more rapid action is desired, with a cloth dipped in dilute nitric acid; they are washed with water, then with a solution of potassium cyanide, and finally brushed with a mixture of sal ammoniac and a little quicksilver, until the surface is completely amalgamated. They are finally made to absorb as much quick- silver as possible. But the plates thus treated are useful for only a few days when they are sufficiently covered with a layer of gold amalgam; m the meantime they occasion loss of time and of gold. So it is preferable to cover them arti- ficially with a little gold amalgam, which is prepared by dissolving gold in Quick- silver. Sometimes the amalgam of gold is replaced b^ an amalgam of silver, whicn is readily poured and more eco- nomical. Another method giving better results consists in silvering copper slabs by elec- troplating and covering them with a layer of silver. Then it is only necessary to apply a little quicksilver, which adheres quite rapidly, so that they are ready for use almost immediately, and are quite active at the outset. These amalgamation slabs ought to be cleaned before each operation. Po- tassium cyanide removes fatty matter, and sal ammoniac the oxides of the low metals. Applications of Lead Amalgams. — These meet with an interesting employ- ment for the autogenous soldering of lead. After the surfaces to be soldered have been well cleaned, a layer of lead amat]^am L» applied. It is afterwards sufficient to pass along the line of i unc- tion a soldering iron heated to reoness, in order that the heat should cause the volatilization of the quicksilver, and that the lead, liberated in a state of fine divi- sion, should be melted and cause the adherence of the two surfaces. The only precaution necessary is to avoid breathing the mercurial vapor, which is quite poisonous. AppUcations of Bismuth Amalgams. — The amalgam formed of 1 nor cent of bismuth and 4 parts of quicksilver will cause the strong adherence of glass. It is employed with advantage in the tin- ning of glass glol>es. For this operation it is poured into a dry hot receiver, and then passed over the whole surface of the glass; it solidifies on cooling. For the purpose of economizing the bismuth, the price of which is high, the preceding amaiffam is replaced by anotner com- posed of 2 parts of quicksilver, 1 part of oismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin. The bismuth, broken into small frag- ments, is added to the tin and lead, pre- viously melted in the crucible, and wnen the mixture of the three metals becomes fluid, the quicksilver is poured in, while stirring with an iron rod. The impuri- ties floating on the surface are removed, and when the temperature is sufficiently lowered this amalgam is slowly poured into the vessels to be tinned, which have been previously well cleaned and slightly heated. M. Ditte recommends for the same employment, as a very strong ad- herent to the glass, an amalgam obtained by dissolving not k parts of bismuth and 1 part of lead in a solution of 1 part of tin in 10 parts of quicksilver. By caus- ing a ouantity of tnis amalgam to move arouna the inside of a receiver, clean, dry, and slightly heated, the surface will be covered with a thin, brilliant layer, which hardens c^uite rapidly. For the injection of anatomical pieces an amalgam formed of 10 parts of quick- silver, 50 parts of bismutn, 81 parts of lead, and 18 parts of tin, fusible at 77.5^ and solidifiable at 60® C, is made use of; or, again, an amalgam composed of 9 parts of Darcet alloy and 1 part of quick- silver fusible at 127)'* F., and pasty at a still lower temperature. This last amal- gam may also be used for filling carious teeth. 1 he Darcet alloy, as known, con- tains 2 parts of bismutn, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin, and melts at 199^ F. The addition of 1 part of ouicksilver lowers the fusing point to 104® r. Applications of Silver Amalgams,— I . — In tne silvering of mirrors by the Petit- jean method, which has almost univer- sally replaced tinning, the property of silver in readily amalgamating is taken advantage of, oy substituting the f^B%s after silvering to the action of a oilute solution of ooubte cyanide of mercury and potassium in such a manner as to form an amalgam of white and brilliant silver adhering strongly to the glass. To facilitate the operation and utilize all the silver, while economizing the double cya- nide, M. l^noir has recommended the following: Sprinkle the glass at the time when it is covered witn the mercurial solution with very fine linc^ powtlrr, which precipitates the quicksilver and regulates the amalgamation. 11. — The metallurgy of silver also takes advantage of the property of this Digitized by VjOOQ IC AMALGAMS 89 metal in combininff cold with quickstl- Tf>r; this for the treatment of poor silver urea. In the Saxon or Freiburg process for treating silver ores, recourse is had to quicksuver in the case of amaliram in amalgamating casks, in which tne ore, after grinding, is shaken with disks of iron, and with mercury and water. The amalgam, collected and filtered under strong pressure, contains from 80 to 88 per cent of silver. It is distilled either in cylindrical retorts of cast iron, fur- oithed with an exit tube immersed in the water for condensing the mercurial vaporfk. or on plates of iron, arranged nrer each other along a vertical iron Mem, supported bv'a tripod at the bot- tom of a tank filled with water, and rf>tered with an iron receiver, which is itxJf surrounded with ignited charcoal. It should be remarked that the last po?- tion» of Quicksilver in a silver amalgam •ubmittea to distillation are volatilized only under the action of a high and pro- longed temperature. Applications of Gold Amalgaiiu. — I.— Gikiinff with quicksilver. This process of gilaibg, much employed formerly, is BOW but little used. It can be applied only to metals slightly fusible and capa- ble of amalgamation, like silver, copper, bro&fe, and brass. Iron can also be gilded by this method, provided it is previously covered with a coating of copper. To perform this gilding the suria<« is well cleaned, and the gold smalgmm, consisting of 2 parts of gold and 1 part of quicksilver, prepared as mentioned before, is applied. The piece is afterwards heated to about the red, so as to Tolatilize the me'rcury. The gold remains, superficially alloyed with the meCaJ, and forms an extremely solid Isyer of deadened gold, which can be afterwards polished. The volatilization should be effected under a chimne)r hav- ia^ strong draught, in order to^ avoid the poisonous action of the mercurial vapors. U. — The amalgamation of gold finds hf priocipal applications in the treatment lA auriferous ores. The extraction of •mall spangles of sold scattered in gold- Keyring sands is nased on the ready dbis>olution of gold in quicksilver, and nn the formstion of an amalgam of solid fAd by compression and filtering through s rhamoi.* skin, in a state more or less fi«)Qid. I'he spangles of gold are shaken with about their wei|{ht of ouicksilver, cuDected in the cavities of sluices and matsd with a small quantity of sand. The gold is dissolved and the sand re- mains. The amalgam thus obtained is compressed in a chamois skin, so as to separate the excess of mercury which passes through the pores of the skin; or, yet again, it is filtered through a glass funnel having a very slender stem, with almost capillary termination. In both cases an amalgam of solid gold remains, which is submitted to the action of heat in a crucible or cast-iron retort, com- municating with a bent-iron tube, of which the extremity, surrounded with a doth immersed in water, is arranged above a receiver half full of water. The <]uicksilver is vaporized and condensed in the water. Tne gold remains in the retort The property of gold of combining readily with quicksilver is also used in many kinds oi amalgamating apparatus for extraction and in the metallurgy of gold. In various operations it is essential to keep the quicksilver active by preserv- ing its limpidity. For this purpose potassium cyanide and ammonium chloride are especially employed; some- times wood ashes, carbonate of soda, hyposulphite of soda, nitrate of potash, cupric sulphate, sea salt, and lime; the latter for precipitating the soluble sul- phates proceeding from the decomposi- tion of pyrites. The amalgamation of gold is favored by a temperature of 38® to 45® C. (lOO^ to 118*^ F.), and still more by the em- ployment of quicksilver in the nascent state. This last propertv is the base of the Designol process, which consists in treating auriferous or auro-argentiferous ores, first ground with sea salt, in revolv- ing cylinc&rs of cast iron, with iron and mercury bichloride, in such a way ^at the mercury precipitated collects the gold and eventually tne silver more emca- ciously. • Gold Amalgam.— Eight parts of gold and 1 of mercury are formed into an amalgam for plating by rendering the gold into thin plates, making it red hot, and then putting it into the mercury while the latter is also heated to ebullition. The gold immediately disappears in combination with the mercury, after which the mixture may be turned into water to cool. It is then ready for use. Zinc Amalgam for Electric Batteries. — Dissolve 2 parts of mercury in 1 part of aqua regia. This accomplished, add 5 parts of hydrochloric acid. This solu- tion is made warm. It suffices to dip the zinc to be amalgamated into this liquid only for a few seconds. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 90 AMALGAMS— AMBER Amalsam for Cementing Glass, Por- celain, £tc.— Take tin i parts, and cad- mium 1 part. Fuse in an iron spoon or some vessel of the same material. When the two materials are in fusion add a little mercury, previously heated. Place all in an iron crucible and boil, agitating the mass with a pestle. This amalgam is soft and can be kneaded between the fingers. It may be employed for luting glass or porcelain vessels, as well as for nlling teeth. It hardens in a short while. Amalgam for Slivering Glass Balls.— Lead, 25 parts; tin, 25 parts; bismuth, 25 parts; mercury, 25 parts; or, lead, 20 parts; tin, 20 parts; bismuth, 20 parts; mercury, 40 parts. Melt the leaa and the tin, then add the bismuth; skim sev- eral times and add the mercury, stirring the composition vigorously. (See also Mirror-Silvering). Copper Amalgam. — Copper amalgam, or so-called Viennese metal cement, crys- tallizes with the greatest readiness and acquires such hardness on solidifying that it can be polished like gold. The amalgam may also be worked under the hammer or between rollers; it can also be stamped, and retains its metallic luster for a long time in the air. In air con- taining hydrogen sulphide, however, it quickly tarnishes and turns black. A very special property of copper amalgam consists in that it becomes very soft when laid in water, and attains such pliancy that it can be employed for modeling the most delicate objects. After a few hours the amalgam congeals again into a very fine-drained, rather malleable mass. An important application of copper amalgam is that /or cementing metals. All that is necessary for this purpose is to heat the metals, which mu.st be bright, to 80-90<» C. (176-194* F.), to apply the aiftalgam and to press the metal pieces together. They will cohere as nrmly as though soldered together. Chopper amalgam may be prepared in the following manner: Place strips of zinc in a solution of blue vitriol and agitate the solution thor- oughly. The copper thus obtained in the form of a very fine powder is washed and, while still moist, treated in a mor- tar with a solution of mercury nitrate. The copper powder thereby amalga- mates more readily with the quicksilver. Next, hot water is poured over the cop- per, the mortar is kept hot, and the mer- cury added. Kneaci with the pestle of the mortar until the copper, pulverulent in the beginning, has united with the mercury into a very plastic mass. The longer the kneading is continued the more uniform will be the mass. As sim>d as the amalgam has acauired the suitable character — for its production S parts of copper and 7 parts of mercury are used — the water is poured off and the amal- gam still soft is given the shape in which It is to be kept. For cementing purposes, the amalgam is rolled out into small cylinders, whose diameter is about 0.16 to 0.2 inches, with a length of a few inches. In order to produce with this amalgam impressions of castings, which are made after wood- cuts, the amalgam is rolled out hot into a thin plate and pressed firmly onto the likewise heatea plaster cast. After the amalgam has hardened the thin plate of it may be reinforced by pouring on molten type metal. Silver Amalgam. — Silver amalgam can easily be made with the help of finely powdered silver. The mercury neecl only be heated to 260"* to SOO"* C. <482^ to 572* F.); silver powder is then sprin* kled on it, and mixed with it by stirring. The vessel is heated for several minutrs and then allowed to cool, the exceas of mercury being removed from the (n^nu- lated crystalline amalgam by pressing in a leather bag. Silver amalgam can aUu4 substances have been thor- ouehi y evacuated, and then suitable anti- dot*»s should l>e given. If vomiting can- not l>e pnMured the stomach pump .should Imt Used. When it U known what particular kind of poison ha* been swal- («»wrd. then the proper antidote for that p«>ison should lie piven; but when this (\innot 1h» a*e*»rtained, a^ i< tiften the iMsc, give fre«'ly of euHi»'ient <|uantity of water. Thi* i?. a verj* harm- less mixture and i* likely to be of great l>enetit. as the ingredients, though very .simple, are antidotes for the most com- mon and active poisons. In case this mixture cannot be obtained, the stomach should be soothed and protected by the free administration of demulcent, muci- laginous, or oleaginous drinks, such as the whites of eggs, milk, mucilage of gum arabic, or sUppery-elm bark, flaxseed tea, starch, wneat flour, or arrowroot mixed in water, linseed or olive oil, or melted butter or lard. Subsequently the bowels should be moved by some gentle laxative, as a tables poonful or two of castor oil, or a teas poonful of cal- cined magnesia; and pain or other evi- dence of inflammation must be relieved by the administration of a few drops of laudanum, and the repeated application of hot poultices, fomentations, and mus- tard plasters. The following are the names of the substances that may give rise to poison- ing, most commonly used, and their anti- dotes: Minenl Adds— Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol), Nitric Add (Aqua Fortis), Muriatic Add (Spirits of Salts).— Symp- toms: Acid, burning taste in the moutii, acute pain in the throat, stomach, and bowels; frequent vomiting, generallv bloody; mouth and lips excoriated, shriveled, white or yellow: hiccou|^h, copious stools, more or less bloody, with great tenderness in the abdomen; diffi- cult breathing, irregular pulse, excessive thirst, while drink increases the pain and rarely remains in the stomach; fre- quent but vain efforts to urinate: cold sweats, altered countenance; convul- sions, generally preceding death. Nitric acid causes yellow stains; sulphuric acid, black ones. Treatment: Mix calcined magnesia in milk or water to the consistence of cream, and give freely to drink a glassful every couple of minutes, if it can l>e swallowed. Common soap (hard or soft), chalk, whiting, or even mortar from the wall mixed in water may be given, until magnesia can be ol>- tained. Promote vomiting by tickling the throat, if necessary, and when the poison Ls got rid of, flaxseed or slipprrj*- elm tea. gruel, or other mild drinks. The in tla mutation which always ft>llows ntvllapse, stupi»r, death. Oxalic acid is fre<)urntly taken in Digitized by VjOOQ IC ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS 93 mistake for Epsom salts, to which in shops it often bears a strong resemblance. Treatment: Give chalk or magnesia in a iarse quantitj of water, or large draughts of Timewater. If these are not at hand, scrape the wall or ceiling, and give the sera pings mixed with water. Pnisstc or Hydrocyanic Acid — ^Laurel Water, Cyanide of Potassium, Bitter Almond Oil, Etc — ^Symptoms: In larffe doAcs almost invariablv instantaneously fatal; when not immediately fatal, sud- den toss of sense and control of the vol- untary muscles. The odor of the poison generally noticeable on the breath. Treatment: Chlorine, in the form of chlorine water, in doses of from 1 to 4 fluidrachms, diluted. Weak solution of chloride lime of soda; water of am- monia (spirits of hartshorn), largely diluted, may be given, and the vapor of it cautiously inhaled. Cold aifusion, and chloroform in half to teaspoonful doses in glycerine or mucilage, repeated every few minutes, until the symptoms are ameliorated. Artificial respiration. Aconite — Monkshood, Wolfsbane. -^ Symptoms: Numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, and afterwards in other portions of the body, with sore throat, pain over the stomach, and vom- iting; dimness of vision, dizziness, ffreat prostration, loss of sensibility, and de- lirium. Treatment: An emetic and then brandy in tablespoonful doses, in ire water, every half hour ; spirits of ammonia in half- teaspoonful doses in like manner; the cold douche over the bead and chest, warmth to the extrem- ities, etc. Alkalis and Their Salts —Concen- trmted Lye, Wood-ash Lye, Caustic Pot- ash, Anunonia, Hartshorn.— Symptoms: Caustic, acrid taste, excessive heat in the throat, stomach, and intestines; vomitins of bloody matter, cold sweats, hiccough, purnng of bloody stools. Treatment: The common vegetable arids. Common vinegar, being alwavs at band, is most frequently used. The fixed oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond, sod olive oils form soaps with the alka- lu and thus also destroy their caustic HTect. They should be given in large quantity. Antiniony and Its Preparations— Tar- tar Emetic, Antimonial Wine, Kerme's Mineral. — Symptoms : Faintness and nausea, soon followed by painful and c«mtinaed vomiting, severe diarrhea, roaitrictioD and burning sensation in the throat, cramps, or spasmodic twitch- ings, with symptoms of nervous derange- ment, and great prostration of strength, often terminating in death. Treatment: If vomiting has not been produced, it should be effected by tickling the fauces, and administering copious draughts of warm water. Astringent infusions, such as of ^all, oak bark, Peruvian bark, act as antidotes, and should be given prompt- ly. Powdered yellow bark may oe used until the infusion is prepared, or very strong green tea should oe given. To stop the vomiting, should it continue, blister over the stomach by applying a cloth wet with strong spirits of hartshorn, and then sprinkle on one-eighth to one- fourth of a grain of morphia. Arsenic and Its Preparations — Rats- bane, Fowler's Solution, Etc.— Symp- toms: Generally within an hour pain and heat are felt in the stomach, soon followed by vomiting, with a burning dryness of the throat and great thirst; the matters vomited are generally colored either green yellow, or brown, and are sometimes bloody. Diarrhea or dys- entery ensues,^ while the pulse becomes small and rapid, yet irregular. Breath- ing much oppressed; difficulty in vom- iting may occur, while cramps, convul- sions, or even paralysis often precede death, which sometimes takes place with- in five or six hours after arsenic has been taken. Treatment : Give a prompt emetic, and then hydrate of peroxide of iron (recently prepared) in tablespoon- ful doses every 10 or 15 minutes until the urgent symptoms are relieved. In the absence of this, or while it is being pre- pared, give large draughts of new milk and raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted butter, magnesia in a Iarse quantity of water, or even if nothing else is at hand, flour and water, always, however, giv- ing an emetic the first thine, or causing vomiting by tickling the tnroat with a feather, etc.^ The inflammation of the stomach which follows must be treated by blisters, hot fomentations, muci- laginous drinks, and the like. Belladonna, or Deadly Nightshade. — Symptoms: Dryness of the mouth and throat, great tnirst, difficulty of swal- lowing, nausea, dimness, confusion or loss oT vision, great enlargement of the pupils, dizziness, delirium, and coma. Treatment: There is no known anti- dote. Give a prompt emetic and then reliance must be placed on continual stimulation with brandy, whisky, etc., and to necessary artificial respiration. Opium and its preparations, as morphia, I laudanum, etc., are thought by some to Digitized by VjOOQ IC 94 ANTIDarES FOR POISONS counteract the effect of belladonna, and may be given in small and repeated doses, as also strong black coffee and green tea. Blue Vitriol, or Blue Stone. —See Cop- per. Centharides (Spanish or Blistering Fly) and Kodem Potato Bug.— Symp- toms: Sickening odor of the breath, sour taste, with burning heat in the throat, stomach, and bowels; frequent vomiting, often bloody; copious bloodv stools, great pain in the stomach, with burning sensation in the bladder and difficulty to urinate followed with ter- rible convulsions, delirium, and death. Treatment: Excite vomiting by drinking plentifully of sweet oil or other whole- some oils, sugar and water, milk, or slipperv-elm tea; give injections of castor oil and starch, or warm milk. The in- flammatory svmptoms which generally follow must be treated by a physician. Camphorated oil or camphorated spirits should be rubbed over the bowels, stom- ach, and thighs. Caustic Potash. — See Alkalis under this title. Cobalt, or Fly Powder.— Symptoms: Heat ana pain in the throat and stomach, violent retching and vomiting, cold and clammv skin, small and feeble pulse, hurried and difficult breathing, diar- rhea, etc. Treatment: An emetic, fol- lowed bv the free administration of milk, eggs, wneat flour and water, and muci- laginous drinks. Copper— Blue Vitriol, Verdigris or Pickles or Food Cooked in Copper Ves- sels.— Symptoms: General inflamma- tion of the alimentary canal, suppres- sion of urine; hiccough, a disagreeable metallic taste, vomiting, violent colic, excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the throat, anxiety; faintness, giddiness, and cramps and convulsions generally precede death. Treatment : Large (loses of simple syrup as warm as can be swallowed, until the stomach rejects the amount it contains. The whites of eggs and large Quantities of milk. Hydrated peroxide ot iron. Creosote — Carbolic Add. — Symptoms: Burning pain, acrid, pungent taste, thirst, vomitinf^, purging, etc. Treat- ment: An emetic and the free adminis- tration of albumen, as the whites of ^ffs. or, in the absence of these, milk, or flour and water. Corrosive Sublimate. — See Mercury under this title. Deadly IHghtshade.— See Belladonna under this title. Foxglove, or Digitalis.— Symptoms: Loss of strength, feeole, fluttering pulse, faintness, nausea and vomiting and stu- por ; cold perspiration, dilated pupils, sighing, irregular breathing, and some- times convulsions. Treatment: After vomiting, give brandy and ammonia in freauently repeated doses, apply warmth to the extremities, and if necessary resort to artificial respiration. Gases— Carbonic Add, Chlorine. Cy- anogen, Hjdrosulphuric Add, £tc.— Symptoms: Great drowsiness, difficult respiration, features swollen, face blue as in strangulation. Treatment: Arti- ficial respiration, cold douche, friction with stimulating substances to the sur- face of the booy. Inhalation of steam containing preparations of ammonia. Cuppinff from nape of neck. Internal use of cnloroform. Hellebore, or Indian Poke.— Symp- toms: Violent vomiting and purging, bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors, vertigo, fainting, sinking of the pulse, cold sweats, and convulsions. Treat- ment: Excite speedy vomiting by large draughts of warm water, molasses and water, tickling the throat with the finger or a feather, and emetics; give oily and mucilaginous drinks, oily purgatives, and clysters, acids, strong coffee, cam- phor, and opium. Hemlock (Conium).— Symptoms: Dry- ness of the throat, tremors, dizainess. difficulty of swallowing, prostration, and faintness, limbs powerless or paralyzed, pupils dilated, pulse rapid and feeble; insensibility and convulsions sometimes precede death. Treatment: Empty the stomach and give brandy in tablespoon- ful doses, with half teas poo nful of spirits of ammonia, freauently repeated, and if much pain ana vomiting, |^ve bro- mide of ammonium in 5-grain doses every half hour. Artificial respiration may be required. Henbane, or Hyoscyamus. — Symp- toms: Muscular twitching, inability to articulate plainly, dimness of vision and stupor: later, vomiting and purging, small intermittent pulse, convulsive movement of the extremities, and coma. Treatment: Similar to opium poison* ing, which see. Iodine. — Symptoms: Burning pain in throat, lacerating pain in the stomach, fruitlf»!» effort to vomit, excessive ten- derness of the epigastrium. Treatment: Digitized by VjOOQ IC ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS 95 Free emcsis, prompt administration of starcli* wheat flour, or arrowroot, beaten Qp in water. Lead — ^Acetate of Lead, Sucar of Lead, D17 White Lead, Red Lead, Litharge, or Piodes, Wine, or Vinenr Sweetened by Lead*— -Symptoms: When taken in large dose», a sweet but astringent metallic tjkste exists,^ with constriction in the throat, pain in the region of the stomach, painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody ▼omitings, hiccough, conyulsions or spasms, and death. When taken in »niaii but long-continued doses it pro> duces colic, called painters' colic; great plain, obstinate constij>ation, and in ex- treme cases Daralybc symptoms, es- p<»csaily wrist-arop, with a blue line along the edge of the gums. Treatment: To counteract the poison give alum in water 1 i ounce to a quart; or, better still, £p- skom salts or Glauber's salts, an ounce of either in a quart of water; or dilute sul- phuric acid, a teaspoonfid to a quart of water. If a large quantity of sugar of lead has been recently taken, emptv the ftumach by an emetic of sulphate of zinc «l drachm in a quF,rt of water), giving one^fourth to commence, and rei>eating smaller doses until free yomiting is pro- duced; castor oil should be given to clear the bowels and injections of oil and starch freelv administered. If the body is cold use the warm bath. Keadovr SaSron. — See Belladonna. Laodanitm. — See Opium. T4>hr1ia — Indian Poke. — Symptoms: Excessive vomiting and purging, pains ia the boweb, contraction of the pupils, driiriom, coma, and convulsions. Treat- osent: Mustard over the stomach, and hrandj and ammonia. Memiry — Corrosive Sublimate (bug pcnsoos frequently contain this poison). Red Precipitate, Chinese or English VcmiiUon. — Symptoms: Acrid, metallic tJkftte in the mouth, immediate constric- tion and burning in the throat, with anx- iriy and tearing pains in both stomach and bowels, sickness, and vomiting of «mrioos*colored fluids, and sometimes bloody and profuse diarrhea, with dif- firiiUy and pain in urinating; ^ulse quick, small, and hard; faint sensations, grral debility, difficult breathing, cramps, rrtid sweats, syncope, and convulsions. Treatment: If vomiting does not al- ready exist, emetics must be given im- saedtately — white of eggs in continuous Urge doses, and infusion of catechu after- warai, sweet milk, mixtures of flour and water in successive cupfuls, and to check excessive salivation put a half ounce of chlorate of potash in a tumbler of water, and use freelv as a gargle, and swallow a tablespoonful every hour or two. Korphine. — See Opium. Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic). — Symptoms: Intense pain and vomiting, and purging of blood, mucus, and shreds of mucous membranes ; and if these stand they become dark. Treatment: Give freely of a solution of common salt in water, which decomposes the poison, and afterwards flaxseed or slippery-elm- bark tea, and after a while a dose of castor oil. Opium and All Its Compounds — Morphine, Laudanum, Paregoric, Etc.— - Symptoms: Giddiness, drowsiness, in- creasing to stupor, and insensibility; pulse usually, at first, quick and ir- regular, and breathing hurried, and afterwards pulse slow and feeble, and respiration slow and noisy; the pupils are contracted and the eyes and face con- gested, and later, as death approaches, tne extremities become cold, tne surface is covered with cold, clammy perspira- tion, and the sphincters relax. The ef- fects of opium and its preparations, in poisonous doses, appear in from a half to two hours from its administration. Treatment: Empty the stomach imme- diately with an emetic or with the stom- ach pump. Then give very strong coffee without milk; put mustard plasters on the wrists and ankles; douche the head and chest with cold water, and if the patient is cold and sinking, give brandy, or whisky and ammonia. Belladonna is thought Dv many to counteract the poi- sonous effects of opium, and may be S'ven in doses of halt to a teaspoonnil of e tincture, or 2 grains of the extract, every 20 minutes, until some effect is observed in causing the pupils to ex- pand. Use warmth and friction, and if possible prevent sleep for some hours, for which purpose the patient should be walked about between two persons. Finally, as a last resort, use artificial respiration, persistence in which wOl some- times be rewarded with success in ap- parently hopeless cases. Electricity should also be tried. Cooley advises as follows: Vomiting must be induced as soon as possible, by means of a strong emetic and tickling the fauces. If this does not succeed, the stomach pump should be applied. The emetic may consist of a half drachm of sulphate of zinc dissolved in a half pint of warm water, of which one-third should Digitized by VjOOQ IC 96 ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS be Uken at once, and the remainder at the rate of a wineglassf ul. every 5 or 10 minutes, until vomiting commences. When there is much drowsiness or stupor 1 or 2 fluidrachms of tincture of capsi- cum will be found a useful addition; or one of the formulas for emetic draughts may be taken instead. Infusion of galls, cinchona, or oak bark should be ireely administered before the emetic, and water soured with vinegar and lemon juice, after the stomach has been well cleared out. To rouse the system spirit and water or strong coffee may be given. To keep the sufferer awake, rough friction should be applied to the skin, an upright posture preserved, and walking exercise enforced, if necessary. When this is ineffectual cold water may be dashed over the chest, head, and spine, or mild shocks of electricity may be had recourse to. To allow the suffer- er to sleep is to abandon him to destruc- tion. Bleeding may be subsequently necessary in plethoric habits, or in threatened con^^estion. The costiveness that accompanies convalescence mav be best met by aromatic aperients; and the general tone of the habit restored by stim- ulating tonics and the shower bath. The smallest fatal dose of opium in the case of an adult within our recollection was 4} grains. Children are much more susceptible to the action of opium than of other medicines, and hence the dose of it for them must be diminished consid- erably below that indicated by the com- mon method of calculation depending on the age. Oxalic Add.— See Acids. Phosphorus— Found in Lucifer Matches and Some Rat Poisons.— Symp- toms: Svmptoms of irritant poisoning; pain in the stomach and bowels; vomit- ing, diarrhea; tenderness and tension of the abdomen. Treatment: An emetic is to be promptly given; copious draughts containing magnesia in suspension; mu- cilaj^inous drinks.^ General treatment for inflammatory symptoms. Poisonous Kushrooms. — Symptoms: Nausea, heat and pains in the stomach and bowels; vomiting and purging, thirst, convulsions, and faintings; pulse small and frequent, dilated pupil and stupor, cold sweats and death. Treat- ment: The stomach and bowels are to be cleared by an emetic of ground muntard or sulphate of zinc, followed by frequent doses of Glauber's or of Epsom Halts, and lar^e stimulating clysters, .\fter the poiHon is evacuated, either may be given j with small quantities of brandy and j water. But if inflammatory symptoms manifest themselves such stimuli snould be avoided, and these symptoms appro- priately treated. A hj^odermic injection of 1^ grain of atropine is the latest discovered antidote. Potash.— See Alkali. Pmssic or Hydrocyanic AcuL— See Adds. Poison IvT. — Symptoms: Contact with, and witn many persons the near approach to, the vine gives rise to vio- lent erysipelatous inflammation, espe- cially^ of tne face and hands, attended with itching, redness, burning, and swell- ing, with watery blisters. Treatment: Give saline laxatives, and apply weak sugar of lead and laudanum, or umewater and sweet oil, or bathe the parts freely with spirits of niter. Anointing with od will prevent poisoning from it. Saltpeter (Nitrate ^of Potash).— Symp- toms: Only poisonous in large quanti- ties, and then causes nausea, painful vomiting, purging, convulsions, faint- ness, feeble pulNe, cold feet and hands, with tearing pains in stomach and bowels. Treatment: Treat as is directed for arsenic, for there is no antidote known, and emptying the stomach and boweU with mild drinks must be relied on. Savine.— 'Symptoms: Sharp pains in the bowels, hot skin, rapid pulse, violent vomiting and sometimes purging, with great prostration. Treatment: Mus- tard and hot fomentations over the stomach and bowels and ice allowed in the stomach only until the inflam- mation ceases. If prostration comes on, food and stimulants must be given by injection. StramoDium^ Thorn Apple, or James- town Weed. ~2:>ymptoms: Vertigo, head- ache, perversion of vision, slignt delir- ium, sense of suffocation, disposition to sleep, bowels relaxed, and all secretions augmented. Treatment: Same as for belladonna. Snake Bites, Cure for.— The Inspector of Police in the Bengal Ctoyernment re- ports that of 930 cases in which ammonia was f reel V administered, 407 victims ha\e recovered, and in the cured ini^tances the remedy was not administered till about 8 j hours after the attack; on the average of the fatal cases the corresponding duration of time was 41 hours. Stiychnine or Ifux Vomica. — The char- acteristic symptom in the special influ- ence exerted upon the nervous syxteni. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS 97 which is manifested by a genera] con- txaction of all the muacles of the body» with rigidity of the spinal column. A profound calm soon succeeds, which is followed by a new tetanic seizure, lon^^er than the first, during which the respira- tion is suspended. These symptoms then cease, tne breathing becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by another l^eneral contraction. In fatal cases thrsie attacks are renewed, at intervals, with increasing violence, until death en- sues. One phenomenon which is found only in poisonings by substances con- taining strychnine is that touching any part of the bodv, or even threatening tn do so, instantly produces the tetanic «pa*m. Antidote: The stomach should ht immediately deared by means of an emetic« tickling the fauces, etc. To i-fiuntcrmct the asphyxia from tetanus, etc., artificial respiration should be practiced with diligence and care. **If the poison has been applied externally, we ought immediately to cauterize the part, and applv a ligature tightly above the wound. If the poison has been swallowed for some time we should j^ive a purgative clyster, and administer draughts containing sulphuric ether or oil Of turpentine, which in most cases produce a salutary effect. Lastly, in- jet-tions of chlorine and decoction of tannin are of value.'* According to Ch. Gunther the great- etoms: When taken into the stomach it is inert; when ab- sorbed through a wound it causes sudden stupor and insensibility, frothing at the mouth, and speedy death. Treatment: Suck the wound immediatelv, or cut it out and tie a cord around the limb be- tween the wound and the heart. Applj iodine, or iodide of potassium, and give it internally, and try artificial respiration. ARTIFERMENTS. The following are tried and useful formulas : I. — Sulphite (not sulphate) of lime, in fine powder, 1 part; marble dust, ground oyster shells, or chalk, 7 parts; mix, and pack tight, so as to excluae the air. II. — Sulphite (not sulphate) of potassa, 1 part; new black- mustard seed (ground in a pepper mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack so as to exclude air and moisture per- fectiy. Dose (of either), } ounce to 1} ounces per hogshead. III. — Mustard seed, 14 pounds; cloves and capsicum, of each, 1^ pounds; mix, and grrind them to powder in a pep- per imll. Dose, } to } pound per hogs- nead. A portion of any one of these compounds added to cider, or the like, soon allays fermentation, when excessive, or when it has been renewed. The first formula is preferred when there is a tendency to acidity. The second and third may be advantageously used for wine and beer, as Digitized by VjOOQ IC 98 ANTISEPllCS well as for cider. The third compound greatly improves the flavor and the ap- parent strength of the lic^uor, and also improves its Keeping qualities. Anchovy Preparations Eztempoimneoiis Anchovy Sauce. — Anchovies, chopped small 3 or 4 Butter S ounces Water 2 ounces Vinegar 1 ounce Flour 1 ounce Mix, place over the fire, and stir until the mixture thickens. Then rub through a coarse sieve. Essence of Anchovies. — Remove the bones from 1 pound of anchovies, reduce the remaining portions of the fish to a pulp in a Wedgcwood mortar, and pass through a clean hair or brass sieve. Boil the bones and other portions which will not pas^ through the sieve in 1 pint of water for 15 minutes, and strain. To the strained liquor add 2) ounces of salt and 2} ounces of flour, and the pulped anchovies. Let the whole simmer over the fire for three or four minutes; re- move from the fire, and when the mix- ture has cooled a little add 4 ounces of strong vinegar. The oroduct (nearly 3 pounds) may be then Dottled, %nd the corks tied over with bladder, and either waxed or capsuled. Anchovy Paste.— Anchovies 7 pounds Water 9 pints Salt 1 pound Flour 1 pound Capsicum } ounce Grated lemon peel. . . 1 Mushroom caUup. .. 4 ounces Anchovy Butter.— Ancho\ne9. boned and beaten to a paste . . 1 part Butter « parts Spice enough AHTIFOULUIG COMPOSITIOHS : See PainU. AirriFREEZIllG SOLUTION: See Freezing Preventives. AirriFRICTION METAL : See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze •nd Antifriction Metals, AHTIQUES, TO PRESERVE. The best process for the preservation of antioue metallic articles consists in a retransiormation of the metallic oxides into metal by the electrol^c method. For this purpose a zinc strip is wound around the article and the latter is laid in a soda-lye solution of 5 per cent, or suspended as the negative pole of a small battery in a potassium cj^anide solution of 2 per cent. Where this method does not seem practicable it is advisable to edulcorate the objects in running water, in which oj)eration fragile or easily de- stroyed articles may be protected by winding with (![au2e; next, they should be carefully dried, first in the air. then with moderate heat, and finally protected from further destruction by immersion in melted paraffine. A dry place is re- quired for storing the articles, since par- affine is not perfectly impermeable to water in the shape of steam. ANTIRUST COMPOSITIOHS: See Rust Preventives. Antiseptics ounces ounces rains irops Antiseptic Powders. — I.— Borax S Dried alum 3 Thymol «« Eucalvptol 20 Mentnol 1 } grains Phenol 15 grains Oil of gaultheria. . .^ 4 drops Carmine to give a pink tint II. — Alum, powdered 50' Borax, powdered 50 Carbolic acid, crystals ... 5 Oil of eucalyptus 5 Oil of wintergreen 5 Menthol 5 Thymol 5. III. — Boracic acid 10 ounces Sodium bi borate. . 4 ounces Alum 1 ounce Zincsulphocarbolate 1 ounce Thymic acid 1 dradim . Mix thoroughly. For an antiseptic wash dissolve 1 or 2 drachms in a quart of warm water. IV. — Ektogan is a new dusting powder which is a mixture of zinc hydroxide and dioxide. It L«i equivalent to about 8 per cent of active oxygen. It is a yellowish- white odorloHs and tasteless powder, in- soluble in water. It is used externally in wounds and in skin diseases as a moist dressing mixed with citric, tartaric* or Digitized by Google ANTISEPTICS 99 35 Umnic acid, which causes the liberation of oxjgen. With iodides it liberates iodine. It is stated to be strongly anti- septic; it is used in the form of a powder, a gauxe, and a plaster. Antiseptic Pencils. — L — Tannin q. s. Alcohol, q. s 1 part Ether, q. s 8 parts Make into a mass, using as an excip- ient the alcohol and ether previously mixed. Roll into pencils of tne desired length and thickness. Then coat with collodion, roll in pure silver leaf, and finally coat with the following solution of gelatine and set aside to dry: Gelatine 1 drachm Water 1 pint Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat. When wanted for use, shave away a portion of the covering, dip the pencil into tepid water and apply. II. — Pencils for stopping bleeding are prepared by mixing: Purified alum 480 Borax 24 Oxide zinc ^ Thymol 8 Formalin 4 Melting carefully in a water bath, add- ing «ome perfume, and forming mixture into pencils or cones. A very convenient way to form into pencils where no mold need be made is to take a small glass tube, roll a piece of oil paper around the tube, remove the ^AC9 tube, crimp the paper tube thus formed on one end and stand it on end cr in a bottle, and pour the melted so- lution in it and leave until cool, then re- move the paper. Antiseptic Pute (Poison) for Organic SpccuDens* — fa ) Wheat flour 16 ounces Beat to a batter with cold water 16 fluidounces Then pour into boil- ing water 32 fluidounces \b} Pulverised gum ar- abic 2 ounces I>i»solve in boil- ing water 4 fluidounces » of the fi niters, but in easily renewed. Pi»r the remaining portion of the hands one application is sufficient for a whole morn- ing's work. The 4-per-cent solution of rubber wears better on the tips of the fingers, in han- dling instruments, sponges, and tissues than the acetone solution. For the abdomen the acetone solution has the advantage, and it dries in three to four seconds after its application, while the benzine solution takes from three to four and a half minutes to make a dry, firm coating. The preparation of the patient's »kio consists in five minutes* scrubbing with spirits of green soao, washing with ether, followed by alcohol. The surface is thrn swabbed over thoroughly with the ben- zine or acetone solution. The gutta-percha solution is prepared by di».HC)lving the pure gutta-percha rhipt in sterile benzine or acetone. The*r solutions do not stand boiling, a« this impairs the adhesiveness and elasticity of the coating. ANTISEPTICS FOR CAGED BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ANTISEPTICS 101 APOIXIHARIS: See Waters. APPLE STRUP: See Essences and Extracts. AQUA FORTIS FOR BRIGHT LUS- TER: See Castings. AQUA FORTIS FOR THE TOUCH- STOIIE: See Gold. AQUARIUM CEMEHTS: See Adhesives. AQUARIUM PUTTY: See Putty. ARGEBTAN: See Alloys. ARMERIAN CEBfERT: See Adhesives under Jewelers* Ce- ments. ARMS. OIL FOR : See Lubricants. ARHICA SALVE: See Ointments. ARSEmC ALLOYS: See Alloys. ASBESTOS CEMENT: See Adhesives. ASBESTOS FABRIC: Sec Fireproofing. ASPHALT AS AH INGREDIEIIT OF IHDIA RUBBER: See Rubber. ASPHALT IN PAINTING: See Pftint. ASPHALT VARNISHES: See Varnishes. ASSAYHIG: See Gold. ASTHMA CURBS.^AHkmaPa^9.— I. — Impregnate bibulous paper with the foHowing: Extract of stramonium, 10; potawiom nitrate, 17; sugar, 20; warm water, «00 parts. Dry. II.— Blotting or gray filter paper, 120; potassium nitrate, 60; powdered bella- donna leaves, 5; powdered stramonium leaves. Si powdered digitalis leaves, 5; powdered lobelia, 5; myrrh, 10; oli- hanum, 10: phcllandrium fruits, 5 parts. Stramamum CandU. — Powdered stra- monium leaves, 120; potassium nitrate, 7f: Peruvian balsam, 3; powdered sugar, 1; powdered tragacanth, 4 parts. (Water, tenth of its volume of a mercury-bichloride solu- tion and an equal volume of hydrochloric acid. Add the fluid gradually, and well work up the mass. III. — Calcium chloride, crystallized. ..... 30 parts Calcium chloride, granulated 30 parts Ammonium sulphate 15 parts Zinc sulphate iS parts Solutioiis for Batteries.— The almost exclusively em|Joyed solution of sal am- moniac (ammonium chloride) presents the drawback that the zinc rods, glassen, etc., after a short use, become covered with a fine, yellow, very diflicultly sol- uble, basic zinc salt, whereby the gen- eration of the dectric current is impaired, and finally arrested altogether. Thia evil may be remedied by an admixture of cane sugar. For a battery of ordinary size about 20 to 25 grams of su^ar, dis- solved in warm water, is sufficient per 50 to 60 grams of sal ammoniac. After prolonged use only large crystals (of a zinc saccharate) form, which, however, become attached only to the zinc rod in a few places, having very little disad- vantageous effect upon the action of the battenes and being easy to remove, owin^ to their ready soliu>ility. , BAUDOm METAL: See Alloys. BAT RUM. I.— Oil of bay 1 drachm Alcohol 18 ounces Water 18 ounces Mix and filter through magnesia. n. — Bay-leaf otto ) ounce Magnesium carbonate. | ounce Jamaica rum 2 pints Alcohol 3 pints Water 8 pints Triturate the otto with the magnesium carbonate, gradually adding the other ingredients, previously mixed, and filter. If the rum employed contains suflictent sugar or mucilaginous matter to cause any stickiness to be felt on the skin, rec* tification will be necessary. BEAD OIL: See Wines and liquors. BEAR FAT: See Fats. BEARING LUBRICABT: See Lubricants. BEARING METAL: See Babbitt Metal, Bearing MeUl, and Phosphor Bronze, under Alloys. BEDBUG DESTROYERS: See Insecticides. ^ BEEF, IRON, AND WINE. I Extract of beef .... 3li grains I Detannated sherry I wine S6 ounces Alcohol 4 ounces Citrate of iron and ammonia S56 grains Simple sirup ...... 12 ounces Digitized by VjOOQ IC BELT PASTES 105 Tincture of orange. bounces Tincture of carda- mom CO 1 ounce Citric acid 10 grains Water, enough to make 4 pints Let stand 9^ hours, agitate frequently, and filter. See that the orange is fresh. BEEF PEPTOHOIDS: See Peptonoids. BEEF PRESERVATIVES: See Foods. BEEF TEA: See Beverages. BEERS, ALCOHOL IN: See Alcohol. BEER. GINGER, HOP-BITTER, SCOTCH, AND SPRUCE : See Beverages. BEER, RESTORATION OF SPOILED. I. — Powdered chalk is poured into the cask and allowed to remain in the beer until completely precipitated. IL — The liquor of boiled raisins mav be poured into the beer, with the result that the sour taste of the beer is disguised. III. — A small quantity of a solution of potash will remove the sour taste of beer. Too much potash must not be added : otherwise the stomach will suffer. Beer thus restored will not keep long. ly. — If the beer is not completely spoiled it mav be restored by the addi- tion of coarsely powdered charcoal. V. — If the adciition of any of the above- mentioned substances should affect the taste of the beer, a little powdered zingi- ber may be used to advantage. Syrup or molasses may also be employed. BEES, FOUL BROOD IN. **Foul brood'* is a contagious disease to which bees are subject. It is caused by bacteria and its presence may be known by the bees becoming languid. Dark, stringy, and elastic masses are found in the bottom of the cells, while thtf* caps are sunken or irregularly punc- tured. Frequently the disease is said to he accompanied by a peculiar offensive odor. Prompt removal of diseased col- onies, t^'f*.^ transfer to clean and thor- oughly disinfected hives, and feeding on anti.^eptically treated honey or symp are the means taken for theprevention and cure of the disease. Tne antiseptics used are salicylic acid, carbolic acid, or formic acid. Spraying the brood with any one of these remedies in. a solution and feeding with a honey or syrup medi- cated with them will usually be all that b required by way of treatment. It is also said that access to salt water is inn portant for the health of bees. BEETLE POWDER: See Insecticides. BELL METAL: See Alloys. BELLADONNA, ANTIDOTES TO: See Antidotes and Atropine. BELT PASTES FOR INCREASING ADHESION. I.— Tallow 50 parts Castor oil, crude 20 parts Fish oil 20 parts Colophony 10 parts Melt on a moderate fire and stir until the mass cools. II. — Melt 250 parts of gum elastic with 250 parts of oil of turpentine in an iron, well-closed crucible at 122° F. (caution!) and mix well with 200 parts of colophony. After further melting add 200 parts of yellow wax and stir carefully. Melt in 750 parts of heated train oil, 250 parts of tallow, and to this add, with constant stirring, the first mixture when the latter is still warm, and let cool slowly with stirring. This grease is intended for cotton belts. III. — Gutta-percha 40 parts Rosin 10 parts Asphalt 15 parts Petroleum 60 parts Heat in a glass vessel on the water bath for a few hours, until a uniform so- lution is obtained. Let cool and add 15 parts of carbon disulphide and allow the mixture to stand, shaking it frequently. DireetUma for (/w.— The leather belts to be cemented should first be roughened at the joints, and after the cement has been applied they should be subjected to a strong pressure between warm rollers, whereupon they will adhere to- gether with much tenacity. Preservatioii of Belts. — In a well-cov- ered iron vessel heat at a temperature of 50** C. (152** F.) 1 part by weight of caoutchouc, cut in small pieces, with 1 part by weight of rectified turpentine. When the caoutchouc is dissolved add 0.8 part of colophony, stir until this is dissolved, and add to the mixture 0.1 part of vellow wax. Into another vessel of suitaole size pour 3 parts of fish oil, add 1 part of tallow, and neat the mixture until tne tallow is melted; then pour on the contents of the first vessel, con- stantly stirring — an operation to be con- tinued until the matter is cooled and congealed. This grease is to be rubbed Digitized by VjOOQ IC 106 BENZINE on the inside of the belts from time to time, while they are in use. The belts run easily and do not slip. The crease may also serve for improving old belts. For this purpose the i^rease should be rubbed on both sides m a warm place. A first layer is allowed to soak in, and another applied. To lUke a Belt PulL— Hold a piece of tar soap on the inside of the belt while it is running. BELT CEMEUT: See Adhesives. BELT GLUE: See Adhesives. BELT LUBRICAUT: See Lubricants. B^lftDICTIHE: See Wines and Liquors. Benzine Benzine, to Color Green. — Probably the simplest and cheapest as well as the besit method of coloring benzine green is to dissolve in it sufficient oil soluble aniline green of the desired tint to give the re- quired shade. Purification of Benzine. — Ill-smelling benrine, mixed with about 1 to 'i percent of iU weight of free fatty acid, will dis- »»»lve therein. One-fourth per cent of tannin is added and all is mixed well. Knoui^h potash or soda lye, or even lime milk, IS added until the* fatty acids are ^IHinified, and the tannic acid Ls neu- tniltfiHi, shaking repeatedly. After a while the milky liquid separates into two layers, vii., a salty, soapy, mud-sediment and clear, ctvlorlovv and almost odorless ben vine alwve. This benrine, filtered, may be eni|>loyed for many tei*hnical purtHMc^ but gives an exo'llent, pure pr\Hiuot UfH\n a seci>nd distillation. Fatty arid fr\»m tallow, olive oil. or other fats may Ih* us^hI, but care should be tak-oalleti rUine or olem itiore i>»rret*tly oKmo acid of Ihr o«ii«l(o faolories n)«y likewise l»f em|4i>\eti. but it -should first l>e *ifi- tatr\i mith a »^ -}H»r-*'^nt stnia solututn to Sft nd ot the lvjni.%mfUini? fatty ands, c^lHH'taUy the l»ut> rw acid. The PreTention of the Inflammability of Bentiae. A mixture of 9 volumes trtraohU^nde aiui 1 xoliiiiie k^ l»en'ine is practii-at^l^ ir.'Umm.tMe The dame is >ti%»n e\tiuguisheit b% itself. Substitute for Benzine u m. Cleenitnc^ Agent— I. — Chloroform 75 parts Ether 75 parts Alcohol 600 parts Decoction of quillaya bark 22,500 parts Mix. II. — Acetic ether, tech- nically pure 10 parts Amyl acetate 10 parts Ammonia water 10 parts Alcohol dilute 70 parts Mix. III. — Acetone I part Ammonia water 1 part Alcohol dilute 1 part Mix. Deodorizing Benzine. — I. — Benzine 20 ounces Ofl of lavender. . . 1 fluidncfam Potassium dichro- mate 1 ounce Sulphuric acid ... 1 fluid ounce Water 20 fluidounces Dissolve the dichromate in the water, add the acid and, when the solution is cold, the benzine. Shake everv hour during the day, allow to stand all night« decant the benzine, wash with a pint of water and again decant, then add the oil of lavender. 11^— First add to the benzine 1 to 2per cent of oleic acid, whidi dL<»olvrs. Then about a quarter of 1 per cent of tannin U incorporated by shaking. A sufficient quantity of caustic potassa solution, or milk of lime, to comoine with the addsi is then well shaken into the mixture, and the whole allowed to stand. The benzine rises to the top of the watrrv fluid, suflictently deodorized and decof- orized for practical purposes. III.— To 1.750 parts of water add 250 parts of sulphuric acid, and when it ha^ ctH>led down add 30 parts of potassium permanganate and let dissolve. .\dd this solution to 4,500 parts of benrine, stir well together, and set a.side for 24 hours. Now decant the benzine and to it add a s4«lution of 71 parts of potassium permanganate and 15 parts of scHlitim hydrate in 1.000 parts of water, and agi- tate the substances well together. I^t stand until the benzine separates^ then draw off. 1 v. — I>i«solve 9 parts of litharge and IS parts of siniium hydrate in 40 part» of water. .\dd this to 200-250 parts of ben-ine and agitate well together for two minute^, then let settle ana draw off the ben.-uie. Rinse tbe latter by agitating Digitized by VjOOQ IC BEVERAGES 107 it with plenty of clear water, let settle, draw off the benzine, and, if necessary, repeat the operation. BENZIIIE, CLEAIfING WITH: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. BENZOIC ACID IN FOOD: See Food. BEHZOnr SOAP: See Soap. BENZOPARAL: A neutral, bland, ofly preparation of benzoin, useful for applying various antiAepticfl by the aid of an atomizer, nebulizer, or vaporizer. Can be used plain or in combination with other easily di«t5olved medicinals. Paraffine, Hc]uid 16 ounces Gum benzoin 1 ounce Digest on a sand bath for a half hour and filter. Beverages GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER: Old-Fashioned Ginger Beer. — Lemons, large and sound 6 only Ginger, bruised 8 ounces Sugar 6 cups Yeast, compressed ... \ cake Boiling water 4 gallons Water enough Slice the lemons into a large earthen- ware vessel, removing the seed. Add the ginger, sugar, and water. When the mixture has cooled to lukewarmness, add the yeast, first diffused in a little water. Cover the vessel with a piece of cheese doth, and let the beer stand 24 hours. At the end of that time strain and bottle it. Cork securelv. but not so tightly that the bottles wouM break before the corks would fly out, and keep in a cool place. Ginger Beer. — Honey gives the bever- age a peculiar softness and, from not having fermented with yeast, is the less violent in its action when opened. In- gredients: White sujgar, } pound; honey, i pound; bruised ginger, 5 ounces; juice of sufficient lemons to suit the taste; water, 44 gallons. Boil the ginger in 3 quarts of the water for half an hour, then add the ginger, lemon juice, and honey, with the remainder of the water; then strain through a cloth; when cold, add the quarter of the white of an egg and a tea- spoonful of essence of lemon. Let the whole stand for four days before bot- tling. This quantity will make a hun- dred bottles. Ginger Beer without Yeast.— Ginger, bruised 1} pounds Sugar «0 pounds Lemons 1 dozen Honey 1 pound Water enough Boil the ginger in 3 gallons of water for half an hour; add the sugar, the lemons (bruised and sliced), the honey, and 17 gallons of water. Strain and, after three or four days, bottle. Package Pop.— Cream of tartar 3 ounces Ginger, bruised 1 ounce Sugar 24 ounces Citric acid 2 drachms Put up in a package, and direct that it be shaken in 1} gallons of boiling water, strained when cooled, fermented with 1 ounce of yeast, and bottled. Ginger-Ale Extract.— I. — Jamaica ginger, coarse powder. . 4 ounces Mace, powder. ... } ounce Canada snakeroot, coarse powder. . 60 srains Oil of lemon 1 nuidrachm Alcohol 12 fluidounces Water. 4 fluidounces Magnesium car- bonate or puri- fied talcum 1 av. ounce Mix the first four ingredients, and make 16 fluidounces of tincture with the alcohol and water, by percolation. Dissolve the oil of lemon in a small quan- tity of alcohol, rub with magnesia or tal- cum, add gradually with constant trit- uration the tincture, and filter. The extract may be fortified bv adding 4 avoirdupois ounces of powdered grains of paradise to the ginger, etc., of the above before extraction with alcohol and water. II. — Capsicum, coarse powder 8 ounces Water 6 pints Essence of ginger. 8 fluidounces Diluted alcohol.. . 7 fluidounces Vanilla extract. . . 2 fluidounces Oil of lemon "20 drops Caramel 1 fluidounce Boil the capsicum with water for three hours, occasionally replacing the water lost by evaporation; niter, concentrate the filtrate on a hot water bath to the con- sistency of a thin extract, add the remain- ing ingredients, and filter* Digitized by VjOOQ IC 108 BEVT5RAGES III.— Jamaica ginger, ground l^ ounces Lemon peel, fresh, cut fine 2 ounces Capsicum, powder 1 ounce Calcined magne- sia 1 ounce Water""* [ ""^ ^""^ ' sufficient Extract the mixed ginger and capsi- cum by percolation so as to obtain 16 fluidounces of water, set the mixture aside for 24 hours, shaking vigorously from time to time, then filter, and pass tnrough the filter enough of a mixture of 2 vol- umes of alcohol and 1 of water to make the filtrate measure 32 fluidounces. In the latter macerate the lemon peel for 7 days, and again filter. Ginger Beer. — Brown sugar 2 pounds Boiling water 2 gallons Cream of tartar I ounce Bruised ginger root. . . 2 ounces Infuse the ginger in the boiling water, add the sugar and cream of tartar; when lukewarm strain; then add half pint good yeast. Let it sUnd all night, then bot- tle: one lemon and the white of an egg may be added to fine it. Lemon Beer.— Boiling water 1 gallon Ij^mon, sliced 1 Ginger, bruised 1 ounce Yeast 1 teacupful Sugar 1 pound I^t it stand 12 to 20 hours, and it is ready to be bottled. Hop Beer.— Water 5 quarts Hops 6 ounces Boil 3 hours, strain the liquor, add: Water 5 quarts Bruised ginger 4 ounces and boil a little longer, strain, and add 4 pounds of sugar, and when milk- warm. 1 pint of yeast. Let it ferment; in 24 hours it Is ready for bottling. CEnanthic Ether as a Flavoring for Oinger Ale. — A fruity, vinous bouquet and delightful flavor are pn^duoed by the presence of ccnanthic ether or brandy flavor in ginger ale. This ether throws off a rich, pungent, vinous odor, and ffives a smoothness veiy agreeable to any liquor or beverage of which it forms a part. It is a favorite with "brandy sophisticators.'* Add a few drops of the ether (previously dissolved in eight times its bulk of Cologne spirit) to tne ginger-ale syrup just before Dottling. Soluble Extract of Ginger Ale.— Of the following three formulas the first is intended for soda-fountain use, the sec- ond is a ''cheap*' extract for the bottlers who want a onerounce-to-the-gallon ex- tract, and the third is a bottlers* extract to be used in the proportion of three ounces to a gallon of syrup. This latter is a most satisfactory extract and has been sold with most creditable results, both as to clearness of the finished ginger ale and delicacy of flavor. It will be noted that in these formulas oleoresin of ginger is used in addition to the powdered root. Those who do not mina the additional expense might u^e one-fourth of the same Quantity of vola- tile oil of ginger insteaa. This should develop an excellent flavor, since the oil is approximately sixteen times as strong as tne oleoresin, and has the additional advantage of being free from resinous extractive. The following are the formulas: I. — (To be used in the proportion of 4 ounces of extract to 1 gallon of syrup.) Jamaica ginger, in fine powder : 8 pounds Capsicum, in fine pow- Jer 6 ounces Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Mix the powders intimately, moisten them with a sufficient quantity of alco- hol, and set aside for 4 hours. Pack in a cylindrical percolator and percolate with alcohol until 10 pints of percolate have resulted. Place the perc«>late in a bottle of the capacity of 16 pints, and add to it 2 fluidrachms of oleoresin €>f ginger; shake, add 2| pounds of finely powdered pumioe stone, and agitate tlior- oughly at intervals of one-half hour for K hours. Then add 14 pints of water in quantities of 1 pint at each addition, shaking briskly meanwhile. This part of the operation is most important. Set the mixture aside for 24 hours, agitating it strongly every hour or so during that period. Then take Oil of lemon 1 J fluidounces Oil of rose (or ge- ranium) 3 fluidrachms Oil of bergamot — 2 fluidrachms Digitized by VjOOQ IC BEVERAGES 109 Oil of ciDDamon. ... 3 fluidrachms Magnestiuin carbon- * ate 3 fluidounces Rub the oils with the magnesia in a Urge mortar and add 9 ounces of the dear portion of the ginger mixture to which have been previously added 2 ounces of alcohol, and continue tritu- ration, rinsing out the mortar with the ^nger mixture. Pass the ginger mixture through a double filter and add through the filter the mixture of oils and magnesia; finally pass enough water through the filter to make the resulting product measure 24 pints, or 3 gallons. If the operator should desire an extract of more or less pungency, he may obtain his de- sired enect by increasing or decreasing the quantity of powdered capsicum in the formula. n.— (To be used in the proportion of 1 ounce to 1 gallon of syrup.) Ginger, in moderately fine powder 6 pounds Capsicum, in fine pow- der 2} pounds Alcohol, a sufiicient quantity. Mix, moutten the powder with 8 pints of alcohol, and set aside in a suitable ve%«e] for 4 hours. Then pack the pow- der firmly in a cylindrical percolator, and percolate until 6 pints of extract are obtained. Set this mixture aside and label Percolate Nc. 1, and continue the percolation with 1} pints of alcohol mixed with 1} pints of water. Set the resultant tincture aside, and label Per- colate No. 2. Take oleoresin ginger 5 fluid ounces and add to Percolate No. 1 . Then take : Ofl of lemon 1 ) fluidounces Oil of cinnamon. .. 1 fluidounce OO of geranium ) fluidounce Magnesium carbon- ate 8 ounces Triturate the oils with the magnesia, add gradually Percolate No. 2, and set aside. Then place Percolate No. 1 in a Urge bottle, aad 3) pounds of finely pow- deml pumice stone, and shake at inter- ▼aU of half an hour for six hours. This beinff completed, add the mixture of oils, andlater 10 pints of water, in quantities of t A pint at a time, shaking vigorously after each solution. Let the mixture stand for 24 hours, shaking it at inter- ▼aU, and then pass it through a double filter. Finally add enough water through the filter to make the product measure 24 pints, or 3 gallons. ni. — (To be used in proportion of 3 oujices to 1 gallon of syrup.) Ginger, in moderately fine powder 8 pounds Capsicum, in moder- ately fine powder . . 2 pounds Alcohol, q. s. Mix, moisten with alcohol, and set aside as in the preceding formula; then percolate with alcohol until 10 pints of extract are obtained. To this add oleo- resin of ginger 3 drachms, and place in a larse botUe. Add 2} pounds of pow- dered pumice stone, and shake as di- rected tor formula No. 1. Then add 14 pints of water, in quantities of 1 pint at a time, shaking vigorously after each addi- tion. Set the mixture aside for 24 hours, shaking at intervals. Then take: Oil of lemon 1 } fluidounces Oil of geranium ... | fluidounce Oil of cinnamon ... 3 fluidrachms Magnesia carbonate 3 ounces Rub these in a mortar with the mag- nesia, and add 9 ounces of the clear por- tion of the ginser mixture mixed with 2 ounces of alconol, rubbing the mixture until it becomes smooth. Prepare a double filter, and filter the ginger mix- ture, adding through the filter the mix- ture of oils and magnesia. Finally add enough water through the filter to make the final product measure 24 pints, or 3 gallons. If these formulas are properly manip- ulated the extracts should keep for a reasonable length of time without a pre- cipitate. If, however, a precipitate oc- cur after the extract has stood for a week, it should be refiltered. LEMONADES: Lemonade Preparatioiis for the Sick. — I. — Strawberry Lemonade: Citric acid, 6 parts; water, 100 parts; sugar, 450 parts; strawberry syrup, 600 parts; cherry syr- up, 300 parts; claret, 450 parts; aromatic tincture, ad lib. II. — Lemonade Powder: Sodium bi- carbonate, 65; tartaric acid, 60; sugar, 125; lemon oil, 12 drops. III. — Lemonade juice: Sugar syrup, 200; tartaric acid, 15; distilled water, 100; lemon oil, 3; tincture of vanilla, 6 drops. IV. — Lemonade Lozenges: Tartaric acid, 10; suffar, 30; gum arabic, 2; pow- dered starch, 0.5; lemon oil, 6 drops; tincture of vanilla, 25 drops; and suffi- cient diluted spirit of wine so that SO lozenges can be made with it. Lemonade for DUbetics.— The follow- ing is said to be useful for assuaging the thirst of diabetics: Digitized by VjOOQ IC no BEVERAGES Citric acid 1 part Glycerine 50 parts Cognac 50 parts Distilled water 500 parts Hot Lemonade. — Take 2 large, fresh lemons, and wash them clean with cold water. Roll them until soft; then divide each into halves, and use a lemon-squeez- er or reamer to express the juice into a small pitcher. Remove all the seeds from the juice, to which add 4 or more tablespoonfuls of white sugar, according to taste. A pint of boiling water is now added, and tne mixture stirred until the sugar is dissolved. The bevemge is very effective in producing perspiration, and should be drunk whue hot. The same formula may be used for making cold lemonade, by substituting^ ice water for the hot water, and adding a piece of lemon peel. If desired, a weaker lemon- ade may be made by using iflore water. Lemonadety Lemon and Sour I>rinkB for Soda-Water Fountains.— Plain Lem- onade,— Juice of 1 lemon; pulverized sugar, 9 tea.spoonfulii; filtered water, suffi- cient; shaved ice, sufficient. Mix and shake well. Garnish with fruit, and serve with both spoon and straws. Huyler't Lemonade.— Juice of 1 lem- on; simple syrup, 2 ounces; soda water, sufficient. Dress with sliced pineapple, and serve with straws. In mixing, do not shake, but stir with a spoon. Pineapple Lemonade.— Juice of 1 lemon; pineapple syrup, 2 ounces; soda water, sufficient. Dress with fruit. Serve with straws. Seltzer Lemonade.— Juice of 1 lemon; pulverized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls. Fill with seltzer. Dress with sliced lemon. ApoUinarIa Lemonade.— The same as seltzer, substituting apollinaris water for seltzer. Limeade. — Juice of 1 lime; pulverized sugar, 9 teaspoonfuls; water, sufficient. Where fresh limes are not obtainable, U!ie bottled lime juice. Orangeade. — Juice of 1 orange; pul- verized sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls; water, sufficient; shaved ice, sufficient. Dress with sliced orange and cherries. Serve with straws. Seltzer and Lemon. — Juice of 1 lemon; seltzer, sufficient. Serve in a small glass. Claret Lemonade.— Juice of 1 lemon; fmlverized sugar, S teaspoonfuls. Make emonade, pour into a glass containing shaved ice until the glass lacks about one inch of b^ng full. Pour in sufficient claret to fill the f^lass. Dress with cher- ries and sliced pineapple. Claret Punch. — Juice of 1 lemon; pul- verized sugar, 3 teaspoonfuls; claret wine, 2 ounces; shavea ice, sufficient. Serve in small ((lass. Dress with sliced lemon, and fruit in season. Brij^ht red cherries and plums make attractive gar- nishings. Raspberry Lemonade. — I. — Juice of 1 lemon; 8 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar; 1 tablespoonful raspberry juice; shaved ice; plain water; shake. ir. — Juice of 1 lemon; 2 teaspoonfuU powdered sugar; } ounce raspberry syrup; shaved ice; water; shake. Banjo Sour. — Pare a lemon, cut it in two, add a large tablespoonful of sugar, then thoroughly muddle it; add the white of an egg; an ounce of sloe gin: S or 4 dashes of abricotine; shake wrll; strain into a goblet or fizz glass, and fill balance with soda; decorate with a slice of pineapple and cherry. Orgeat Punch* —Orgeat s^rup, 12 drachms; brandy, 1 ounce; juice of 1 lemon. Gnnola.— Orange s^rrup, 1 ounce; grape syrup, 1 ounce; juice of } lemon; shaved ice, ^. s. Serve with straws. Dress with sliced lemon or pineapple. American Lemonade. — One ounce or- ange inrrup; 1 ounce lemon syrup; 1 tea- spoonful powdered sugar; 1 dash acid- phosphate solution; ) glass shaved ice. Fill with coarse stream. Add slice of orange, and run two straws through it. Old-Faahioned Lemonade.— Put in a freezer and freeze almost hard, then add the fruits, and freeze very hard. Serve in a silver sherbet cup. oping Pong'* Frapp^— Grape juice, unfermented, 1 quart; port wine (Crali- fornia), i pint; lemon syrup, 12 ounces; pineapple svrup, 2 ounces; orange syrup, 4 ounces; Benedictine cordial, 4 ounces; susar, 1 pound. Dissolve sugar in grape juice and put in wine; add the syrup and cordial; serve from a punch bowl, with ladle, into 12-ounce narrow lemonade glass and fill with solid stream; garnish with slice of orange and pineapple, and serve with straw. Orange Frapp6.— Glass half full ol fine ice; tablespoonful powdered sugar; ) ounce orange nyrup; 2 dashes lemon syrup: da<«U prepared raspberry; i uunc^ Digitized by VjOOQ IC BEVERAGES 111 •cid-phospbate solution. Fill with soda and stir well; strain into a mineral glass sod serve. Hot Lemonades. — I. — Lemon essence.. 4 fluidracfams Solution of citric acid 1 fiuidounce Syrup, enough to make 32 fluidounces In senring, draw 2| fluidounces of the s%-rap into an 8-ounce mug, fill with hot water, and serve with a spoon. 11. — Lemon 1 Alcohol ........ 1 fiuidounce Solution of citric acid 2 fiuidnchms Sugar 20 av. ounces Water 20 fluidounces White of 1 egg Grate tlie pee! of the lemon, macerate with the alconol for a day; express; also eipress the lemon, mix the two, add the fogsr and water, dissolve b^r agitation, and add the solution of citnc acid and the white of egg, the latter first beaten to a frcptb. Serve like the preceding. Egg Lemonade. — I. — Break 1 egg into a soda kIas*. *dd 1} ounces lemon syrup, a dracnm of lemon juice, and a little shaved ice; then draw carbonated water U> fill the glass, stirring well. II. — Shaved ice ) tumblerful Powdered sugar 4 tablespoonfuls Juice of 1 lemon Yolkof 1 egg Shake welU And add carbonated water to fill the glass. HOT SODA-WATER DRINKS: Chocolate. — I. — This may be prepared in two ways, from the powdered cocoa or frum a syrup. To prepare the cocoa for use, dry mix with an equal quantity of p«lf«rised sagar and use a heaping teaspoonful to a mug. To prepare a sjntp. take 12 ounces of cocoa, 5 pints - late, etc., and many of the fruit syrupy go well with malted milk. Hot Malted Milk Coffee (or ChocoUte). —Mailed milk, 2 teaspoonfuls; coffee (or chocolate) syrup, 1 ounce: hot water, quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces. Hot Beef Tea. —1. —Best beef extract. 1 tablespoonful; sweet cream, 1 ounce; hot Digitized by VjOOQ IC BEVERAGES lis water, 7 ounces; pepper, salt, etc., quan- tity sufficient. Mix. II. — Extract beef bouillon, 1 teaspoon- fill; extract aromatic soup herbs (see Condiments), 10 drops; hot soda, 1 cup- ful. Mix. lU.— Extract of beef 1 teaspoonf ul Hot water q. s. Pepper, salt, and celery salt Mix. Hot BoitilloiL— Beef extract 1 ounce Hot water, q. s. to make 8 ounces Pepper, salt, etc q. s. Mix. Oam Bouillon. — I. —Clam juice 12 drachms Cream 2 ounces Hot water, q. s. to make 8 ounces ^lix. 11. — Extract clam bouillon 2 ounces Prepared milk 2 drachms Extract of aromatic soup herbs 5 drops Extract white pepper.. 6 drops Hot soda 1 cupful Mix. III. — Clam juice may be served with hot water, salt and pepper added. Add- init butter makes this bouillon a broth. It may also^ be served with milk or rream, lemon juice, tomato catsup, etc. Hot oyster juice may be served m the •a me way. Hot Tea.— I. — Tea syrup sufficient Hot water, q. s. to make 1 cupful II. — Loaf sugar 4 cubes Extract of Oolong tea, about 1 dessertsp'f ul IVepared milk, about 1 desserts p'ful Hot soda 1 cupful Whipped cream. . . 1 tablespoonful Mix the tea extract, sugar, and pre- pared milk, pour on water, and dissolve. Top off with whipped cream. Hot Eg( Drinks.— I.— One-half to 1 ounce liquid extract of beef, 1 egg, salt aD Chocolate Frapp^.— Frozen whipped cream, sufficient. Shaved ice, sufficient. Fill a gUss half full of frozen whipped cream, fill with shaved ice nearly to the top, and pour in chocolate syrup. Other syrups {nay be used, if desired. Royal Frapp6.— This drink consists of 8 parts black coffee and 1 part of brandy, frozen in a cooler, and served while in a semifrozen state. Mint Julep. —One-half tumbler shaved ice, teaspoonful powdered sugar, da^h lemon juice, 2 or S sprigs of fresh mint. Crush the mint against side of the t^uss to get the flavor, xhen add claret syrup. i ounce; raspberrv syrup, 1) ounces; and draw carbonatea water nearly to fill glass. Insert bunch of mint and fiU glass, leaving full of shaved ice. Serve with straws, and decorate with fruits of the season. Grape Glac^.— Beat thoroughly the whites of 4 eggs and stir in 1 pound of powdered sugar, then add 1 pint grape ]uice, 1 pint water, and 1 pound more of powdered sugar. Stir well until sugar IS dissolved, and serve from a pitcher or glass dish, with ladle. "Golf Goblet"— Serve in a U-ounce glass; fill two- thirds full of cracked ice. add } ounce pineapple juice, 1 teas mm n* ful lemon juice, 1 teaspoonful rasplierry vinegar. Put spoon in glass, and fill to within one-half inch of top with carl>on- ated water; add shaved ice, heaping full. Put strawberry or cherry on top, and stick slice of orange down side of gla^s. Serve with spoon and straws. Goldenade.— Shaved ice, { tumbler- ful; powdered suffar; juice of 1 lemun; yolk of 1 egg. Shake well, add soVhole strawberries. . . 4 ounces Sliced orange 4 ounces Dissolve the selatin in 1 auart boiling hot water; add the svrup-anci the balance of the water: add tne whites of the eggs and lemon juice. KOUMISS. The original koumiss is the Rus.Man, made from mare*s Inilk, while that pro- duced in this countrv and other parts of Kurope is usually, probablpr always, made from cow's milk. For this reason there is a difference in the preparation which may or may not be oi consequence. It has been asserted that the ferment unvd in Kussia differs from ordinary yeast, but this has not been established. In an article on this subject, contrib- uted bv I). H. Da vies to the Pharma- rrtiiiral Journal and Transactions, it is pointed out that mare's milk contains lens casein and fatty matter than cow's milk, and he states that it is '^therefore far more eas}r of digestion.** lie thinks that cow's milk yields a better prepara- tion when diluted with water to reduc*e the percentage of casein, etc. He pro- poses the following formula: Fresh milk 12 ounces Water 4 ounces Brown sugar 150 grains Compressed yeast. . . 24 grains Milk sugar 3 drachms Dissolve the milk sugar in the water, add to the milk, rub the yeast and brown sugar down in a mortar with a little of the mixture, then strain into the other portion. Strong bottles are very essential, cham- pagne bottles being freauently used, and the corks should nt tightly; in fact, it is almost necessary to use a bottling ma- chine for the purpose, and once the cork is properl V fixed it should be wired dow n. Many failures have resulted because the corks did not fit properly, the result being that the carbon dioxide escaped as formed and left a worthless preparation. It is further neces.sary to keep the prepa- ration at a moderate temperature, and to be sure that the article is properly fin- ished the operator should gently shake the bottles each day for about 10 min- utes to prevent the clotting of the casein. It is weu to take the precaution of roiling a cloth around the bottle during the shaking proces.s, as the amount - duction of a good article: The sweet milk used should not be entirelv freed fn»m cream; the bottles should be of stronK Slass; the fermentins milk must be in- ustriously shaken oy the operator at least 3 times a day, and then the cork put in firmly, so that the fluid will l>ecotne well charged with carb«n*di oxide ga«; the bottles must be daily opened and at least twice each day brought nearly to a horizontal position, in order to allow the carbon dioxide to escape and air to enter: otherwise fermentation rapitlly cea«m. If a drink is desired strong in carb«>iiic acid, the bottles, toward the end of frr- nieiitation, should be placed with tbe ne<-ks down. In order to ferment a frrnh (juantity of milk, simply add ) of its volume of either actively fer- menting or freshly fermented milk. Thr temperature should be from 40* to tt«*^ F., about 60° being the most favorable. Digitized by VjOOQ IC BEVERAGES 117 Here are some miscellaneous fonnulas: I. — Fill a quart champagne bottle up to the neck with pure milk; add 2 ta- blespoonfula of white sugar, after dis- MlTing the same in a little water over a hot fire; add also a quarter of a 2-cent cake of compressed yeast. Then tie the cork in the bottle securely, and shake the mixture well; place it in a room of the temperature of 50^ to 95"* F. for 6 hours, and finally in the ice box over DighU ^ Handle wrapped in a towel as protection if the bottle should burst. Be sure that the milk is pure, that the iKittle is sound, that the yeast is fresh, to open the mixture in the morning with ((reat care, on account of its effervescent properties; and be sure not to drink it at all if there is any curdle or thickening part resembling cheese, as this indicates that the fermentation has been prolonged bevond the proper time. ll. — Dilute the milk with J part of hot water, and while still tepid add } of very sour (but otherwise good) but- termilk. Put it into a wide jug, cover with a clean cloth, and let stand in a warmish place (about 76® F.) for 24 buurs; stir up well, and leave for an- other 24 hours. Then beat thorough! v toicether. and pour from jug to jug till perfectly smooth and creamy, ft is now **sUir' koumiss, and may be drunk st once. To make it sparkling, which in generally preferred, put it into cham- pagne or soda-water bottles; do not quite fill them, secure the corks well, and lay them in a cool cellar. It will then keep for 6 or 8 weeks, though it becomes increasingly acid. To ma- ture some for drinking quickly, it is as well to keep a bottle or two to start with in !»ome warmer place, and from time to time shake vigorously. With this treat- ment it should, in about 3 days, be- come sufficiently effervescent to spurt freely through a champagne tap, wnich must be used for drawing it off as re- quired. Later on, when very frothy and aH(l it is more pleasant to drink if a little sweetened water (or milk and wa- ter) is first put into the glass. Shake the bottle, and hold it inverted well into the tumbler before turning the tap. Having made one lot of koumiss as above f'Mi can use some of that instead of btittermilk as a ferment for a second lift, and so on 5 or 6 times in succession; after which it will be found advisable to begin again as at first. Mare's milk is the best for koumiss; then ass's milk. rcfw*8 milk may be made more like them by adding a little sustar of milk (or even I luaf sugar) nith the not water before fer- | menting. But perhaps the chief draw- back to cow's milk is that the cream separates permanently, whereas that of mare's milk will remix. Hence use par- tially skimmed milk; for if there is much cream it only forms little lumps of butter, which are apt to clog the tap, or are left behind in the bottle. Kwass. — Kwass is a popular drink among the Russian population of Kuu- zews, prepared as follows: In a big kettle put from 13 to 15 quarts of water, and bring to a boil, and when in active ebul- lition pour in 500 grams of malt. Let boil for 20 minutes, remove from the fire, let cool down, and strain off. The liquid is now put into a clean keg or barrel, 80 grams (about an ounce) of best compressed yeast added along with about 600 ^rams (20 ounces) of sugar, and the cask is put in a warm place to ferment. As soon as bubbles of carbonic gas are de- tected on the surface of the liquid, it is a signal that the latter is ready for bottling. In each of the bottles, which should be strong and clean, put one big raisin, fill, cork, and wire down. The bottles should be placed on the side, and in the coolest place available — best, on ice. The liquor is ready for drinking in from 2 to 3 days, and is said to be most pal- atable. " Bniga."— Braga is a liquid of milky turbidity, resembling cafe au lait in color, and forming a considerable pre- cipitate if left alone. When shaken it sparkles and a little gas escapes. Its taste is more or less acid, possessing a pleasant flavor. About 35 parts of crushed millet, to which a little wheat flour is added, are placed in a large kettle. On this about 400 parts of water are poured. The mixture is stirred well and boiled for 3 hours. ^ After settling for 1 hour the lost water is renewed and the boiling con- tinued for another 10 hours. A viscous mass remains in the kettle, which sub- stance is spread upon large tables to cool. After it is perfectly cool, it is stirred with water in a wooden trough and left to ferment for 8 hours. This pulp is sifted, mixed with a little water, anci after an hour the braga is ready for sale. The taste is a little sweetish at first, but becomes more and more sourish in time. Fermentation begins only in the trough. WINTER BEVERAGES : Campchello. — Thoroughlv beat the yolks of 12 fresh eggs witn 2 J pounds finely powdered, renned sugar, the juice Digitized by VjOOQ IC 118 BEVERAGES of 3 lemons and 2 oranges, and 8 bottles of Graves or other white wine, over the fire, until risine. Remove, and slowly beat 1 bottle of Jamaica rum with it. Egg Wine. — Vigorously beat 4 whole eggH and the yolks of 4 with i pound of fine sugar; next add 2 quarts of white wine and beat over a mooerate fire until rising. Bavaroise au Cognac— Beat up the yolks of 8 eggs in I c^uart of good milk over the fire, until boiling, then quickly add 5 ounces of sugar and | quart of fine cognac. Bavarolse au Caf6.— Heat I pint of strong coffee and 1 pint of milk, 5 ounces of sugar, and the yolkx of 8 eges, until boiling, then add ^6 quart of Jamaica rum. Carbonated Pineapple Champagne. — Plain syrup, 42* 10 gallons Essence of pineapple 8 drachms Tincture of lemon. . . 5 ounces Carbonate of magne- sia 1 ounce Liquid saffron ^\ ounces Citric-acid solution.. 30 ounces Caramel 2} ounces Filter before adding the citric-acid so- lution and limejuice. Use 2 ounces to each bottle. A German Drink.— To 100 parts of water add from 10 to 15 parts of sugar, dissolve and add to the syrup thus formed an aqut'ous extract of 0.8 parts of green or black tea. Add fresh beer or brew- en' yeast, put in a warm place and let ferment. When fermentation has pro- gressed to a certain point the liuuid is cleared, and then bottled, corked, and the corks tied down. The drink is said to be very pleasant. Limejuice Cordial. — fJmejuice cor- dial that will keep good for any length of time nia> be made as follows: Suear, 6 pounds; water. 4 pints; citric acid. 4 ounces; boric acid, 4 ounce. Dissolve by tht aid of a gentle heat, and when cold add refined limejuice, 60 ounces; tinc- ture of lemon peel, 4 ounces; water to make up to 2 gallons and color with car- amel. Summer Drink. — Chopped ice. ... 2 tablospoonfuls Chocolate syrup . 2 tabiopiionfuls Whipped cream . 3 tablc^iiooiifuU Milk ... i Clip Carbofialcd water. J nip Shake* or slir ^rll brfon' drinking. .\ table.Hpooiiful of vanilla icc crfum is a desirable addition. A plainer drink is made by combining the syrup, f cup of milk, and the ice, and shaking well. American ChamfMigne. — Good cider (crab-apple cider is the best), 7 gal- lons; best fourth-proof brandy, 1 quart; genuine champagne wine, 5 pints; milk, 1 (gallon; bitartrate of pota.ssa, 2 ounces. Mix, let stand a short time; bottle while fermenting. An excellent imitation. British Champagne. — Loaf sugar. 56 pounds; brown sugar (pale), 4.H pounds; water (warm), 45 gallons; white tartar, 4 ounces; mix, and at a proper temperature add yeast, 1 quart; and afterwards sweet cider, 5 gallons; bruised wild cherries, 14 or 15 ounces; pale spirits, 1 gallon; orris powder, } ounce. Bottle while fermenting. Champagne Cider. — Good pale cider, 1 hogshead; spirits, 3 gallons; sugar, 20 pounds; mix, and let it stand one fortnight; then fine with skimmed milk, } gallon; this will be very pale, and a similar article, when properly lM>ttled and labeled, opens so briskly that even good judges have mistaken it for genuine diampagne. BEER: Scotch Beer.— Add 1 peck malt to 4 gallons of boiling water and let it mash for 8 hours, and then strain, and in the strained liquor boil: Hops 4 ounces Coriander seeds 1 ounce Honey 1 pound Orange peel 2 ounces Bruised ginger 1 ounce Boil for half an hour, then strain and ferment in the usual way. Hop Bitter Beer.— Coriander seeds 2 ounces Orange peel 4 ounces Ginger 1 ounce Gentian root } ounc^e Boil in 5 gallons of water for half an hour, then strain and put into the liquor 4 ounces hops and 3 pounds of suiear« and Minmer for 15 minutes, then ariein|F lid on the ground, the sidphur ignited thereon, and the barrel containing the goods to be bleached turned over iL The goods should be previously washed in pure water. Wool, Silk, or Straw.— Mix together 4 pounds of oxalic acid, 4 pi«unds of table salt, water 50 (i[allons. The goods are laid in this mixture for 1 nour; thev are then gcnerallv well bleached, and only require to be thoroughly rin»c<) and worked. For blraching straw it is best to soak the goods in cau.<«tic S(Hla« and afterwards to make use of chloride of lime or Javelle water. The excess uf Digitized by VjOOQ IC BOILER COMPOUNDS 121 chlorine u afterwards removed by hypo- sulphite of soda. Feathers.— Place the feathers from S to 4 hours in a tepid dilute solution of birhr4>raate of potassa, to which, cautiously, some nitric acid has been added (a small quantity onlv). To remove a greenish hue induced by this solution, place them in a dilute solu- tion of sulphuric acid, in water, whereby the feathers become perfectly white and bleached. Bleaching Solution. — Aluminum h^po- chloride, or Wilson's bleaching liquid, is firoduced by adding to a clear solution of ime chloride a solution of aluminum sulphate (alumina, alum) as long as a precipitate keeps forming. By mutual decomposition aluminum chloride re- sults, which remains in solution, and lime sulphate (gypsum), which separates out in the form of an insoluble salt. BLIGHT REMEDIES. I. — Soft soap 40 parts Amyl alcohol 50 parts Methylated spirit. 20 parts Water 1,000 parts II.— Soft soap 30 parts Sulphuieted pot- ash 2 parts Amyl alcohol 82 parts Water 1,000 parts in. — Soft soap 15 parts Sulphureted pot- ash 29 parts Water 1,000 parts BLEACHI1I6 SOLUTIONS FOR THE LAUHDRY: See Laundry Preparations. BLEACHIlfG SOLUTIOll FOR PHOTO- GRAPHS: See Photography. BLEEDIHG, LOCAL: See Styptics. BLISTER CURE: See Turpentine. BLISTERS, FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas. BLOCK, HOLLOW COHCRETE BUajDUfG: See Stone, Artificial. BLOCK FOR SOLDERING: See Soldering. BLOTTING PAPER: See Paper. BLUE FROM GREEN AT NIGHT, TO DISTINGUISH : To distinguish blue from green at night, use either the light of a magnesium wire for this purpose or take a number of Swedish (parlor) matches, light them, and as soon as they flash up, observe the 2 colors, when the difference can be easily told. BLUE (BALL): See Dyes. BLUING: See Laundry Preparations. BLUING OF STEEL: See Steel. BLUE PRINTS, TO MAKE CHANGES AND CORRECTIONS ON: Use a solution of sodium carbonate and water, with a little red ink mixed in. This gives a very pleasing pink color to the changes which, at the same time, is verv noticeable. The amount of sodium carbonate used depends upon the sur- face of the blue-print paper, as some coarse-grained papers will look better if less soaa is used and vice versa. How- ever, the amount of powdered soda held on a small coin dissolved in a bottle of water gives good results. BLUE-PRINT PAPER MAKING: See Photography. BLUE PRINTS, TO TURN BROWN: See Photography, under Toning. BOIL REMEDY. Take a piece of soft linen or borated gauze, rub some vaseline upon one side of it, quickly pour upon it some chloro- form, apply it to the unopened boil or carbuncle, and place a bandage over all. It smarts a little at first, but tnis is soon succeeded bj^ a pleasing, cool sensation. The patient is given a bottle of the rem- edy, and directed to change the cloth often. In from 2 hours to 1 day the boil (no matter how indurated) softens and opens. Boiler Compounds There are three chemicals which are known to attack boiler scale. These are caustic soda, soda ash, and tannic-acid compounds, the last being derived from sumac, catechu, and the exhausted bark liquor from tanneries. ^ Caustic soda in large excess is inju- rious to boiler fittings, gaskets, valves. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 122 BOILER COMPOUNDS etc. That it is injurious, in reasonable | excess, to the boiler tubes themselves is yet to be proved. Foaming and priming may be caused through excess of caustic soda or soda ash, as is well known by every practical engineer. Tannic acid is to be condemned and the use of its salts is not to be recommended. It may unite with the organic matter, present in the form of albuminoids, and with cal- cium and magnesium carbonates. That it removes scale is an assured fact; that it removes iron with the scale is also assured, as tannic acid corrodes an iron surface rapidly. Compounds of vegetable origin are widely advertised, but they often contain dextrine and gum, both of which are dangerous, as tiiey coat the tubes with a compact scale, not Dermittin(|[ the water to reach the iron. Molasses is acid and should not be used in the boiler. Starch substances generally should be avoided. Kerosene must be dangerous, as it is verv volatile and must soon leave the boiler and pass over and through the eninne. There are two materials the use of which in boilers is not prohibited through action upon the metal itself or on ac- count of price. These are soda ash and caustic soda. Sodium triphosphate and sodium fluoride have both been used with success, but their cost is several hundred per cent greater than soda ash. If pre- scribed as per analysis, in slight excess, there should be no injurious results through the use of caustic soda and soda ash. It would be practicable to manu- facture an intimate mixture of caustic soda and carbonate of soda, containing enough of each to soften the average water of a given district. There is a great deal of fraud in con- nection with boiler compounds gener- ally. The better class of venders ad- vertise to prepare a special compound for special water. This is expensive, save on a large scale, in reference to a partic- ular water, for it would mean a score or more of tanks with men to make up the mixtures. The less honest of the boiler- compound guild consign each sample of water to the sewer and send the regular grM>ds. Others have a stock analysis which is sent to customers of a given locality, whether it contains iron, lime, or magnesium sulphatcM or carbonates. i Any expense tor softening water in I excess of 9 cents per 1,000 gallons is for the privilege of using a reaa>*-made soft- ener. Kvery superintendent in charge of a plani should insiHt that the com- pound used l)e pronounced by competent authority free from injurious materials, and that it be adapted to the water in use. Boiler compounds should contain only such ingredients as will neutralize the scale-forming salts present. They should be used only by prescription, so many Sallons per 1,000 gallons of feed water. i properly proportioned mixture of soda ought to answer the demands of all plants depending upon that method of softening water in limestone and shale regions. The honest boiler compounds are, however, useful for small isolated plants, because of the simplicity of their action. For plants of from 75 to 150 horse power two 24-hour settling tanks will answer the purpose of a softening system. Each of tnese, capable of holding a da^*8 sup- ply, provided with a soda tank in com- mon, and with sludge valves, has pad- dles for stirring the contents. Larffc plants are operated on this principle, serving boilers of many thousand horse power. Such a system has an advan- tage over a continuous system, in that the exact amount of chemical solutions required for softening the particular water can be applied. For some varia- tions of such a system, several companies have secured patents. The fundamen- tal principles, nowever, have been used for many years and are not patentable. Preventioii of Boiler Scale.— The lime contained in the feed water, either as bi- carbonate or as sulphate, is precipitated in the shape of a lignt mud, but the walls of the boiler remain perfectly bright without being attacked in anv manner. While under ordinary atmospneric pres- sure calcium chromate in solution is pre- cipitated by soda or Glauber's salt as calcium carbonate or as calcium sul- phate; the latter is separated under nigher pressure by chroma tes as calcium chromate. ^ An excess of chromates or chromic acid does not exercise any dele> terious action upon the metal, nor upon the materials used for packing. By the slight admixture of chromates. two pounds are sufficient for a small boiler tor weeks; no injurious ingredients are carried in by the wet steam, the injection water, on the contrary, having been found to be chemically pure. Protecting Boiler Plates from Scale. — I. — For a 5-horse-power boiler, fed with water which contains calcic sul- phate, take catechu, 2 pounds; drx> trine, 1 pound; crystallized soda, i pounds; potash, ) pound: cane sugar, ) pound; alum, } pound; gum araoic, \ pound. Digitized by VjOOQ IC BOILER COMPOUNDS 123 II. — For a boiler of the same size, fed with water which contains lime: Tur- meric. 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; so- dium bicarbonate, 2 pounds; potash, } pound: alum« i pound; molasses, | pound. III. — For a boiler of the same size, fed with water which contains iron: Gam- bol^, 2 pounds; soda, 2 pounds; dex- trine, 1 pound: potash, A pound; sugar, \ pound; alum, i pound'; gum arabic, i pound. 1 V. — For a boiler of the same size, fed irith sea water: Catechu, 2 pounds; Neverforcethe BORRUSIA WATER: back of the book. Hold the book with [ See Waters. its back on a smooth or covered table; let the.front board down, then the other, holding the leaves in one hand while you open a few leaves at the back, then a few at the front, and so on, alternately open- ing back and front, gently pressing open the sections till you reach the center of the volume. Do this two or three times and you will obtain the best results. Open the volume violently or carelessly in any one place and you will probably break the back or cause a start in the leaves. BOOK DISINFECTAUT: See Disinfectants. BOOKS, TO REMOVE FINGER-MARKS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. BOOKBINDERS' VARNISH: See Varnishes. BOOKWORMS: See Insecticides. BOOT DRESSINGS: See Shoe Dressings. BOOT LUBRICANT: See Lubricant. BOOTS, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. BORAX FOR SPRINKLING. I. — Sprinkling borax is not only cheaper, but also dissolves less in solder- ingtnan pure borax. The borax is heated in a metal^ vessel until it has lost its water of crystallization and mixed with calcined cooking salt and potash — borax, 8 parts; cooking salt, 3 parts; potash, 3 parts. Next i: is pounded in a mortar into a fine pow- der, constituting the sprinkling borax. II. — Another kind of sprinkling borax is prepared by substituting glass-gall for the potash. Glass-gall is the froth float- ing on the melted glass, which can be skimmed off. The borax is either dusted on in pow- der form from a sprinkling box or stirred with water before use into a thin paste. BORAX AND BORIC ACID IN FOOD: See Food. BORDEAUX MIXTURE: See Insecticides. BOROTONIC: See Dentifrices. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 1S6 BOTTLES BOTTLE-CAP LACQUER: See Lacquer. BOTTLE CLEANERS: See Cleaniiif; Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. BOTTLE STOPPERS: See Stoppers. BOTTLE VARNISH: See Varnishes. BOTTLE WAX: See Photography. BOUILLON: See Beverages. BOURBON liETALS: Sec Alloys. BOWLS OF FIRE TRICK: See Pyrotechnics. BOX GLUE: Sec Adhesives. BRAG A: See Beverages. BRAN, SAWDUST IN. For the detection of sawdust in bran use a solution of 1 part of phloroglucin in 15 parts of alcohol, 15 parts of water, and 10 parts of syrupy phosphoric acid. Place i parts of the solution in a small porcelain dish, add a knifepointful of the bran and heat moderately. Saw- dust is dyed red while bran parts only seldom acf|iiire a faint red color. By a microscopic examination uf the reddish parts, sawdust will be readily recognized. Bottles Magic Bottles.— The mystery of the "wonderful bot- tle,'* from which can be poured in suc- cession port wine, sherry, claret, water, champagne, or ink, at the w^ill of the op- erator, is easily explained. The mate- rials consist of an ordinary dark-colored pint wine bottle, seven wine glasses of different Datterns, and the chemicals dcicribed below: Sf>lution A: A mixture of tincture of ferric chloride, drachms vi; hydro- chloric acid, drachms ii. Solution B: Saturated solution of am- monium sulphocyanidr, drachm i. Solution C: Strong solution of ferric chloride, drachm i. Solution I): A weak solution of am- monium sulphocynnidc. Solution R: ('oncentrated solution of lead acetate. Solution F: Solution of annnonium sulphide, drachm i; or pyrogallic acid, drachm i. Package G: Pulverized potassium bi- carbonate, drachm ias. Having poured two teaspoonfuls of solution A into the wine botUe, treat the wine glasses with the different solutions, noting and remembering into which f lasses the several solutions are placed, nto No. 1 wine glass pour one or two drops of solution B; into No. 2 glass pour one or two drops of solution C; into No. 9 one or two drops of Solution D; leave No. 4 glass emptv; into No. 5 glass pour a few drops of Solution E; into No. 6 glass place a few grains of Package G; into No. 7 glass pour a little of solution F. Reciuest some one to bring you some cold arinking water, and to guarantee that it is pure show that your wine bot- tle is (practically) emptor. Fill it up from the carafe, and having asked the audience whether you shall produce wine or water, milk or ink, etc., you may ob- tain any of these by pouring a little of the water from the bottle into the pre- pared fjflass. Thus No. 1 glass gives a port-wine color; No. 2 gives a sherrj color; No. 3 gives a claret color; No. 4 is left empty to prove that the solution in the bottle is colorless; No. 5 produces milk; No. 6, effervescing champagne; No. 7. ink. Bottle-Capping Mixtures.— I. — Soak 7 pounds of good gelatin in 10 ounces of glycerine and 60 ounces of water, and heat over a water bath until dissolved, and add any desired color. Pigments may be used, and various tints can be obtained b^ the use of aniline colors. The resulting compound should be stored in jars. To apply liquefy the mass and dip the cork and portion of the neck of tne bottle into the liquid; ii sets very quickly. II. — Gelatin 1 ounce G uin arabic 1 ounce Boric acid 20 grains Starch 1 ounce Water 16 fluidounces Mix the (gelatin, gum arabic, and boric acid with 14 fluidounces of cold water, .stir occasionally until the gum is dissolved, heat the mixture to boiling, remove the scum, and strain. Also mix the .starch intimately with the remainder of the water, and stir this mixture into the hot gelatin mixture until a uniform produH results. .As noted above, the compm posed of 1 part varnish, 4 parts cincuma. and 1 part gamboge. A steel-blue colorinij is obtained by means of a dilute boding solution of chloride of arsenic, and a blue one by • treatment with strong hyposulphite of soda. Another formula for bluing brass is: Dissolve 10 parts of antimony chloride in «00 parts of water, and add SO parti of pure hydrochloric acid. Dip the article until it is well blued, then wash and drv in sawdust Black is much used for optical bras* articles and is produced by coating with a Nolution of platinum or auric chloride mixed with nitrate of tin. Coloring Unpolished BrmM.^A yellow color of handsome effect is obtained oq Digitized by VjOOQ IC BRASS 129 unpolished braM by meaiiB of antimony- chloride solution. This is produced bv 6Deljr powdering sray antimony and boil- ing it with hydrochloric acid. With formation of hydrogen sulphide a solu- tion of antimony results, wnich must not be diluted with water, since a white pre- cipitate of antimony oxychloride is im- mediately formed upon admixture of water. For dilution, completely satu- rated cooking-salt solution is employed, uMng for 1 part of antimony chloride 2 parts of salt solution. Coloring Fluid for Brass. — Caustic vuda, S5 parts; water, 24 parts; hydra'.ed carbonate of copper, 5.5 parts. Dissolve the salt in water and dip the in«*tal in the solution obtained. The in- tea«ity of the color will be proportional to the time of immersion. After remov- ing the object from the liquid, rinse with water and dry in sawdust. BUck Color on Brass.— A black or ox- idized surface on brass is produced by a solution of carbonate of copper in am- monia. The work is immersed and al- lowed to remain until the required tint L* (»bserved. The carbonate of copper is beft used in a plastic condition, as it is then much more easily dissolved. Plas- tic carbonate of copper may be mixed as follows: Make a solution of blue vitriol (j^ulphate of copper) in hot water, and iidd a strong solution of common washing %oda to it as long as any precipitate forms. The precipitate is allowed to settle, and the clear liquid is poured off. Hut water is added, and the mass stirred and a^ain allowed to settle. This oper- ation IS repeated six or eight times to re- move the impurities. -AJter the water has been removed during the last pour- ing, and nothing is left but an emulsion (if the thick plastic carbonate in a small quantity of water, liq^uid ammonia is added until everything is dissolved and a dear, deep-blue liquid is produced. If tmi strong, water may be added, but a «trong 8^>iut]on is better than a weak one. If it ist desired to make the solution from «*«>mmercial plastic carbonate of copper the following directions may be followed: DU^olve 1 pound of the plastic carbonate «>f f*opper in 2 gallons of strong ammonia. Tht5 gives the required strength of so- lution. The brass which it is desired to black- en is first boiled in a strong potash solu- ti«*n to remove grease and oil, then well ringed and dipped in the copper solution, which has previously been heated to fr^jo 150* to 175* F. This solution, if Wicd loo hot, gives off all the ammonia. The brass is left in the solution until the required tint is produced. The color produced is uniform, black, and tena- cious. The brass is rinsed and dried in sawdust. A fi^reat variety of effects may be produced by first finishing the brass before blackemng, as the oxidizing proc- ess does not injure the texture ot the metal. A satisfactorv finish is produced by first rendering the surface of the brass matt, either bv scratch-brush or similar methods, as the black finish thus produced by the copper solution is dead — one of the most pleasing effects of an oxidized surface. Various effects may also be produced by coloring the entire article ana then buflSng the exposed portions. The best results in tne use of this so- lution are obtained by the use of the so- called red metals — i. e., those in which the copper predominates. The reason for this is obvious. Ordinary sheet brass consists of about 2 parts of copper and 1 part of zinc, so that the large quantity of the latter somewhat hinders the produc- tion of a deep-black surface. Yellow brass is colored black by the solution, but it is well to use some metal having a reddish tint, indicating the presence of a large amount of copper. The varieties of sneet brass known as gilding or bronze work well. Copper also gives excellent results. Where the best results are de- sired on yellow brass a very light electro- plate of copper before the oxidizing works well and gives an excellent black. With the usual articles made of yellow brass this is rarely done, but the oxida- tion carried out directly. Black Finish for Brass.— I.— A hand- some black finish may be put on brass by the following process: Dissolve in 1,000 parts of ammonia water 45 parts of natural malachite, and in the solution put the object to be blackened, after nrst having carefully and thoroughly cleaned \ the same. After letting it stand a short \ time gradually warm the mixture, ex- amining the article from time to time to ascertain if the color is deep enough. Rinse and let dry. II. — The blacking of brass may be accomplished by immersing it in the fol- lowing solution and then heating over a Bunsen burner or a spirit flame: Add a saturated solution of ammo- nium carbonate to a saturated copper- sulphate solution, until the precipitate resulting in the beginning has almost en- tirely dissolved. The immersion and heating are repeated until the brass turns dark; then it is brushed and dipped in negative varnish or dull varnish. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 180 BRASS To Give a Brown Color to Brass. — 1.~ In 1,000 parts of rain or distilled water dissolve 5 parts each of verdigris (copper acetate) and ammonium chloride. Let the solution stand 4 hours, then add 1,500 parts of water. Remove the brass to be browned from its attachment to the fix- tures and make the surface perfectly bright and smooth and free from grease. Place it over a charcoal fire and heat un- til it "sizzes" when touched with the dampened finger. The solution is then painted over toe surface with a brush or swabbed on with a rag. If one swab- bing does not produce a sufficient depth of color, repeat the heating and the ap- plication of the liquid until a fine durable Drown is produced. For door plates, knobs, ana ornamental fixtures gener- ally, this is one of the handsomest as well as the most durable surfaces, and is easily applied. II. — A very handsome brown may be produced on brass castings bv immersing the thoroughly cleaned and dried articles in a warm solution of 15 parts of sodium hydrate and 5 parts of cupric carbonate in 100 parts of water. Tne metal turns dark yellow, li|;ht brown, and finally dark orown, with a greenish shimmer, and, when the desired shade is reached, is taken out of the bath, rinsed, and dried. III. — Paint the cleaned and dried sur- face uniformly with a dilute solution of ammonium sulphide. When this coat- ing is dry, it is rubbed over, and then painted with a dilute ammoniacal so- lution of arsenic sulphide, until the required depth of color is attained. If the results are not satisfactory the painting can be repeated after washing over with ammonia. Prolonged im- mersion in the second solution produces a grayish-green film, which looks well, and acquires luster when polished with a cloth. Reflnishing Gas Fixtures.— Cias fix- tures which nave become dirty or tar- nished from use may be improved in ap- pearance by painting with bronze paint and then, if a still better finish is re- ouired, varnishing after the paint is tnoroughly dry with some light-colored varnish that will give a hard and brilliant coating. If the bronze paint is made up with ordinary varnish it is liable to become discolored from acid which may be pres- ent in the varnish. One method pro- posed tor obviating this is to mix the varnish with about five times its volume of spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture dried slaked lime in the proportion of about 40 grains to the pint, agitate well, repeatinff the agitation several times, and finally aUowing the suspended matter to settle and decanting the clear liquid. The object of this is to neutralize any acid which may be present. To deter- mine how effectively this has been done the varnish may be chemically tested. Steel Blue and Old Silver on Brass. ~ For the former dissolve 100 parts of car- bonic carbonate in 750 parts of ammonia and dilute this solution with distilled water, whereupon the cleaned articles are dipped into the liquid bv means of a brass wire. After two to three minutes take them out, rinse in clean water, and dry in sawdust. Old silver on brass is produced as follows: The articles are first silvered and next painted with a thin paste consisting of graphite, 6 part»; pulverized hematite, 1 part; and tur- pentine. Use a soft brush and dry well; then brush off the powder. Oxidized silver is obtained by dipping the silvered goods into a heated solution of liver of sulphur, 5 parts: ammonia carbonate, 10 parts: and water, 10,000 parts. Only sub- stantially silvered objects are suited for oxidation, as a weak silvering is taken off by this solution. Unsatisfactory col- oring is removed with potas.sium-cya- nide solution. It is advisable to lay the articles in hydrogen sulphide-ammonia solution diluted with water, wherein they acquire a blue to a deep-black shade. Tombac Color on Brass.— This is pro- duced by immersion in a mixture of cop- per carbonate, 10 parts; caustic soda, 30 parts: water, 200 parts. This layer will only endure wiping with a cloth, not y^- orous MXHiring with sand. Graining of Brass. — Brass parts of timepieces are frequently provided with a dead grained surface. For this pur- pose they are fastened with flat-headed pins on cork disks and brushed with a paste of water and finest powdered pumice stone. Next they are thor- oughly washed and placed in a solution of 10 quarts of water, 30 grains of mer- curic nitrate, and 60 grains of sulphuric acid. In this amalgamating solution the objects become at once covered wtt h a layer of mercury, which forms an amal- gam with the copper, while the ritir passes into solution. After the artit-le« nave again been washed they are treate^l with graining powder, which consists of silver powder, tartar, and cooking .salt. These substances must be pure, dry, ati«l very finely pulverixcd. The mixing %% done with moderate heat. According Digitized by VjOOQ IC BRASS 181 to whether a coarser or finer grain is de- sired, more cooking salt or more tartar must be contained in the powder. The ordinary proportions are: SiUer powder . . S8 28 28 parts Tartar «8S 110-140 85 parts Cooking salt. .. 900 870 900 parts This powder is moistened with water and applied to the object. Place the article nitb the cork support in a flat dish and rub on the paste with a stiff brush while turning the dish incessantly. Gradu- ally fresh portions of graining powder are put on until the desired grain is ob- tained. These turn out the rounder the more the dish and brush are turned. When the right grain is attained, rinse off w^ith water, and treat the object with a sicratrh brush, with employment of a decoction of saponaria. Tne brushes must be moved around in a circle in brushing with the pumice stone, as well a:» in rubbing on the graining powder and in using the scratch brush. The required silver powder is produced by precipitating a ailuted solution of silver nitrate with some strips of sheet copper. The precipitated silver powder is wasned out on a paper filter and dried at moder- ate beat. The Dead, or Matt. Dip for Brass. — The dead dip is used to impart a satiny or crystalline nnish to the surface. The bright dip gives a smooth, shiny, and per- fecfly even surface, but the dead dip is the moHt pleasing of any dip finish, and can be used as a base for many secondary fimshes. The dead dip is a mixture of oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) and ac^ua fortis (nitric acid) in which there is enough sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) to saturate the solution. It is in the presence of the sulphate of zinc that the essential differ- ence between the bright and the dead dip exists. Without it the dead or matt sur- face cannot l>e obtained. The method generally practiced is to add the sulphate of zinc to the mixed afvU (sulphuric and nitric), so that some rtniains undissolved in the bottom of the >«'«4el. It i3 found that the sulphate of line occurs in small crystals having the spprarance of very coarse granulated •igar. These crystals readily settle to the -AitUtm 4ti the vessel and do not do the vi»rk of matting properly. If they are finely pulverized the dip is slightly im- pr ived. but it is impossible to pulverize <^urh material to a fineness that will do thr desired work. The use of sulphate 'jfsoc, then* leaves much to be desired. The moat modern method of making up the dead dip is to produce the sul- phate of zinc directly in the solution and in the precipitated form. It is well known that the most finely divided ma- terials are those which are produced by precipitation, and in the dead dip it is verv important that the sulphate of zinc shall be finely divided so that it will not immediately settle to the bottom. There- fore it should be precipitated so that when it is mixed witii the acids it will not settle immediately. The method of mak- ing the sulphate of zinc directly in the solution is as follows: Take 1 gallon of yellow aqua fortis (38** F.) and place in a stone crock which is surrounded with cold water. The cold water is to keep the heat, formed by the reaction, from evaporating the acid. Add metallic zinc in small pieces until the acid will dissolve no more. The zinc may be in any conven- ient form — ^sheet clippings, lumps, gran- ulated, etc., that mav be added litUe by little. If all is added at once it will boil over. When the acid will dissolve no more zinc it will be found that some of the acid has evaporated by the heat, and it will be necessary to add enough fresh acid to make up to the original gallon. When this is done add 1 gallon of strong oil of vitriol. The mixture should be stirred with a wooden paddle while the oil of vitriol is being adaed. As the^ sulphuric acid is being added the solution begins to grow milky, and finally the whole has the consistency of thick cream. This is caused by the sul- phuric acid (oil of vitriol) precipitating out the sulphate of zinc. Tlius tne very finely divided precipitate of sulphate of zinc is formed. If one desires to use known quantities of acid and zinc the following amounts may be taken: Oil of vitriol, 1 gallon; aqua fortis (38° F.), 1 gallon; metallic zinc, 6 ounces. In dissolving the zinc in the aqua for- tis it is necessary to be sure that none re- mains undissolved in the bottom. The dead or matt dip is used hot, and, therefore, is kept in a stone crock sur- rounded with hot water. The articles to be matted are polished and cleaned, and the dip thoroughly stirred with a wooden paddle, so as to bring up the sulphate of zinc which has settled. Dip the work in the solution and allow it to remain until the^ matt is obtained. This is a point which can be learned only by experience. When the brass article is first introduced there is a rapid action on the surface, but in a few seconds this slows down. Re- move the article and rinse and immedi- ately dip into the usual bright dip. This Digitized by VjOOQ IC 18S BRASS is necessary for the reason that the dead dip produces a dark coating upon the surface, which, were it left on, would not show the real effect or the color of the metal. The bright dip, however, re- moves this and exposes the true dead surface. The usual rule for making up the dead dip is to use equal parts of oil of vitriol and aqua fortis; but these may be altered to suit the case. More oil of vitriol gives a finer matt, while a larger quantity of aoua fortis will give a coarser matt. When the dip becomes old it is unneces- sary to add more zinc, as a little goes into the solution each time anything is dipped. After a while, however, the solution be- comes loaded with copper salts, and should be thrown away. A new dip does not work well, and will not give good results when used at once. It is usual to allow it to remain over night, when it will be found to be in a better working condition in the morn- ing. A new dip will frequentljr refuse to work, and the addition of a little water will often start it. The water must be used sparingly, however, and only when necessary. Water, as a usual thins, spoils a dead dip, and must be avoided. After a while it may be necessary to add a little more aqua fortis, and this may be introduced as desired. Much care is needed in working the dead dip, and it requires constant watching and experi- ence. The chief difficulty in worlcing the dead dip is to match a given article. The only way that it can be done is to "cut ana try, ' and add a<)ua fortis or oil of vitriol as the case requires. The dead or matt dip can be obtained only upon brass or German silver; in other words, only on alloys which con- tain sine. The best results are obtained upon yellow brass high in zinc. To Improve Deadened Brass Parts.— Clock parts matted with oilstone and oil, sucn as the hour wheels, minute wheels, etc., obtain, by mere grinding, a somewhat dull appearance, with a sensi- tive surface whicli readily takes spots. This may l>o improved by preparing the folio wiiig powder, rubbing a little of it on a buff Ntirk, and treating the deadened part>H, whicli have been cleansed with hen 7.1 ne. by rubbing with slight pressure ou cork. This imparts to the articles a handsome, permanent, metallic matt luster. The smoothing powder consists of ^ parts of jewelers' reu and 8 parts of lime carbonate, levigated in water, and well dried. Jewelrrs* red alone may be employed, but this requires some prac- tice and care, especially in the treatment of wheels, because rays are liable to form from the teeth toward the center. Pickle for Brmss.— Stir 10 parts (by weight) of shining soot or snuff, 10 parts of cooking salt, and 10 parts of red tar- tar with 250 parts of nitric acid, and afterwards add 250 parts of sulphuric acid; or else mix 7 parts of aoua fortis (nitric acid) with 10 parts of En^lifth sulphuric acid. For the mixing ratio of the acid, the kind and alloy of tne metal should be the guidance, and it is be«^t found out by practical trials. The bet- ter the alloy and the less the percentage of zinc or lead, the handsomer wilt be the color. Genuine bronze, for instance, acquires a golden shade. In order to give brass tne appearance of handsome gilding it is often coated with gold var- nish by applying same thinly witn a brush or sponge and immediately heating the metal over a coal fire. Pickling Brass to Look like Gold.-- To pickle brass so as to make it resem- ble gold allow a mixture of 6 parts of chemically pure nitric acid and 1 part of English sulphuric acid to act for some hours upon the surface of the brass; then wash with a warm solution, 20 parts of tartar in 50 parts of water, and rub off neatly with dry sawdust. Then coat the article with the proper varnish. Pickle for Dipping Brass.— To im- prove the appearance of brass, tombac, and copper goods, they are usually dipped. For this purpose they are first immersed in diluted oil of vitriol (brown sulphuric acid), proportion, 1 to 10; next in a mixture of 10 parts of red tartar; 10 parts of cooking salt; 250 parts of Eng- lish sulphuric acid, as well as 250 parts c»f aoua fortis (only^for a moment), rinsing on well in water ^and drying in sawdust. For obtaining a handsome matt gt>ld color fHi part of zinc vitriol (zinc sul- phate) is still added to the pickle. Restoration of Brass Articles.— The brass articles are first freed from adher- ing dirt by the use of hot soda lye; if bronzed they are dipped in a highly dilute solution of sulphuric acid and rinsed in clean water. Next they are yellowrd in a mixture of nitric acid, 75 parts; sul> I phuric acid, 100 parts; shining lamp- black, 2 parts; cooling salt, 1 part; thm rinsed and polished and, to prevent I oxidation, coated with a colorless spirit ' varnish, a celluloid varnish being De»t { for this purpose. Tempering Brass.— If hammered t I brittle urass can be tempered and made Digitized by VjOOQ IC BRICK of a more evtn hardness throughout by warming it, as in tempering steel; but the heat must not be nearly so great. Brass, heated to the blue heat of steel, is almost soft again. To soften brass, heat it nearly to a dull red and allow it to cool, or, if time is an object, it may be cooled by plunging into water. Drawing Temper from Brass. — Brass b rendered hard by hammering or roll- ing, therefore when a brass object re- quires to be tempered the material must be prepared before the article is shaped. Temper may be drawn from brass by heating it to a cherry red and then sim- ply plunging it into water, the same as though steel were to be tempered. BRASS. FASTEinNG PORCELAIN TO: S<^e Adhesives. BRASS POLISHES: See Polishes. BRASS SOLDERS: See Solders. BRASS BRONZING: See Plating. BRASS CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. BRASS PLATINIZING: See Plating. BRASS, SAND HOLES IN: See Castings. BRASSING: See Plating. BREAD, DOG: See Dog Biscuit. BREATH PERFUMES: See also Dentifrices. Remedies for Fetid Breath.— Fetid breath may be due to the expelled air (i. e.. to disease of the respirational tract), to ga«es thrown olf from the digestive tract, or to a diseased mouth. In the first two cases medication must be di- rected to the causative diseases, with the lasU antisepsis principallv and the neu- tralization of the saliva, also the removal til aU residual food of dental caries. I. — Potassium perman- ganate 1 part Distilled water.. . . 10 parts Mix and^ dissolve. Add from 5 to 8 drops of this solution to a glass of water ana with it gargle the mouth. II. — Infusion of salvia 250 parts Glycerine 30 parts Tincture of myrrh 12 parts Tincture of laven- der 12 parts Labarraque's so- lution 30 parts Mix. Rinse the mouth frequently with this mixture. III. — Decoction of cham- omile 30 parts Glycerine 80 parts Chlorinated water. 15 parts Mix. Use as a gargle and mouth wash. IV. — Peppermint water 500 parts Cherry-laurel wa- ter 60 parts Borax 25 parts Mix and dissolve. Use as gargle and mouth wash. v.— Thymol 3 parts Spirit of cochlea- ria 300 parts Tincture of rhat- any 100 parts Oil of peppermint 15 parts Oil of cloves 10 parts Mix. Garble and wash mouth well with 10 drops m a glass of water. VI.— Salol 5 parts Alcohol 1,000 parts Tincture of white canella SO parts Oil of pepper- mint 1 part Mix. Use as a dentifrice. VII. — H^^drogen perox- ide 25 parts Distilled water.. . 100 parts Mix. Gargle the mouth twice daily with 2 tablespoonfuls of the mixture in a glass of water. VIII. — Sodium bicarbon- ate 2 parts Distilled water. ... 70 parts Spirit of cochlearia 30 parts Mix a half-teaspoonful in a wine- glassful of water. Wash mouth two or three times daily. BRICK STAIN. To stain brick flat the color of brown- stone, add black to Venetian red until the desired shade is obtained. If color ground in oil b used, thin with turpen- tine, using a little japan as a drier. If necessary to get the de.sired shade add yellow ocher to the mixture of red and black. If the work is part old and part new, rub the wall down, using a brick Digitized by VjOOQ IC 1S4 BRONZING for a rubber, until the surface is uniform, and keep it well wet while rubbing with cement water, made by stirring Portland cement into water until the water looks the color of the cement. This opera- tion fills the pores of the brick and makes a smooth, uniform surface to paint on. Tinge the wash with a little dry Vene- tian red and lampblack. This will help bring the brick to a uniform color, so that an even color can be obtained with one coat of stain. BRICKS: See Ceramics. BRICKS OF SAND-LIME: See Stone, Artificial. BRICK POLISHES: See Polishes. BRICK WALLS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods and Household Formulas. BRICK WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. BRICKMAKERS' NOTES: See Ceiamics. BRIDGE PAINT: See Paint. BRILLIANTINE : See Hair Preparations. BRIMSTONE (BURNING): See Pyrotechnics. BRIONY ROOTS: THEIR PRESER- VATION: See Roots. BRITANNIA METAL: See Alloys. BRITANNIA METAL, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. BRITANNIA, SaVERPLATING : See Plating. BROMINE, ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics. BROMOFORM. Bromoform is insoluble in dilute al- cohol, but mav be dissolved by the aid of glycerine. The following formula has been devised: Bromoform 1 part Alcohol t parts Compound tincture of cardaroon 2 parts Glycerine 14 parts Some other formulas are: Syrup of Bromoform.— Bromoform, 5 parts; alcohol (95 per cent). 45 parts; glycerine, 150 parts; syrup. 800 partes. Mix in the order given and place the con- tainer in warm water until the syrup be- comes perfectly clear. Emulsion of Bromoform. —Add 3 parts of bromoform to 20 parts of expressed oil of almond; emulsify this mixture in the usual manner with 2 parts of powdered tragacanth, 4 parts of ]>owdered acacia, and sufficient water, using for the com- pleted emulsion a total of 120 parts <»f water, and add, finally, 4 parts of cherry- laurel water. Bromoform Rum. — Bromoform, 1.2 parts; chloroform, 0.8 parts; rum, sufli- cient to make 120 parts. Claimed to be an effective remedy in the treatment of whooping cough. BRONCHIAL SEDATIVES: See Sedatives. BRONZES: See Alloys. BRONZE CASTING: See Casting. BRONZE, IMITATION: See Plaster. BRONZE POLISHES: See Polishes. BRONZE, RENOVATION OF: See Cleaning Compounds. Bronze Powders, Liquid Bronzes, Bronze Substitutes, and Bronzing BRONZE POWDERS. Gold bronze is a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and sulphur, whirh are heated for some time in an earthen retort. Silver bronze is a mixture of eoual parts of bismuth, tin, and mercury, which are fused in a crucible, adding tlie mercury only when the tin and the hiA- muth are in fusion. Next reduce to a very fine powder. To apply thc<$e bronzes, white of egg, gum arable, or varnish is used. It is preferable to a|K ply them dry upon one of the a )k> ve- na med mediums serving as sice^ than to mix them with the liide for a complete classification and >#'paration of tne two liquids. The duninar solution siphoned off will be per- fertly free from acid. To obtain gold- lifooae varnish add to the deaciaified flammar solution about 250 parts of hroiue or brocade per liter. II. — Or else carefully mix 100 parts of Ihieljr i^und dammar rosin with 30 parts vS ralcined soda and heat to fusion, in which state it is niaintained 2 or 3 hours with fmiueot stirring. Let cool, grind tLe turbid mass obtained, and pour a little cual beuuDe or petroleum benzine over it in a flask. By repeated shaking of the flask the soluble portion of the molten mass is dissolved; filter after allowing to settle: into the filtrate put 300 to 400 parts of bronze powder of an^ desired shade, the brocaoes being especially well adapted for this purpose. If the metallic powder remains aistributed over the mass for a lon^ time it is of the right consistency; if it deposits quickly it is too thin and a part of the solvent must be evaporated before stirring in the bronze powder. III. — ^A liquid bronze, which, while it contains no metallic constituent, yet possesses a metallic luster and a bronze appearance, and answers excellently for many purposes, is made as follows: Dissolve by the aid of gentle heat 10 parts of aniline red and 5 parts of aniline purple in 100 parts of alcohol. When solution is complete, add 5 parts of ben- zoic acid, raise the heat, and let boil from 5 to 10 minutes, or until the green- ish color of the mixture passes over to a clear bronze brown. For "marbling" or bronzing paper articles, this answers particularly well. Incombustible Bronze Tincture.— Finely pulverize 5 parts, by weight, of prime Dammar rosin and 1.5 parts of ammonia soda. Heat gently, and stir fre- quently, until no more carbonic acid bub- bles up. Cool and pulverize again. Put the powder into a glass carboy, and pour over it 50 parts of carbon tetrachloride; let this stand for 2 days, stirring fre- ouently. Then filter. Ten parts of the fluid are mixed with 5 parts of metallic bronze of any desired shade, and put into bottles. Shake well before using. General Formulas for Bronzing Prepa- rations.— I. — Take 240 parts subacetate of copper, 120 parts oxide of zinc in pow- der form, 60 parts borax, 60 parts salt- peter, and 3.5 parts corrosive sublimate. Prepare a paste from it with oil, stir to- {^cther, and continue v/orking with boiled inseed oil and turpentine. II. — Dissolve 120 parts "sulphate of copper and add 120 parts chipping of tin; stir well and gather the precipitatinff copper. After complete drying, ffrind very finely in boiled linseed oil and tur- pentine. III.— Melt in a crucible 60 parts sul- phur and 60 parts stannic acid; stir with a clay tube until the mixture takes on the appearance of Dutch gold and pour out. Wnen cold mix the color with boiled lin- seed oil and turpentine, adding a small quantity of drier. These three bronzes must be covered with a pale, resistant Digitized by VjOOQ IC 136 BRONZING lacquer, otherwise they will soon tarnish in rooms where gas is burned. Florentiiie Bronzes.— I.— To produce a Florentine bronzing, apply to the articles, which must have previously been dipped, a varnish composed of cnerry gum lac dissolved in alcohol. This varnish is Cut on with a brush, and after that the ronzed piece is passed through the stove. II. — If the article is of brass it must be given a coat of copper by means of the battery. Next dip a brush in olive oil and brush the piece uniformly; let dry for 5 or 6 hours and place in saw- dust. Then heat the article on a mod- erate charcoal dust fire. Preparation of French Bronze.— French bronze may be prepared by re- ducing to a powder hematite, 5 parts, and plumbago, 8 parts, and mixing into a paste with spirit of wine. Apply the composition with a soft brush to the article to be bronzed and set it aside for some hours. By polishing with a toler- ably hard brush tne article will assume the beautiful appearance of real bronze. The desired tint ma^ be regulated by the proportions of the ingredients. How to Bronze Metalt.— Prepare a solution of 1 } ounces of sodium hyposul- phite in 1 pint of water and add to the same a solution of 1| ounces of lead acetate dissolved in 1 pint of water. If, instead of lead acetate, an equal weight of sulphuric acid (1) ounces) is added to the sodium hyposulphite and the process carried on as before, the brass becomes coated with a very beau- tiful red, which changes to green, and finally a splendid brown with a green and red iridescence. This last is a very durable coating and may be especially recommended. It is very difficult to obtain exact shades by this process with- out some experience. Tne thorough cleansing of all articles from grease by boiling in potash is absolutely necessary to success. By sulistituting other metal salts for the lead acetate many changes in tints and quality of the coatings can also be effected. When this mixture is heated to a tem- perature a little below the boiling point it precipitates sulphide of lead in a state of fine division. If some metal is pres- ent some of the lead is precipitated on the surface and. according to the thick- nets of the layer, different colors are pro- duced. To produce an even color the articles must l>e evenly heated. By im- mersion of brass articles for 5 minutes the same may be coated with colors varying from gold to copper red, then to carmine, dark red, and from light blue to blue white, and at last a reddish white, depending on the time the metal remains in tiie solution and the temperature used. Iron objects treated in this solution take a steel- blue color, zinc a brown color. I n the case of copper objects a golden yellow cannot be obtained. New Bronzing Liouid. — Dissolve 10 parts of fuchsine and 5 parts of aniline purple in 100 parts of aloonol (05 percent) and add to the solution 5 parts of Inrn- zoic acid. Boil the whole for ID min- utes until the color turns bronze brown. This liquid can be applied to all metals and dries quickly. A Bronze for Bran. — Immerse the articles, freed from dirt and grease, in a cold solution of 10 parts of potaAMuin permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate. 5 parts of hydrochloric acid in I,0OO parts of water. Let remain SO seconds, then withdraw, rinse, and let drv in fine, soft sawdust. If the articles nave be- come too dark, or if a reddLsh- brown color be desired, immerse for about 1 minute in a warm (140* F.) solution of chromic acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 10 parts; potassium permanganate. 10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts; water. 1,000 parts. Treat as l>erore. If the latter solution alone be used the produc't will be a brighter dark-yellow or red- dish-brown color. Bv heating in a dry- ing oven the tone of the colors is im- proved. To Bronze Copper. — This process is analogous to the one practiced at the Mint of Paris for bronzini^ medals. Spread on the copper object a solution composed of: Acetate or chlorhy- drate of ammonia . . SO parts Sea salt 10 parts Cream of tartar 10 parts Acetate of copper .... 10 parts Diluted acetic acid. . . 100 parts I^t diy for 24 to 4S hours at an ordi- nary temperature. The surface of the metal will become covered with a >encs of varying tints. Brush with a waxed brush. The green portions soaked with I chlorhydrate of ammonia will assume a ' blue coloring, and those treated with carbonate will be thick and darkened. Bronzing and Platinizing of Small Zinc Articles. — (^oatings of bronxe tones and patina shades may he prtMiuc^ on linr by means of various liquids, liut tbr Digitized by VjOOQ IC BRONZING 187 articles, before being worked upon, should be rubbed down with very fine f^afls or emery paper, to make them not only perfectly metallic, but also some- what rough, as a consequence of which the bronze or patina coatings will adhere much better. The best bronze or pa- tina efTects on bronze are obtained by electroplating the article with a fairly thick deposit of brass rich in copper and then treating it like genuine bronze. The yolutions used, however, must always be hi);hly diluted, otherwise they may eat entirely through the thin metallic coat- ing, BronztDg of Zinc. — Mix thoroughly 30 parts of sal ammoniac, 10 parts of oxalate of potash, and 1,000 parts of vinegar. Apply with a brush or a rag ieverul times, until the desired tint is produced. B»»iize Gilding on Smooth Moldings. — A perfect substitute for dead gilding can- not be obtained by bronzing, because of the radically different reflection of the light, for the matt gilding presents to the light a |)erfectly smooth surface, while in bronzing ever^r little scale of bronze rpflects the light m a different direction. In cooAequence of this diffusion of light, all bronzinff, even the best executed, is fomewhat darker and dimmer than leaf gilding. This dimness, it is true, ex- ti^nda over the whole surface, and there- fore is not perceptible to the layman, and cainnot be called an evil, as the genuine leaf gold is so spotted that a bronzed t'lrface ia cleaner than a gilt one. The following orocess is the best known at pre9«ent: Choose only the best bronze, vhicfa is first prepared thick with pure sfnjit. Next ada a quantity of water and ytir again* After the precipitation, which occurs promptly, the water is p*ture brushed on. Another wa^ is to dip the pieces into a boiling so- lution of cupric acetate 20 parts, and sal ammoniac 10 parts, dissolved in 60 to 100 parts of vinegar. Patent bronzes (products colored by means of aniline dyes) have hitherto been used in the manufacture of toys and de lure or fancy paper, but makers of wall or stained paper have recently given their attention to these produi-ls. nail — or moirf — paper prepared with these dves furnishes covers or prints of silken ; poss with a peculiar douole-color effort in which the metallic brilliancy charar- ' teristic of bronze combines with the shades of the tar pigments used. Very i beautiful reliefs, giving rise to the most charming play of colors in perpendicular or laterally reflected light, are produced by pressing the paper lengths or web painted with aniline- bronze dyes. The Drass brocade and tin bronzes serve as bases for the aniline dyes; of the tar pig- ments only basic aniline dyes soluble in alcohol are used. In coloring the pul- verized bronze care must be taken that the latter is as free as possible from or- ganic fats. Tar dyes should be dis- solved in as concentrated a form as pos- sible in alcohol and stirred with the bronze, the pigment being then fixed on the vehicle witn an alcoholic solution of tannin. The patent bronze is then dried by allowing the alcohol to evapo- rate. This method of coloring is pumy mechanical, as the tar dyes do not com- bine with the metallic bronze, as is the case with pigments in which hydrate <>i alumina is used. A coating of aniline bronze of this kind is therefore very sen- sitive to moisture, unless spread over the paper surface with a suitaole protect- ive binding medium, or protected by a transparent coat of varnish, which of course must not interfere with the special color effect. Pickle for Bronzes.— Sulphuric acid. 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 500 parts; soot, 10 parts; sea salt, 5 parts. Imitation Japanese Bronze.-^ When the copper or copperetl article is per- fectly dry and tne copper or copper coating made brilliaiit, wnich is produced by rubbing with a soft brush, put graph- ite over tne piece to be bronzed so that the copper is simplv dyed. Wine off the raised portions with a damp doth, so that the copper makes its appearance. Next put on a thin coat of Japane^^e var- nish; wipe the relief again and let dry. Apply I or 2 coats after the first is per- fectly dry. Handsome smoked huej^ may be obtained by holding the bronze either over the dust of lighted peat or powdered rosin thrown on lightcnJ coal, so as to obtain a smoke which will change the color of the varnish employed. The varnish miLst be lic||^uid enough to be worked easily, for this style of oronzing is only applicable to brass. Green Bronze on Iron.— Abietate of silver, 1 part; essence of lavender, 19 parts. Dissolve the abietate of sil%'er in the essence of lavender. *\fter the arti- cles have been well pickled apply the a bietate-of -silver solution with a brush; next pla(*e the objects in a stove and let the temperature attain about 150® C Blue Bronze.— Blue bronse is pro- Digitized by VjOOQ IC BRONZING 189 duced by the wet process by coloring white bronze (silver composition) witn •niline blue. A blue-bronze color can be pmduced in the ordinary way from white- oronze color, the product of pure Eng- lish tin, and with an alum solution con- M«ting of ^0 parts of alum in 4,500 parts of water boiled for 5 hours and washed dean and dried. The bronze prepared in this manner is placed in a porcelain dish, mixed with a solution of 15 parts of aniline blue in 1,500 parts of alcohol, Htirrin^ the bronze powder and liquid until trie alcohol has evaporated entire- Iv and the bronze color becomes dry. Thi% manipulation must be repeated 6 ur S times, until the desired blue shade i^ reached. When the bronze is dark rnouffh it is washed out in warm water, aod before entirely dry 1 tablespoonful of petroleum is poured on S pounds of bronze, which is intimately mixed and Apread out into a thin layer, exposed to trie air, whereby the smell is caused to disappear in a few days. Bronzing with Soluble Glass.— To hrt>nze wood, porcelain, glass, and metal hy means of a water-glass solution, coat the article with potash water-glass of 30'^ He. and sprinxle on the respective brunze powder. Brown Oxidation on Bronze. — Genu- ine bronze can be beautifully oxidized by pxinting it with a solution of 4 parts of ^1 ammoniac and 1 part of oxalium (oxalate of potash) in 200 parts of vine- m^r, allowing it to dry, and repeating the operation several times. These articles, prutected against rain, soon lose the un- pleasant glaring metallic luster and as- sume instead a soft brown tint, which bronze articles otherwise acquire only after several years* exposure to the at- mosphere. A beautiful bronze color which will remain unaffected by heat fan be imparted to bronze articles by the following process: The object is first washed in a solution of 1 part of crystal- lized verdigris and « parts of sal ammo- niac in i260 parts of water, and then dried before an open fire till the green color begins to disappear. The operation is repeated 10 to SO times, but with a solu- tion of 1 part of verdigris crystals and 2 farts of sal ammoniac in 600 parts of water. The color of the article, olive i;r«^n at first, gradually turns to brown, vhir-h will remain unaltered even when ripoAed to .strong heat. BROHZE POWDERS: See also Plating for general methods of bronzing, and Varnishes. Gold and Silver Bronze Powders. — Genuine gold bronze is produced from the waste and parings obtained in gold beating. The parings, etc., are ground with honey or a gum solution, upon a ^lass plate or under hard granite stones, into a very fine powder, which is re- peatedly washed out with water and dried. There are various shades of gold bronze, viz., red, reddish, deep yellow, pale yellow, as well as greenish. These tints are caused bv the various percent- ages of gold or the various mixtures of the gold with silver and copper. By the use of various salt solutions or acidulated substances other shades can be imparted to bronze. In water con- taining sulphuric acid, nitric acid, or hydrochloric acid, it turns a bright yel- low; by treatment with a solution of crys- tallized verdigris or blue vitriol in water it assumes more of a reddish hue; other tints are obtained with the aid of cooking salt, tartar, green vitriol, or saltpeter in water. Gold bronze is also obtained by dis- solving gold in aqua regia and mixing with a solution of green vitriol in water, whereupon the gold falls down as a me- tallic powder wnich may be treated in different ways. The green vitriol, how- ever, must be dissolved in boiling water and mixed in a glass, drop by drop, with sulphuric acid and stirred until the basic iron sulphate separating in flakes has re- dissolved. Another wa^ of producing gold bronze is by dissolving gold in aqua regia and evaporating the solution in a porcelain dish. When it is almost dry add a little pure hydrochloric acid and repeat this to drive out all the free chlo- rine and to produce a pure hydrochlorate of ^old. The gold salt is dissolved in distilled water, taking } liter per ducat (3} grams fine gold); into this solution drop, while stirring by means of a elass rod, an 8° solution (by Beaume) of an- timony chloride, as long^ as a precipitate forms. This deposit is gold bronze, which, dried after removal of all liquids, is chiefly employed in painting, for bronz- ing, and for china and glass decoration. Metallic gold powder is. furthermore, obtained by dissolving pure and alloyed gold in aqua regia ana precipitating it again by an electro-po.sitive metal, such as iron or zinc, which is placed in the liq- uid in the form of rods. The gold is completely separated thereby. The rods must be perfectly clean and polished bright. The color of the gold bronze depends upon the proportions of the gold. In order to further increase the brilliancv the dried substance- may still be ground. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 140 BRUSHES Mosaic Gold. — Mosaic gold, generally compound of tin. 64.63 parU, and sul- hur, 35.37 parts, is odorless and taste- a compound of tin. 64.63 parts, and sul- phur, 35.37 parts, is odorless and taste- less, and dissolves onlv in chlorine solu- f tion, aqua regia, and boiling potash lye. It is employed principally for bronz- ing ptaster-of-Pans figures, copper, and brass, by mixing it with 6 parts of bone ashes, rubbing it on wet, or applying it with varnish or white of egg in liie prep- aration of gold paper or for gilding cardboard and wood. Mosaic gold of golden-yellow color is produced by heat- ing 6 parts of sulphur and 16 parts of tin amalgam with equal parts of mer- cury ana 4 parts of sulphur; 8 parts of precipitate from stannic muriate (stannic acid) and 4 parts of sulphur also give a handsome mosaic gold. The handsomest, purest, and most gold -like mosaic gola is obtained by melting 12 parts of pure tin, free from lead, and mixing with 6 parts of mercury to an amalgam. This is mixed with 7 parts of flowers of sulphur and 6 parts of sal ammoniac, whereupon the mass is subjected for several nours to a heat ' which at first does not attain redness, but eventually when no more fumes are generated is increased to dark-red heat. This operation is conducted either in a glass retort or in an earthenware cru- cible. The sal ammoniac escapes first on heating, next vermilion sublimates and some stannic chloride, while the mosaic gold remains on the bottom, the upper Taver, consisting of lustrous, E olden, cielicately translucent leaflets, ring the handsomest mosaic gold. Genuine Silver Bronze.— This is ob- tained by the finely ground waste from boating leaf silver or by dissolving silver in aqua fortis. This solution is then diluted with water and brightly scoured copper plates are put in, whereby the silver precipitates as a metallic powJer. Imitation Silver Bronze.— This is ob- tained through the wa.sto in beating imi- tation leaf silver, which, finely ground, iH then washed and dried. In order to iiicTcase the luster it is ground again in a dry condition. Mosaic Silver.— Mofiaic sOver is an amalgam of -equal parts of mercury, bis- muth, and tin. One may also melt 50 ()ttris of good tin in a crucible, and as MMiii as it becomes liquid add 50 parU of biHinuth. stirring all with an iron wire until the bismuth is fused as well. As sf»on as this occurs the crucible must be removed from the fire; then stir in, as long as the contents arc of mercury and mix the whole masis evenly until it can be ground on a stone slab. BRONZE VARmSHES: See Varnishes. BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS : See Paints. BRONZING OF WOOD: See Wood. BROOCHES, PHOTOGRAPHS ON: See Photography. BROWN OINTMENT; See Ointments. BROWNING OF STEEL: See Plating. BROWNSTONE, IMITATION: See Brick SUin. BRUNETTE POWDER: See Cosmetics. Brushes HOW TO TAKE CARE OP PAINT AND VARNISH BRUSHES. It is a good plan to fill the varnish bru^h before putting it in the keeper. Whitewash or kalsomine bru<«he« should not be put into newly slaked lime or hot kalsomine. Cement-set brushes should never be Kut in any alcohol mixture, such as s bei- ges and spirit stains. Varnish brushes should be selertrd with a view to their possessing the follow- ing qualities: 1st, excellence of mate- rial; 2d, excellence of make, which includes fullness of hair or bristles and permanency of binding: 5d, life and spring, or elasticity sufficient to enable tne varnisher to spread the varnish with- out reducing it with turpentine; and 4th, springing, when in use, to a true chisel edge. Temperature for Brushes. —The bris- tles of every brush are held in place bv the handle. It passes through tlie shank of the brush and is kiln-dried to fit perfectly. If it shrinks, however, it* outward tension is lost and the bri^tlm loosened. For this reason the fir*t principle in brush care is to keep the tool, when it is new or not soaking, in a cool place, out of hot rooms, and anr temperature tliat would tend to shrink the wood of the handle. Cleaning Paint Brushes. riiih i*h and put No briiMh (thciuld l>e dtpjied in the pai ut to work without first bei new int Digitized by VjOOQ IC BRUSHES— BUNIONS 141 rleanefl. By working it with a brisk ntovrment back and forth through the hand most of the dust and loose hairs «ill be taken out. A paint brush, when thus thoroughly dry cleaned, should be laced in water for a few minutes, not loi long enough to soak or swell it, but only unlD wet through, and then swung and shaken dry. It is then ready to dip in the paint, and although some of the hairs may still be loose, most of them will rume out in the first few minutes' work- ing and can be easily picked from the surface. n^aniwg Varnish Brushes. — Varnish brashes, and brushes used in varnish ttain, bug^y paint, and all color in var- nwh require different handling than paint brushes. They should be more thoroughly dry cleaned, in order that all loo^e hairs may be worked out. After workinjg them through the hand it Lured in while the eggs are beaten, nough oil is added to make a thick, creamy paste, which is applied to the burn. The applications are repeated often enough to prevent their becoming dry or sticky. Leave the surface un- covered. IL— Put 27 parts, by measure, of lenthol into 44 parts, by measure, of witch hazel (distillate) and apply freely. A good plan is to bandage the parts and wet the wrappings with this mixture. III. — A very efficacious remedy for bums is a solution of cooking salt in water. It is best to immerse fingers, hands, and arms in the solution, wnich must be tolerablv strong. For burns in the face and other parts of the body, salt water poultices are applied. Butter (See also Foods.) Butter Color. — Orlean, 80 parts, by weight; curcuma root (turmeric), 80 parts, by weight; olive oil, 240 parts, by weight; saffron, 1 part, by weignt; alco- hol, 5 parts, by weight. The orlean and turmeric are macerated with olive oil and expressed. The wcif^ht of the filtered liquid is made up agam to 240 parts, by weight, with olive oil, next the filtered saffron-alcohol extract is added, and the alcohol is expelled again by heating the mixture. Artificial Butter.— I.— Carefully washed beef suet furnishes a basis for the manufactures of an edible substitute for natural butter. The thoroughly washed and finely chopped suet is ren- dered in a steam-heated tank; 1,000 parts of fat, 800 parts of water, 1 part of potassium carbonate, and 2 stomachs of pigs or sheep, are taken. The temper- ature of the mixture is raised to 113® F. After i hours, under the influence of the pepsin in the stomachs, the membranes are dissolved and the fat is melted and rises to the top of the mixture. After the addition of a little salt the melted fat is drawn off, stood to cool so as to allow the stearine and palmitin to separate, and then pressed in bags in a hydraulic press. Forty to 50 per cent of solid stearine remains, while 50 to 60 per cent of fluid oleopalmitin (so-called '*oleo- margarine**) is pressed out. The "f»Ie«> oil" IS then mixed with 10 per cent of its weight of milk and a little butter color and churned. The product is then worked, salted, and constituted the "oleomargarine," or butter sub»tttute. Leaf lard can be worked in the same wav as beef suet, and will yield an oleopal- mitin suitable for churning up into a butter substitute. II. — Fat from freshly slaughtered cattle after thorough washing is placed in clean water and surrounded with ice, where it is allowed to remain until all animal h«*at has been removed. It is then cut into small pieces by machinery and ctniked at a temperature of about 150"* F. (65.«^ C ) until the fat in liquid form has separated from the tissue, then settled until it is perfectly clear. Then it is drawn into the graining vats aiid allowed to stand for a day. when it is ready for the presses. The pressing extracts the stearine. leav- ing a product commercially known as oleo oil which, when churned with cream or milk, or both, and with usually a pro- portion of creamery butter, the whole being properly salted, gives the new food product, oleomargarine. III. — In making butterine use neutral lard, which is made from selected leaf lard in a very similar manner to oleo oil, excepting that no stearine is extracted. This neutral lard is cured in salt brine for from 48 to 70 hours at an ice> water temperature. It is then taken and, with the desired proportion of oleo oil and fine butter, is churned with cream and milk, producing an article which when proper- ly salted and packed is ready lor the market. In both cases coloring matter is used, which is the same as that used by dairymen to color their butter. At cer- tain seasons of the year — via., in €*t>ld weather, a small Quantity of sesame oil or salad oil made irom cottonseed oil i^ used to soften the texture of the product. IV. — "Ankara" b a substance which in ^neral appearance resembles a goini article of butter, l»eing rather firmer at ordinary temperatures than that sul>- stance, approaching the consistency «>f cocoa butter. It is quite odorle^, but in taste it resembles that of a fair article i»f butter and. what is more, its behaWttr under heat is very similar to that of but- ter— it browns and forms a sort of spume like that of fat. Ankara consists of a base of cocoa butter, carrving about 10 per cent of milk, colored with yolk of egg. nhile not derived from milk, on the one hand, nor does it come from a single vegetable or animal fat on the other, an* Digitized by VjOOQ IC BUITER— CAF15 PARFAIT 148 k^ra mAy be considered as belonging to the category of the margarines. An- kara ia obtained in the market in the form of rakes or tablets of 2 pounds in weight. V. — Fresh butter, 150 parts, by weight; animal fat, 80 parts, by weight; sun- flower oil, 40 parts, by weight; cocoanut oi]. SO parts, by weight. VI.— Fresh butter, 100 parts, by weight: animal fat, 100 parts, by weight; sunflower oil, 80 parts, bv weight; cocoa- nut oil, 20 parts, by weight. VII.— Fresh butter, 50 parts, by weight; animal fat, 150 parts, by weight; ftunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoa- nut oil, 20 parts, by weight. It is seen that these three varieties contain respectively 50, 33, and about 16 per cent oi cow's butter. The appear- ance of the mixture is nearly perfect. Formulas V to VII are for a Russian arti- ficial butter called " Pcrepusk.'* To Impart the Aroma and Taste of Hatnnd Butter to liargarine. — In order to give margarine the aroma and flavor of cow butter, add to it a fatty acid product, which is obtained by saponification of butter, decomposition of the soap, and distillation in the vacuum at about 140^ F. The addition of the product is made upon emulsification of the fats with milk.' The margarine will keep for months. Hannless Butter Color.— Alum, pul- TcHsed finely, 30 parts; extract of tur- meric, 1 part. With the extract damp- en the powder as evenly as possible, then spread out and dry oyer some hot sur- face. When dry, again pulverize thor- oughly. Protect the product from the light. As much of the powder as will lie on the point of a penknife is added to a churntul of milk, or cream, before cbuming, and it gives a beautiful sold en color, entirely harmless. To malce the extract of turmeric add 1 part of pow- dered turmeric to 5 parts of alcohol, and let macerate together for fully a week. To Sweeten Rancid Butter.— I.— Wash the butter first with fresh milk and after- wards with spring water, carefully work- ing out the residual water. iL— Add 25 to 30 drops of lime chlor- ide to every 2 pounds of butter, work the mass up thoroughly, then wash in plenty ol fresn, cold water, and work out the roidual water. 111. — Melt the butter in a water bath, along with some freshly burned animal charcoal, coarsely powdered and care- fully sifted to free it from dust. After tMi has remained in contact for a few Bxaotcs, the butter ia strained through s dean flannel. If the rancid odor is not completely removed, complete the process. An English Margarine. — ^A mixture of edible fats of suitable consistency, e. g., oleo oil, 5 parts; neutral lard, 7 parts; and butter, 1 part; is mixed with albuminous "batter," 4 parts, with the addition of 1 part of salt as a preservative. If the albuminous constituent be composed of the whites and yolks of eggs beaten to a foam the product will have the consist- ency and color of butter. The molten fats are added to the egg batter and the whole is stirred at a temperature suffi- cient to produce coagulation of the albu- men (150-200* F.). The mass is then cooled graduallv with continuous stir- ring, and the salt is worked in. Olive-Oil Paste.— If an ounce of peeled garlic be rubbed up into a pulp, in a clean Wedgwood mortar, and to this be added^ from 3 to 4 ounces of good olive oil, with constant rubbing up with the pestle, the oil becomes converted into a pasty mass, like butter. It is possible that the mucilage obtainable from other bulbs of the Luium tribe would prove equally efiScient in conferring semi- solidity on the oil, without imparting an^ strong smell. The above composition is largely used by the Spanish peasantry, instead of butter, which runs liquid in the Spanish summer. It is known as "aleoli." The more easily solidified portion of olive oil is stearine, and this may be cheaply prepared from mutton fat. If added, in certain proportions, to olive oil, it would certainly raise its melt- ing point. BUTTERMILK, ARTIFICIAL. Buttermilk powder, 10 parts; vineffar, 1 part; syrup of buckthorn, 1 part. Dis- solve^ the powder in the water and add the vinegar and syrup. The powder is prepared as follows: Sodium chloride, 50 parts; milk sugar, 100 parts; potas- sium nitrate, 5 parts; alum, 5 parts. Mix. BUTTER, ARTIFICIAL: TESTS FOR: See Foods. BUTTER COLORANT: See Foods. BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL AGATE: See Agate. CADMIUM ALLOYS: See Alloys. CAFE PARFAIT: See Ice Creams. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 144 CALAMUS CORDIAL— CAMPHOR CALAMUS CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. CALCIUM CARBIDE: Preservation and Use of Calcium Carbide. — Calcium carbide is readily at- tacked by the air and the moisture con- tained in the generators and consequent- ly decomposes during the storing, with formation of acetylene gas. Aside from the loss, this decomposition is also at- tended with dangers. One of the oldest methods of preservation is the saturation of the carbide with petroleum. In using such carbide a layer of petroleum forms on the surface of the water in the gener- ator, which prevents the water from evaporating, thus limiting the subse- quent {generation of acetylene from the remaining carbide. Instead of petro- leum many other substances have been proposed which answer the purpose euually well, e. g., toluol, oils, solia bodies, which previously have to be liquefied, such as stearine^ paraffine, rosin, etc. Of a different nature is a medium of- fered by Letang of Paris. He em- Eloys sugar or saccharine bodies to which e adds, if necessary, a little petroleum, turpentine, vaseline, or varnish of any kind, as well as chalk, limestone, talc, sulphur, or sand. The carbide is coated witn this mixture. The saccharine sub- stances dissolve in the generating water, and also have a dissolving action on the slaked lime, which is formed by the de- composition of the carbide which admits of its easy removal. Accordins to another process carbide is put on the market in such a shape that, without weighing, merely by count- ing or measuring one is in a position to use et at the above temperature. Clear white crystals form from the drippings, which remained unchanged, protected from air and light, while by repeating the same process more clear crystals are obtained from the solidified dark col- ored mother Ive. In this manner 75 to 80 per cent of clear product is obtained altogether. Diigniaing Odor of Carbolic Add.— Knr stronger smelling substance will dis- guise the odor of carbolic add, to an ex- tent at leasts but it is a difficult odor to diftguise on account of its persistence. Camphor and some of the volatile oils, iucb as peppermint, cajeput, caraway, dove, and wintergreen may be used. To Scstora Reddened Carbolic Add. — I>emont*s method consists in melting the add on the water bath, adding 12 per cent v4 alcohol of 95 per cent, letting cool down and. after the ^eater part of the substance has crystallized out, decanting the liquid residue. The crystals ob- tained in this manner are snowv white, and on being melted yield a nearly color- less liquid. The alcohol may be recov- ered by redistillation at a low tempera- ture. This is a rather costly procedure. CARBOLIC SOAP: See Soap. CARBOLIHEUM: See also Paints and Wood. Preparation of Carbolineum. —I. —Melt together 50 parts of American rosin (F) and 150 parts of pale paraffine oil (yel- low oil), and add, with stirring, 20 parts of rosin oil (rectified). II. — Sixty parts, bjr weight, of black coal tar oil ot a specific gravity higher than 1.10; 25 parts, by weight, of creo- sote oil; 25 parts, by weight, of beech- wood tar oil of a higher specific weight than 0.9. Mix together and heat to about 847® F., or until the fumes given off begin to deposit soot. The resulting carbolineum is brown, and of somewhat thick consistency; when cool it is ready for use and is packed in casks. This improved carbolineum is applied to wood or masonry with a brush; the surfaces treated dry quickly, very soon loose the odor of the carbolineum, and are effec- tively protected from dampness and for- mation of fungi. CARBON PRINTING: See Photography. CARBON PROCESS IN PHOTOGRA- PHY: See Photography. CARBONYLE : See Wood. CARBUNCLE REMEDIES: See Boil Remedy. CARDS (PLAYING), TO CLEAN : See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. CARDBOARD, WATERPROOF GLUE FOR: See Adhesives under Cements and Waterproof Glues. CARDBOARD, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. CARMINATIVES: See Pain Killers. CARPET PRESERVATION: See Household Formulas. CARPET SOAP: See Soap. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 148 CASEIN CARRIAGE-TOP DRESSING: See Leather. CARRON OIL: See Cosmetics. CASE HARDENING: See Steel. Casein Dried Caiein, its ManulACture and Uses. — For the production of casein, skimmed milk or buttermilk is used, articles of slight value, as they cannot be employed for feeding bogs or for making cheese, except of a very inferior sort, m little or no alimentive qualities. This milk is heated to from TO"" to 90'' C. (175^-195'* F.). and sulphuric or hydro- chloric acid is added until it no longer causes precipitation. The precipitate is washed to free it from residual lactose, redissolved in a sodium carbonate solu- tion, and again precipitated, this time bv lactic acid. It is again washed, dried, and pulverized. It takes 8 gallons of skimmed milk to make 1 pound of dry casein. In the manufacture of fancy papers, or papers that are made to imitate the appearance of various cloths, laces, ana silks, casein is ver^ widely used. It is also largely used in waterproof- ing tissues, for preparation of water- proof products, and various articles prepared from agglomeration of cork (packing boards, etc.). With lime water casein makes a glue that resists heat, steam, etc. It also enters into the manu- facture of the various articles made from artificial ivory (billiard balls, combs, toilet boxes, etc.), imitation of celluloid, meerschaum, etc., and is finding new uses every day. Casein, as known, may act the part of an acid and combine with bases to form casei nates or caseates; among these compounds, caseinates of potash, of soda, and of ammonia are the only^ ones soluble in water; all the others are insol- uble and may be readily prepared by double decomposition. Thus, for ex- ample, to obtain casei nate of alumina it is sufficient to add to a solution of casein in caustic soda, a solution of sulphate of alumina; an insoluble precipitate of ca- sein, or caseinate of alumina, is instantly formed. This precipitate ought to be freed from the sulphate of soda (formed by double decomposition), by means of pro- longed washing. Pure, ordinary cellu- lose may be incorporated with it by this process, producing a new compound, cheaper than pure cellulose, although possessing the same properties, and capa- ble of replacing it in all its applications. According to the results desired, in transparencv, color, hardness, etc., the most suitable caseinate should be select- ed. Thus, if a translucent compound is to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina yields the best. If a white compound is desired, the caseinate of zinc, or of mag- nesia, should be chosen; and for colored products the caseinates of iron, copper, and nickel will give varied tints. The process employed for the new prod- ucts, with a base of celluloid and casein- ate, is as follows: On one hand casein ia dissolved in a solution of caustic soda (100 parts of water for 10 to t5 parts of soda), and this liquid is filtered to separate the matters not dissolved and the impurities. On the other hand, a salt of the base of which the caseinate is desired is dis- solved, and the solution filtered. It im well not to operate on too concentrated a solution. The two solutions are mixed in a receptacle provided with a mechan- ical stirrer, in order to obtain the in- soluble caseinate precipitate in as finely divided a state as possible. This precip- itate shoutd be washed thoroughly, so as to free it from the soda salt formed by double decomposition, but on account of its gummy or pasty state, this washinir presents certain difficulties, and should be done carefullv. After the washing the mass is freed from the greater part of water contained, by draining, followed by drying, or energetic pressing; then it is washed in alcohol, aried or pressed again, and is readv to be incorporated in the plastic mass of the celluloid. For the latter immersion and washing it has been found that an addition of 1 to 5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it renders the mass more plastic, and facil- itates the operation of mixing. This may be conaucted in a mixing appara- tus; but, in practice, it is found prefer- able to effect it with a rolling mill, oper^ atinff as follows: Tne nitro-cellulose is introduced in the plastic state, and moistened with a solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50 parts of camphor in 50 to 70 of alcohol for 100 of nitro-cellulose) as it is prac- ticed in celluloid factories. This plastic mass of nitro-ceUulose is placed in a rolling mill, the cylinders of which are slightly heated at the same time as the caseinate, prepared as abo^e; then the whole mass is worked by the cylinders until the mixture of the two Digitized by VjOOQ IC CASTING 149 » perfectly homogeneous, and the final maMs 19 sufficiently hard to be drawn out in leaves in the same way as practiced forpure celluloid. These leaves are placed in hydraulic presses, where they are compressed, Drst hot, then cold, and the block thus formed is afterwards cut into leaves of the thickness desired. These leaves are dried in an apparatus in the same way as ordinary celluloid. The product resembles celluloid, and has all its prop- erties. At 90° to 100** C. (194° to «12° F.), it becomes quite plastic, and is easily molded. It may be sawed, filed, turned, and carved without difficulty, and takes on a superb polish. It burns less readily than celluloid, and its com- bustibility diminishes in proportion as the percentage of caseinate increases; finally, the cost price is less than that of celluloid, and by using a large proportion of caseinate, products may oe manu- factured at an extremely low cost. Phospluite of Casein and its Pro- dwcdon, — The process is designed to produce a strongly acid compound of phosphoric acid and casein, practically stable and not hydroscopic, which may be employed as an acid ingredient in bakers veast and for other purposes. The phosphoric acid may be obtained by any convenient method; for example, br decomposing dicalcic or monocalcic paosphate with sulphuric acid. The commercial phosphonc acid may also be employed. The casein may be precipitated from the skimmed milk by means of a suitable acid, and should be washed with cold water to remove impurities. A casein- ate may also be employed, such as a compound of casein and an alkali or an alkaline earth. The new compound is produced in the following way: A sufficient quantity of phosphoric acid is incorporated with the casein or a caseinate in such a way as to insure sufficient acidity in the resulting compound. The employment of 28 to i3^ parts by weight of phosphoric acid with 75 to 77 parts of casein constitutes a lEood proportion. An aqueous solution of phosphoric sctd is made, and the casein introduced to the proportion of 25 to 50 per cent of the weight of the phosphoric acid pres- ent. The mixture is then heated till the curdled form of the casein disappears, sod it assumes a uniform fluid form. Then the mixture is concentrated to a syrupy consistencv. The remainder of the casein or of Ine caseinate is added and mixed with the solution until it is intimately incorporated and the mass becomes uniform. The compound is dried in a current of hot air, or in an^ other way that will not discolor it, and it is ground to a fine powder. The inti- mate union of the phosphoric acid and casein during the gradual concentra- tion of the mixture and during the grind- ing and drying, removes the hydroscopic property of tne phosphoric; .acid, and produces a dry and stable product, which may be regarded as a hjrperphos- phate of casein. When it is mixed with water, it swells and dissolves slowly. When this compound is mingled with its e()uivalent of sodium bicarbonate it yields about 17 per cent of gas. CASEIN CEMENTS: See Adhesives. CASEIN VARNISH: See Varnishes. CASKS : To Render Shrunken Wooden Casks Watertight.— When a wooden receptacle has dried up it naturally cannot hold the water poured into it for the purpose of swelling it, and the pouring has to be repeated manv times before the desired end is reached. A much ouicker wav is to stuff the receptacle full of straw or bad hay, laying a stone on top and then filling the vessel with water. Although the water runs off again, the moistened straw remains behind and greatly assists the swelling up of the wood. CASSIUS. PURPLE OF: See Gold. CASKET TRIMMINGS: See Castings. CASTS (PLASTER), PRESERVATION OF: See Plaster. CASTS, REPAIRING OF BROKEN: See Adhesives and Lutes. CASTS FROM WAX MODELS: See Modeling. Casting Castings Out of Various Metals.— Un- til recent years metal castings were all made in sand molds; that is, the patterns were used for the impressions in the sand, the same as iron castings are pro- duced to-day. Nearly all of the softer metals are now cast in brass, copper, sine, or iron molds, and only the silver Digitized by VjOOQ IC 150 CASTING and German silver articles, like wire real bronze, are cast the old way, in sand. Aluminum can be readily cast in iron molds, especially if the molds hove been previously heated to nearly the same temperature as the molten aluminum, and after the molds are full the metal is cooled gradually and the casting taken out as soon as cooled enough to prevent breaking from the shrinkage. Large bicycle frames have been successfully cast in this manner. The French bronzes, which are imi- tations, are cast in copper or brass molds. The material used is principally zinc and tin, and an unlimited number of castings can be made in the mold, but if a real bronze piece is to be produced it must be out of copper and the mold made in sand. To make the castings hollow, with sand, a core is required. This fills the inside of the figure so that the molten copper runs around it, and as the core is maae out of sand, the same can be after- wards washed out. If the casting is to be hollow and is to be cast in a metal mold, then the process is very simple. The mold is filled with molten metal, and when the operator thinks the desired thickness has cooled next to the walls, he pours out the balance. An experienced man can make hollow castings in this way, and make the walls of any thick- ness. Casket hardware trimmings, which are so extensive! v used on coffins, es- pecially the handles, are nearly all cast out of tin and antimonv, and in brass molds. The metal used is brittle, and requires strengthening at the weak por- tions, and thi.H is mostly done with wood filling or with iron rods, which are secured in the molds before the metal is poured in. Aluminum castings, which one has procured at the foundries, are usually alloyed with zinc. This has a close affin- ity with aluminum, and allocs readily; but this mixture is a detriment and causes much trouble afterwards. While this alloy assists the molder to produce his castings easily, on the other hand it will not polish well and will corrode in a short time. Those difficulties may be avoided if pure aluminum is used. Plaster of Paris molds are the easiest made for pieces where only a few cast- ings are wanted. The only difficulty is that it requires a few days to dry the plaster thoroughly, and that is abso- lutely necessary to use them successfully. Not only can the softer metals be run into plaster molds, but gold and silver can be run into them. A plaster mold should be well smoked over a gaslight* or until well covered with a layer of soot, and the metal^ should be poured in aa cool a state as it will run. To Prevent the Adhetion of ModaUne Sand to Caitinga.~Use a mixture of finely ground coke and mphite. Al- though the former material is nighly por> ous, possessing this quality even as a fine powder, and the fine pulverisation is a difficult operation, still the invention attains its purpose of producing an ab- solutelj smooth surface. This is ac- complished by mixing both substances intimately and adding melted rosin, whereupon the whole mass is exposed l<» heat, so that the rosin decomposes, its carbon residue filling up the finest pores of the coke. The rosin, in melting, carries the fine graphite particles along into the pores. After cooling the mav'» is first ground in edge mills, then again in a suitable manner and sifted. Sur- prising results are obtained with this material. It is advisable to take pro- portionately little graphite, as the dif- terent co-efficients of expansion of the two substances may easily exercise a dis- turbing action. One-fifth of graphite* in respect to the whole mass, gives the best results, but it is advisable to add plenty of rosin. The liquid mixture must, before burning, possess the con- sistency of mortar. Sand Holea in Catt^Braat Work.— Cast-brass work, when it presents nu- merous and deep sand holes, should l>e well dipped into the dipping acid before being polished, in order thoroughly to clean these objectionable cavities; and the polishing should be pushed to an ex- tent sufficient to obliterate the smaller sand holes, if possible, as this class of work looks very unsightlv, when niated and finished, if pitted all over witJi mi- nute hollows. The larger holes cannot, without considerable labor, be obliter- ated; indeed, it not infrequently happens that in endeavoring to work out such cavities thev become enlarged, as they often extena deep into the body of tKe metal. An experienced hand know% how far he dare go in polishing work of this awkward character. BUck Wash for Caatinf Molda.— Gumlac, 1 part; wood spint, < parts; lampblack, in sufficient quantity to color. How to Make a Plaiter Cast of a Coin or Medal. — The roost exact observ- ance of any written or printed directions is no guarantee of success. Practice alone can give expertness in this work. Digitized by VjOOQ IC CASTING 161 The composition of the moid is of the most Taried, but the materials most gen- f rail J used are plaster of Paris and brick dust« in the proportion of 2 parts of the first to 1 of tne second, stirred in water, with the addition of a little sal ammo- niac. The best quality of plaster for this purpose is the so-called alabaster, and the brick dust should be as finely powdered as possible. The addition of day, dried and very finely powdered, is recommended. With verr delicate ob- jects the proportion of plaster may be slightlv increased. The dry material should be thoroughly mixed before the addition of water. As the geometrically^ exact contour of the coin or medal is often the cause of breaking of the edges, the operator sometimes uses wax to make the edges appear half round and it also allows the casting to be more easily removed from the second half of the mold. Each half of the mold should be about the thickness of the finger. The keys, so called, of every plaster casting must not be for- Ktten. In the first casting some little If-spherical cavities should be scooped out, wnich will appear in the second half- round knobs, and which, by engaging with the depressions, will ensure exact- ness in the finished mold. After the plaster has set, cut a canal for the flow of the molten casting mate- rial, then dry the mold thoroughly in an oven strongly heated. The halves are now ready to be bound together with a light wire. When bound heat the mold gradually and slowly and let the mouth of the canal remain underneath while the heating is in progress, in order to prevent the possible entry of dirt or f<»rei^ matter. The heating should be continued as long as there is a suspicion of remaining moisture. When nnally assured of this fact, take out the mold, open it, and blow it out, to make sure of aosolute cleanness. Close and bind again and place on a hearth of fine, hot ^Jid. The mold should still be glowing when the casting is made. The ladle should contain plenty of metal, so as to hold the heat wnile the castine is being made. The presence of a litUe sine in the metal ensures a sharp casting. Finally, to ensure success, it is always better to provide two molds in case of accident. Even the most practiced metal moldcrs take this precaution, es- pecially when casting debcate objects. Bow to Make CftstingB of Insects.— The object —a dead beetle, for example — i» first arranged in a natural position. and the feet are connected with an oval rim of wax. It is thei^ fixed in the cen- ter of a paper or wooden box by means of pieces of nne wire, so that it is perfectly free, and thicker wires are run from the sides of the box to the object, which sub- sequently serve to form air channels in the mold b^ their removal. A wooden stick, tapering toward the bottom, is placed upon the back of the insect to produce a runner for casting. The box IS then filled up with a paste with 8 parts of plaster of Paris and 1 of brick dust, made up with a solution of alum and sal ammoniac. It is also well first to brush the object with this paste to pre- vent the formation of air bubbles. Af- ter the mold thtis formed has set, the object is removed from the interior by first reducing it to ashes. It is, there- fore, allowed to drv, very slowly at first, by leaving in the snade at a normal tem- perature (as in India this is much higher than in our zone, it will be necessary to place the mold in a moderately warm place), and afterwards heating gradually to a red heat. This incinerates the ob- ject, and melts the waxen base upon which it is placed. The latter escapes, and is burned as it does so, and the ob- ject, reduced to fine ashes, is removed through the wire holes as suggested above. The casting is then made m the ordinary manner. Casting of Soft Metal Castings.— I.— It is often diflicult to form flat back or half castings out of the softer metals so that they will run full, owing mostly to the thin edges and frail connections. In- stead of using solid metal backs for the molds it is better to use cardboard, or heavv, smooth paper, fastened to a wooden board fitted to the back of the other half of the mold. By this means very thin castings ma^ be produced that would be more difficult with a solid metal back. II.— To obtain a full casting in brass molds for soft metal two important Eoints should be observed. One is to ave the deep recesses vented so the air will escape, and the other is to have the mold properly blued. The bluing is best done by dipping the mold in sul- phuric acid, then pmcing it on a gas stove until the mold is a dark color. Unless this bluing is done it will be im- possible to obtain a sharp casting. Drosses. — All the softer grades of metal throw off considerable dross, which is usually skimmed off; esnecially with tin and its composition. Should much of this gather on the top of the molten Digitized by VjOOQ IC 152 CASTING metal, the drosses should all be saved, and melted down when there is enough for a kettle full. Dross may be remelted five or six times before all the good metal is out Fuel. — Where a good soft coal can be had at a low price, as in the middle West, this is perhaps the cheapnest and easiest fuel to use; and, besides, it has some ad- vantages over gas, which is so much used in the £ast. A soft-ooal fire can be regu- lated to keep the metal at an even tem- perature, and it is especially handy to Keep the metal in a molten state during the noon hour. This refers particularly to the gas furnaces that are operated from the power plant in the shop; when this power shuts down during tne noon hour the metal becomes chilled, and much time is lost by the remeltin^ after one o'clock, or at the beginning in the morning. Molds. — I. — Brass molds for the cast- ing of soft metal ornaments out of bri- tannia, pewter, spelter, etc., should be made out of brass that contains enough zinc to produce a light-colored brass. While this hard brass is more diflScult for the mold maker to cut, the superior- ity over the dark red copper-colored brass is that it will stand more heat and rougher usage and thereby offset the extra labor of cutting the hard brass. The mold should be heavv enough to re- tain sufficient heat while the worker is removing a finished casting from the mold so that the next pouring will come full. If the mold is too light it cools more quickly, and consequently the cast- inn are chilled and will not run full. Where the molds are heavy enough they will admit the use of a swab ana water after each pouring. This chills the casting so that it can be removed easily with the plyers. II. — Molds for the use of soft metal castin|(s may be made out of soft metal. This IS done with articles that are not numerous, or not often used; and may be looked upon as temporary. The molds are made in part the same as when of brass, and out of tin that contains as much hardening as possible. The hard- ening consists of antimony and copper. This metal mold must be painted over several times with Spanish red, which tends to prevent the metal from melt- ing. The metal must not be used too hot, otherwise it will melt the mold. By a little careful manipulation many pieces can be cast with these molds. III. — New iron or brass molds must be blued before they can be used for casting purposes. This is done by placing tne mold face downward on a charc* tained this way; the only objection being the length of time needed for a thorough drying of the mold. TempeFAture of MetaL — Metals for casting purposes should not be over- heated. If any of the softer metals show blue colors after cooling it is an indi- cation that the metal is too hot. Tbe metal should be heated enough so that it can be poured, and the finished casting have a Wight, clean appearance. The mold may be very warm, then the metal need not be so hot for bright, clean cast- inp. Some of tbe metals will not stand reheating too often, as this will cause them to run sluggish. Britannia metal should not be skimmed or stirred too much, otherwise there will be too much loss in the dross. CASTING IN WAX: See Modeling. CASTINGS, TO SOFTEN IRON: See Iron. Digitized by VjOOQ IC CASTOR OIL 158 CASTOR OIL: Purifying Rancid Castor Oil.— To dean rancid castor oil mix 100 parts of the oil at 95^ F. with a mixture of 1 part of alcohol (96 per cent) and 1 part of sulphuric acid. Allow to settle for 24 hours and then carefully decant from the preci Imitate. Now wash with warm water, boiUn^ for \ hour; allow to settle for i4 hours in well closed vessels, after which time the purified oil may be taken off. How to Pour Out Castor Oil. — Any one who has tried to pour castor oil from a square, 5«gallon can, when it is full, knows how difficult it is to avoid a mess. This, however, may be avoided by hav- ing a hole punched in the cap which screws onto tne can, and a tube, 2 inches long and i of an inch in diameter, sol- dered on. With a wire nail a hole is punched in the top of the can between the screw cap and the edge of the can. This will mdmit air while pouring. Resting the can on a table, with the screw-cap tube to the rear, the can is carefully tilted forward with one hand and the shop bottle held in the other. In this way the bottle may be filled without spilling anv of the oil and that, too, without a funnel. It is preferable to rest the can on a table when pouring from a 1- or 2-gallon square varnish can, when filling shop bottles. With the opening to the rear, the can is likewise tilted forward slowly so as to allow the surface of the lic|uid to become "at rest.'' Even mobile liquids, such as spirits of turpentine, may be poured into shop bottles without a fun- nel. Of course, the main thing is that the can be lowered slowly, otherwise the first portion may spurt out over the bot- tle. With 5-galion round cans it is possible to fill shop bottles in the same manner by resting the can on a box or counter. When a funnel is used for non- greasv li<|uids, the funnel may be slightly raised with the thumb and little fineer from the neck of the bottle, while hold- ing the bottle by the neck between the ouddle and ring fingers, to allow egress of air. Tasteless Castor Oil.— 1. — Pure castor oil . . 1 pint Cologne spirit . . S nuidounces Oil of winter- green 40 minims Oil of sassafras. 20 minims Oil of anise 15 minims Saccharine 5 grains Hot water, a sufficient quantity. Place the castor oil in a gallon bottle. Add a pint of hot water and shake vig- orously for about 15 minutes. Then pour the mixture into a vessel with a stopcock at its base, and allow the mix- ture to stand for 12 hours. Draw off the oil, excepting the last portion, which must be rejected. Dissolve the essential oils and saccharine in the cologne spirit and add to the washed castor oil. II. — First prepare an aromatic solution of saccharine as follows: Refined saccharine. . 25 parts Vanillin 5 parts Absolute alcohol .... 950 parts Oil of cinnamon .... 20 parts Dissolve the saccharine and vanillin in the alcohol, then add the cinnamon oil, agitate well and filter. Of this liquid add 20 parts to 980 parts of castor oil and mix bj^ agitation. Castor oil, like cod- liver oil, mBLy be rendered nearly taste- less, it is claimed, by treating it as fol- lows: Into a matrass of suitable size put 50 parts of freshly roasted coffee, ground as nne as possible, and 25 parts of puri- fied and freshly prepared bone or ivory black. Pour over tne mass 1,000 parts of the oil to be deodorized and renaered tasteless, and mix. Cork the container tightly, put on a water bath, and raise the temperature to about 140*' F. Keep at this heat from 15 to 20 minutes, then let cool down, slowly, to 90°, at which temperature let stand for 8 hours. Finally filter, and put up in small, well- stoppered bottles. III. — Vanillin 8 grains Garantose.. 4 grains Ol. menth. pip.. . . 8 minims Alcoholis 8 drachms Ol. ricinus 12 ounces Ol. olivse (im- ported), quan- tity sufficient ... 1 pint M. ft. sol. Mix vanillin, garantose, ol. naenth. pip. with alcohol and add castor oil and olive oil. Dose: One drachm to 2 fluidounces. IV. — The following keeps well: Castor oil 24 parts Glycerine 24 parts Tincture of orange peel 8 parts Tincture of senega 2 parts Cinnamon water enough to make. 100 parts Mix and make an emulsion. Dose is 1 tablespoonful. V. — One part of common cooking mo- lasses to 2 of castor oil is the best dis- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 154 CASTOR OIL— CATATYPy f^uise for the taste of the oil that can be used. VI.— Castor oil 1 J ounces Powdered acacia. . 2 drachms Sugar 2 drachms Peppermint water. 4 ounces Triturate the sugar and acacia, adding the oil gradually; when these have been thorougnly incorporated add the pep- permint water in small portions, tritu- rating the mixture until an emulsion is formed. VII. — This formula for an emulsion is said to yield a fairly satisfactory prod- uct: Castor oil 500 c.c. Mucilage of acacia 125 c.c. Spirit of gaultheria 10 grams Sugar 1 gram So£um bicarbonate. 1 gram VIII. — Castor oil, ...... . 1 ounce Compound tinc- ture of carda- mom 4 drachms Oil of wintergreen 8 drops Powdered acacia.. 8 drachms Sugar 2 drachms Cinnamon water enough to make 4 ounces. IX. — Castor oil 12 ounces Vanillin 8 grains Saccharine 4 grains Oil of peppermint. 8 minims Alcohol 8 drachms Olive oil enough to make 1 pint. In any case, use only a fresh oil. How to Take Castor Oil.— The disgust for castor oil is due to the odor, not to the taste. If the patient grips the nostrils firmly before pouring out the dose, drinks the oil complacently, and then thoroughly cleanses the mouth, lips, larynx, etc., with water, removing tne last vestige of the oil before removing the finffers, he will not get the least taste from tne oil, which is bland and taste- less. It all depends upon preventing any oil from entering the nose during the time while there is any oil present. Castor-Oil Chocolate Lozenges. — Cacao, free from oil . 250 parts Castor Oil 250 parts Sugar, pulverized . . . 500 parts Vanillin sugar 5 parts Mix the chocolate and oil and heat in the water, both under constant stirring. Have the sugar well dried and add, stir- ring constantly, to the molten mass. Continue the heat for SO minutes, then pour out and divide into lozenges in the usual way. CAT DISEASES AHD THEIR REME- DIES: See Insecticides and Veteri- nary Formulas. CATATYPY. It is a well-known fact that the reac- tions of the compounds of silver, plat- inum, and chromium in photographic processes are generally voluntary ones and that the light really acts onlv as an accelerator, that is to sa^ the chemicml properties of the preparations also change in tne dark, though a longer time is re- quired. When these pieparalions are ex- posed to the light under a negative, tb« modification of their chemical proper- ties is accelerated in such a way that, through the gradations of the lone- values in the negative, the positive print is formed. Now it has been found that we also have such accelerators in ma- terial substances that can be used in the light, the process being termed catalysis. It is remarkable that these substances, called catalyzers, apparently do not take part in the process, but bring about merely by their presence, decomposition or combination of other bodies during or upon contact. Hence, catalysis may he defined, in short, as the act of chan^ng or accelerating the speed of a chemical reaction by means or agents which ap- pear to remain stable. Professor Ostwald and Dr. O. Gran, of the Leipsic University, have given the name of catatypy" to the new copying Srocess. The use of light is entirely one away with, except that for the sake of convenience the manipulations are executed in the light. All that is neces- sary is to bring paper and negative into contact, no matter whether in the light or in the dark. Hence the negative (if necessary a positive may also be em- ployed) need not even be transparent, for the ascending and descending action of the tone values in the positive picture is produced only bv the quantity in the varying densitv of the silver powder contained in tne negative. Hence no photographic (light) picture, but a ca- tatypic picture (produced by contact) i% created, out the nnal result is the same. Catatjrp^ is carried out as follows: Pour dioxide of hydrogen over the nega- tive, which can be oone without any damage to the latter, and lav a piece of paper on (sized or unsizea, rough or smooth, according to the effect desired U by a contact lasting a few seconds the paper receives the picture, dioxide ol hydrogen being destroved. Prom a single application several prints can be made. The acquired picture — still in- Digitized by VjOOQ IC CATATYPy— CELLULOID 155 risible — may now in the further course of the process, have a reducing or oxy- dtzing action. As picture-producing bodies, the large ffroup of iron salts are above all eminenUy oidapted. but other substances, such as chromium, manga- nese,^ etc., as well as pigments with gnie solutions may also be employed. The development takes ^ place as follows: When the l>aper whicn has been in con- tart with tne negative is drawn through a solution of ferrous oxide, the protoxide \* transfonned into oxide by the per- oxide, hence a yellow positive picture, consisting of iron oxide, results, which can be readily changed into other com- pounds, so that the most varying tones of color can be obtained. ^ With the use of pigments, in conjunction with a glue solution, the action is as follows: In the places where the picture is, the layer with the pigments becomes insoluble and all other dye stuffs can be washed off with water. The chemical inks and reductions, as well as color pigments, of which the pic- tures consist, have been carefully tested and are composed of such as are known to possess unlimited durability. After a short contact, simply immerse the picture in the respective solution, waxh out, and a permanent picture is obtained. CATERPILLAR DESTROYERS: See Insecticides. CATGUT: Prepttifttioii of Catgut Sutures. —The catgut is stretched tightly over a glass plate tanned in 5 per cent watery extract of quebracho, washed for a short time in water, subjected to the action of a 4 per cent formalin solution for 24 to 48 hours, washed in running water for 24 hours, boiled in water for 10 to 15 minutes, and stored in a mixture of absolute al- cohol with 5 per cent glycerine and 4 per cent carbolic acid. In experiments on dogs, this suture material in aseptic wounds remained intact for 65 days, and was absorbed after 83 days. In infected wounds it was absorbed after S2 days. CATSUP (ADULTERATED): See Foods. CATTLE DIPS AND APPLICATIONS: See Disinfectants and Insecticides. CEIUHO CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, and also Household Formulas. CEILING PAINT: See Paint. CELERY COMPOUND. Celerv (seed ground) . 25 parts Coca leaves (ground). 25 parts Black haw (ground).. 25 parts Hyoscyamus leaves (ground) 12} parts Podophyllum (pow- dered) 10 parts Orange peel (ground) 6 parts Sugar (granulated).. . 100 parts Alcohol 150 parts Water, q. s. ad 400 parts Mix the alcohol with 150 parts of water and macerate drugs for 24 hours; pack in percolator and pour on men- struum till 340 parts is obtained ; dis- solve sugar in it and strain. CELLS FOR MICROSCOPICAL PUR- POSES: See Microscopy. CELLS, SOLUTIONS AND FILLERS FOR BATTERY: See Battery Solutions and Fillers. CELLARS, WATERPROOF: See Household Formulas. CELLOIDIN PAPER: See Paper. CeUuloid New Celluloid.— M. Ortmann has as- certained that turpentine produced by the Pintu larix, generally denominated Venice turpentine, in combination with acetone (dimethyl ketone), yields the best results; but other turpentines, such as the American from the Pinus australis, the Canada turpentine from the Pinus balsameat the French turpentine from the Pinus maritima, and Ketones, such as the ketone of methvl-ethyl, the ketone of dinaphthyl, the ketone of methyl- oxynaphthyl, and the ketone of dioxy- naphtnyl, may be employed. To put this process in practice, 1,000 parts of pyroxyline is prepared in the usual mannor, and mixed with 65 parts of turpentine, or 250 parts of ketone and 250 parts of ether; 500 parts or 750 parts of methyl alcohol is added, and a col- orant, such as desired. Instead of tur- pentine, rosins derived from it may be employed. If the employment of cam- phor is desired to a certain extent, it may oe added to the mixture. The whole is shaken and left at rest for about 12 hours. It is then passed between hot rollers, and 6nally pressed, cut, and dried, like or- dinary celluloid. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 156 CELLULOID The product thus obtained is without odor, when camphor is not employed; and in appearance and properties it can- not be distinguished from ordinary cel- luloid, while tne expense of production is considerably reduced. Formol Albumen for Prepaimtioii of Celluloid.— Formol has the property of forming combinations with most albu- minoid substances. These are not iden- tical with reference to plasticity, and the use which may be derived from them for the manufacture of plastic substances. This difference explains whjr albumen should not be confounded with gelatin or casein. With this in view, the SodM Anonyme I'Oyonnaxienne has originated the following processes: I. — The albumen may be that of the egg or that of the blood, which are readily found in trade. The formolizin^ may be effected in the moist state or in the dry state. The dry or moist albumen 18 brought into contact with the solution of commercial formol diluted to 5 or 10 per cent for an hour. Care must be taken to pulverize the albumen, if it is dry. The formol penetrates rapidlv into the albuminoid matter, and is fil- tered or decanted and washed with water until all the formol in excess has completely disappeared; this it is easy to ascertain by means of aniline water, which produces a turbid white as long as a trace of formic aldehyde remains. The formol albumen is afterwards dried at low temperature by submitting it to the action of a current of dry air at a temperature not exceeding 107^ F. Thus obtained, the product appears as a transparent corneous substance. On pulverizing, it becomes opaque and loses its transparency. It is completely in- soluble in water, but swells in this liquid. II. — The formol albumen is reduced to a perfectly homo^neous powder, and mixed intimately with the plastic matter before rolling. This cannot be con- sidered an adequate means for effecting the mixture. It is necessary to introduce the formol albumen, in the course of the moistening, either by making an emul- sion with camphor alcohol, or by mixing it thorouf^hly with nitro-cellulose, or by making simultaneously a thorough mix- ture of the three substances. Wtien the mixture is accomplished, the paste is rolled according to the usual operation. The quantity of formol albumen to add IS variable, being diminished according to the quantity of camphor. Instead of adding the desiccated for- mol albumen, it may previously be swollen in water in order to render it more malleable. Instead of simple water, alkaltnized or acidified water may be taken for this pur- pose, or even alcoholized water. The albumen, then, should be pressed be- tween paper or doth, in order to remove the excess of moisture. Plastic Substances of mtoo-CellulcMe Base. — ^To manufacture plastic substanen the Coropagnie Franj^ise du Celluloid commences by submitting casein to a special operation. It is soaked with a solution of acetate of urea in alcohol; for 100 parts of casein 5 parts of acetate of urea and 50 parts of alcohol are em- ployed. The mass swells, and in 48 nours the casein is thoroughly penetrat- ed. It is then ready to be incorporated with the camphored nitro-celiulose. The nitro-cellulose, having received the addi- tion of camphor, is soaked in the alcohol, and the mass ia well mixed. The casein prepared as described is introduced into the mass. The whole is mixed and left at rest for 2 days. The plastic pulp thus obtained is rolled, cut, and dried like ordinary cel- lulose, and by the same processes and apparatus. The pulp may also be eon- verted into tubes and other forms, like ordinary celluloid. It is advisable to subject the improved Slastic pulp to a treatment with lormal- ehyde for the purpose of rendering in- soluble the casein incorporated in the celluloid. The plastic product of nitro- cellulose base, thus obtained, presents in employment the same general proper- ties as ordinary celluloid. It may be applied to the various manufacturing processes in use for the preparation en articles of all kinds, and its cost price diminishes more or less according to the proportion of casein associated with the ordinary celluloid. In this plastic prod- uct various colorants may be incor- porated, and the appearance of shell, pearl, wood, marble, or ivory may also be imparted. Improved Celluloid. — This product is obtained by mingling with celluloid* un- der suitable conaitions, |[elatin or strong glue of gelatin base. Iti s clear that the replacement of part of the celluloid by the gelatin, of which the cost is much less, lowers materially the cost of the final product. The result is obtained without detriment to the qualities of the objects. These are said to be of superior properties, having more firmness than those of celluloid. And the new material Digitized by VjOOQ IC CELLULOID 167 ifl worked more readily than the celluloid employed alone. The new product may be prepared in open air or in a closed vessel under pres- sure.^ When operated in the air, the gel- atin is first immersed cold (in an^ form, and in a state more or less pure) m alco- hol marking about 140° F., with the addition of a certain quantity (for exam- ple, 5 to 10 per cent) of crvstallizable acetic add. in a few hours tne material has swollen considerably, and it is then introduced in alcohol of about 90 |)er cent, and at the same time the celluloid pulp (camphor and gun cotton), taking care to add a little acetone. The proportion of celluloid in the mixture mav be 50 to 75 per cent of the weight of the gelatin, more or less, according to the result desired. After heating the mixture slightly, it is worked, cold, hv the rollers ordinanljr employed for celluloid and other similar pastes, or by any other suit- able methods. The preparation in a closed vessel does not diner irom that which has been de- scribed, except for the introduction of the mixture of gelatin, celluloid, alco- hol, and acetone, at the moment when the heatinff is to be accomplished in an autoclave neated with steam, capable of supporting a pressure of 2 to 5 pounds, and f urnishea with a mechanical agita- tor. This method of proceeding abndges the operation considerably ; the paste comes from the autoclave well min- gled, and b then submitted to the action of rollers. There is but little work in distilling the alcohol and acetic add in the autoclave. These may be recovered, and on account of their evap- oration the mass presents the desired consistency when it reaches the rollers. Whichever of the two methods of prep- aration mav be employed, the sud- stance may be rolled as m the ordinary process, if a boiler with agitator is made use of; the mass may be produced in any form. Preparation of Uninflammable Cellu- loid.— The operation of this process by Woodward in the following: In a receiver of fflass or porcelain, liquefied fish glue and gum arabic are introduced and allowed to swell for 94 hours in a very ^Tf position, allowing the air to circulate fredy. The recdver is not covered. Afterwards it is heated on a water bath, and the contents stirred (for example, by means of a porcelain spatula) until the gnm ia completelv liquefied. The beatmg of the mass siioufd not exceed T7* F. Then the gdatin is added in such a way that there are no solid pieces. The receiver is removed from the water bath and colza oil added, while agitating anew. When the mixture is complete it is left to repose for 24 hours. Before cooling, the mixture is passed through a sieve in order to retain the pieces which may not have been dis- solved. After swelling, and the dissolu- tion and purification by means of the sieve, it is allowed to rest still in the same position, with access of air. The films formed while cooling may be re- moved. The treatment of celluloid necessitates employing a solution com- pletely colorless and clear. The cellu- loid to be treated while it is still in the pasty state should be in a receiver of glass, porcelain, or similar material. The mass containing the fish glue is poured in, drop by drop, while stirring carefully, taking care to pour it in the middle of the celluloid and to increase the surface of contact. When the mixture is complete, the cel- luloid is ready to be employed and does not produce name when exposed. Tne solution of fish glue maj be pre- pared by allowing 200 parts of it to swell for 48 hours in 1,000 parts of cold dis- tilled water. It is then passed through the sieve, and the pieces which may re- main are broken up, in order to mingle them thoroughly with the water. Ten parts of kitchen salt are then added, and the whole mass passed through the sieve. This product may be utilized for the preparation of photographic films or for those used for cinematographs, or for replacing hard caoutchouc for the insu- lation of electric conductors, and for the preparation of plastic objects. Substitute for Camphor in the Prepa- ration of Celluloid and Applicable to Other Purposes. — In this process commercial oil of turpentine, after being rectified by distillation over caustic soda, is subjected to the action of gaseous chlorhydric acid, in order to produce the solid mono- chlorhydrate of turpentine. After hav- ing, by means of the press, extracted the liquid monochlorhydrate, and after several washinp with cold water, the solid matter is desiccated and introduced into an autoclave apparatus capable of resisting a pressure of 6 atmospheres. Fifty per cent of caustic soda, calculated on the weight of the monochlorhydrate, and mingled with an equal quantitv of alcohol, IS added in the form of a thick solution. The apparatus is closed and heated for several hours at the temper- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 158 CELLULOID ature of 284'' to 802'' F. The material is washed several times for freeing it from the mingled sodium chloride and sodium hydrate, and the camphor re- sulting from this operation is treated in the following manner: In an autoclave constructed for the purpose, camphene and water strongly mixed with sulphuric acid are introduced and heated so as to attain 9 pounds of pressure. Then an electric current is applied, capable of producing the de- composition of water. The mass is constantly stirred, either mechanically or more simply bv allowing a little of the steam to escape by a tap. In an hour, at least, the material is drawn from the apparatus, washed and dried, sublimed according to need, and is then suitable for replacing camphor in its industrial employments, for the camphene is con- verted entirely or in greater part into camphor, either right-luind camphor, or a product optically inactive, according to the origin of the oil of turpentine made use of. In the electrolytic oxidation of the camphene, instead of using acidulated water, whatever is capable of furnishing, under the influence of the electric cur- rent, the oxygen necessary for the reac- tion, such as oxygenized water, barium bioxide, and the permanganates, may be employed. PUstic and Elastic Compositioii.— Formaldehyde has the property, as known, of removing from gelatin its solu- bility and its fusibility, but it has also another property, prejudicial in certain applications, of rendering the composi- tion hard and friable. In order to remedy this prejudicial action M. De- borda adds to the gelatin treated by means of formaldehyde, oil of turpen- tine, or a mixture of oil of turpentine and German turpentine or Venice turpentine. The addition removes from the composi- tion its friability and hardness, imparting to it great softness and elasticity. The effect is accomplished by a slight pro- portion, 5 to 10 per cent. Production of Substances Resembling Celluloid.— Most of the substitutes for camphor in the preparation of celluloid are attended with inconveniences limiting their employment and sometimes cans- ing their rejection. Thus, in one case thccplluioid does not allow of the prepa- ration of transparent bodies; in another it occasions too much softness in the products manufactured; and in still an- (ithtT it docs not allow of pressing, fold- ing, or other operations, because the mass is too brittle; in still others combinationa are produced which in time are affected unfavorably by the coloring substances employed. Calfenberg^ has found that the halo^ nous derivatives of etherised oils, |>nn- cipally oil of turpentine, and especially the solid chloride of turpentine, which is of a snowy and brilliant white, and of agreeable odor, are suitable for jrielding* either alone or mixed with camphor or one of its substitutes, and combined by ordinary means with nitrated cellulose, or other ethers of cellulose, treated with acetic ether, a celluloidic product, which, it is said, is not inferior to ordinary cellu- loid and has the advantage of reduced cost. Elastic Substitute lor CeUoloicL^ Acetic cellulose, like nitro-ceUulose, can be converted into an elastic corneous compound. The substances particu- larly suitable for the operation are or- gsmc substances containing one or more ydroxy, aldehydic, amide, or ketonic groups, as well as the acid amides. Prob- ably a bond is formed when these com- binations act on the acetate of cellulose, but the bond cannot well be defined, considering the complex nature of the molecule m cellulose. According to the mode of preparation, the suMtances obtained form a hard mass, more or less flexible. In the soft state, copies of en« graved designs can be reproduced in their finest details. When hardened* they can be cut and polished. In cer- tain respects they resemble celluloid, without its inflammability, and they can be employed in the same manner. They can be produced by the following meth- ods— the Lederer process: I. — Melt together 1 part of acetate of cellulose and 1 } parts of phenol at about the temperature of lOi"" to HS^'F. When a clear solution is obtained place the mass of reaction on plates of glass or metal slightly heated and allow it to cool gradually. After a rest of several days the mass, which at the outset is similar to caoutchouc, is hard and forms flexible plates, which can be worked like cellu- loid. n. — Compress an intimate mixture c»f equal parts of acetic cellulose and hy- drate of chloride or of aniline^ at a tem- perature of 122"* to 140"* F., and proceed as in the previous case. In the same way a ketone may be em- ployed, as acetophenone, or an acid amide, as acetamiae. III. — A transparent, celluloid-like sub- stance which is useful for the produc- Digitized by VjOOQ IC CELLULOID 159 tion of pUtes, tubes, and other articles, but especially as an underlay for sensitive films in photograph V, is produced by dissolrin^ 1.8 parts, oy weicht, of nitro- cellulose in 16 parts of ^ladfu acetic acid, with heating and stirring and addition of 5 parts of gelatin. After this has swelled up, add 7.5 parts, by weight, of alcohol (00 per cent), stirring constantly. The syrupy product may be pressed into molds or |K>ured, after furtner dilution with the said solvents in the stated pro- portion, upon glass plates to form thin layers. Tne dried articles are well washed with water, which may contain a tiBce of soda lye, and dried again. Pho- tographic foundations produced in this manner do not change, nor attack the layers sensitive to li^bt, nor do they be- come electric, and m developing they remain flat. IV. — ^Viscose is the name of a new product of the class of substances like celluloid, pegamoid, etc., substances hav- ing most varied and valuable appli- cations. It is obtained directlv from cellulose by mascerating this substance in a 1 per cent dilution of hydrochloric acid. The maceration is allowed to con- tinue for several hours, and at its close the liquid is decanted and the residue u pressed o£F and^ washed thoroughly. The mass (of which we will suppose there is 100 grams) is then treated with a 20 per cent aqueous solution of sodium hjdrate, which dissolves it. The solu- tion is allowed to stand for 8 days in a tightly closed vessel; 100 grams carbon disulphide are then added, the vessel closed and allowed to stand for 12 hours longer, when it is ready for purification. Viscose thus formed is soluble in water, cold or tepid, and yields a solution of a pale brownish color, from which it is precipitated by alcohol and sodium chloride, which purifies it, but at the expense of much of its solubility. A so- lution of the precipitated article is color- leas, or of a Slightly pale yellow. Under the action of heat, lon^ continued, vis- cose is decomposed, yielding cellulose, caustic soda* and carbon disulphide. See also Casein for Celluloid Substi- tutes. CeUnloid of Reduced Inflammability. — I. — A practicable method consists in incorporating silica, which does not harm the essential properties of the cel- luloid. The material is divided by the usual methods, and dissolved by means of the usual solvents, to which silica has been added, either in the state uf amylic, elhylic, or methylic silicate, or in the state of any ether derivative of silicic acid. The suitable proportions var^ accordins to the degree of inflammability desired, and according to the proportion of silica in the ether derivative employed; but sufficient freedom from inflammability for practical purposes is attained by the following proportions: Fifty-five to 65 parts in volume of the solvent of the celluloid, and S5 to 45 parts of the de- rivative of silicic acid. When the ether derivative is in the solid form, such, for instance, as ethyl disilicate, it is brought to the liquid state by means of any of the solvents. The union of the solvent and of the derivative is accomplished by mixing the two liquids and shaking out the air as much as possible. The incorporation of this mixture with the celluloid, pre- viousljr divided or reduced to the state of chips, is effected by pouring the mixture on the chips, or inversely, snakinff or stir- ring as free from the air as possible. The usiud methods are employed for the des- iccation of the mass. A good result is obtained by drying very slowly, pref- erably at a temperature not above 10^ . C. (50® F.). The resulting residue is a new product scarcely distinguished from ordinary celluloid, except that the in- herent inflainmability is considerably reduced. It is not important to emplov any individual silicate or derivative. A mixture of the silicates or derivatives mentioned will accomplish the same results. II. — Any ignited bodv is extinguished in a gaseous medium which is unsuitable for combustion; the attempt has there- fore been made to find products capable of producing an uninflammable gas; and products have been selected that yield chlorine, and others producing bromine; it is also necessary that these bodies should be soluble in a solvent of cellu- loid; therefore, among chlorated prod- ucts, ferric chloride has been taken; this is soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture. This is the process: An ether-alcohol solution of celluloid is made; then an ether-alcohol solution of ferric perchlor- ide. The two solutions are mingled, and a clear, syrupy liquid of yellow color, Gieldin^ no precipitate, is obtained. The quid IS poured into a cup or any suit- able vessel; it is left for spontaneous evaporation, and a substance of shell- color is produced, which, after washing and drying, effects the desired result. The ceUuloid thus treated loses none of its properties in pliability and trans- parency, and is not only uninflammable, out also incombustible. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 160 CELLULOID Of^ bromated compounds, calcium bromide bas been selected, which pro- duces nearly the same result; the product obtained fuses in the flame; outside, it is extinguished, without the power of igni- tion. It may be objected that ferric perchlor- ide and calcium bromide, beinc soluble in water, mav present to the celluloid a surface capable of being affected by moist air; but the mass of celluloid, not being liable to penetration by water, fixes the cnlorinatea or brominated product. Still, as the celluloid undergoes a slight decomposition, on exposure to the lignt, allowing small quantities of camphor to evaporate, the surface of the perefalorin- ateo celluloid may be fixed by immer- sion in albuminous water, after previous treatment with a solution of oxalic acid, if a light yellow product is desired. For preventing the calcium bromide from eventually oozing on the surface of the celluloid, by reason of its Miques- cence, it may be fixed by immersing the celluloid in water acidulated with sul- phuric acid. For industrial products, such as toilet articles, celluloid with fer- ric perchloride mav be employed. Another method of preparing an un- inflammable celluloid, based on the prin- ciple above mentioned, consists in mix- ing bromide of camphor with cotton powder, adding castor oil to soften the product, in order that it may be less brittle. The latter product is not in- combustible, but it is uninflammaUe, and its facilitv of preparation reduces at least one-half the apparatus ordinarily made use of in the manufacture of cellu- loid. The manufacture of this product is not at all dangerous, for the camphor bromide is strictly uninflammable, and may be melted without any danger of dissolving the gun cotton. III.— Dissolve 25 parts of ordinary celluloidin in 250 parts of acetone and add a solution of 50 parts of magnesium chloride in 150 parts of alcohol, until a paste results, wnk*h occurs with a pro- portion of about 100 parts of the former solution to 20 parts of the latter solution. This paste is carefully mixed and worked through, then dried, and f^ves an abso- lutely incombustible material. 1 v.— Glass-like plates which are im- pervious to acids. salU, and alkalies, flexible, odorless, and infrangible, and still possess a transparency similar to ordinary glass, are said to be obtained by dissolving 4 to 8 per cent of collodion wool (soluble pvroxvlin) in 1 per cent of ether or alcohol and mixing tne solution with 2 to 4 per cent of castor oil, or a similar non-resinifying oil, and with 4 to 6 per cent of Canada balsam. The in- flammability of these plates Is claimed to be much less than with others of collo- dion, and may be almost entirely obviat- ed by admixture of masnesium chloride. An addition of sine wnite produces the appearance of ivory. Solvents lor Celluloid.— Celluloid dis- solves in acetone, sulphuric ether, alco- hol, oil of turpentine, benzine, amyl acetate, etc., alone, or in various com- binations of these agents. The follow- ing are some proportions for solutio&s of celluloid: I.— Celluloid 5 parts Amyl acetate 10 parts Acetone 16 parta Sulphuric ether .... 16 parta II. ^Celluloid 10 parU Sulphuric ether .... SO parts Acetone 50 parts Amyl acetate 50 parts Camphor 3 parts Ill.^Celluloid 5 parU Alcohol 50 parts Camphor 5 parta IV.— Celluloid 5 parts Amyl acetate 50 parts v.— Celluloid 5 parts Amyl acetate 25 parts Acetone 25 parts Softening and Cementing Celluloid. — If celluloid is to be warmed onlv suffi- ciently to be able to bend it, a bath in boiling water will answer. In steam at UQ"" C. (248'' F.), however, it becomes so soft that it may be easily kneaded like dough, so that one may even imbed in it metal, wood, or any similar material. If it be intended to soften it to solubility, the celluloid must then be scraped fine and macerated in 90 per cent alcohol, whereupon it takes on the character of cement and may be used to join broken pieces of celluloid together. Solutions of celluloid may be prepared: 1. Wth 5 parts, by weight, of celluloid in 10 parts, by weight, each of amyl acetate* acetone, and sulphuric ether. 2. With 10 parts, by weight, of celluloid in SO parts, by weight, each of sulphuric ether* acetone, amyl acetate, and 4 parts, hy weight, camphor. S. With 5 parts, by weight, celluloid in 50 parts, by weight, alccmol and 5 parts, by weight, camphor. 4. With 5 parts, bv weight, celluloid in 50 parts, by weight, amyl acetate. 5. With 5 parts, by weight, celluloid in 25 parts, by weight, amyl acetate and ^S parts, by weight, acetone. Digitized by VjOOQ IC CEMENTS 161 It IS often desirable to soften celluloid so that it will not break when hammered. Dipping it in water warmed to 40^ C. (104* P.) will suffice for this. Mending Celluloid.— Celluloid dishes which show cracks are easily repaired br brushing the surface repeatedly with alcohol, S parts, and ether, 4 parts, until the masa turns soft and can be readily sque^ted together. The pressure must be maintained for about one day. By putting onlv 1 part of ether in 8 parts of alcohol and addins a little shellac, a ce- ment for celluloid is obtained, which, applied warm, produces quicker results. Another very useful gluing agent for cel- luloid receptacles is concentrated acetic acid. The celluloid fragments dabbed with it stick together almost instantane- ously. See also Adhesives for Methods of Mending Celluloid. PrintiAg on Celluloid. — Printing on celluloid may be done in the usual way. Make ready the form so as to be perfectly level on the impression — that is, uniform to impreasional touch on the face. The tympan should be hard. Bring up the form squarely, allowing for about a S- or 4'9heet cardboard to be withdrawn from the tympan when about to proceed with printing on the celluloid; this is to allow uw the thickness of the sheet of celluloid. Um« live but drv and well-seasoned roll- ers. Special inks of different colors are made tor this kind of press work; in black a good card- job quality will be found about right, if a few drops of copal varnish are mixed with the ink before beginning to print. ColoffwiCeUuloid.' Black : First dip into pure water, then into a solution of mtrate of silver; let dry tn the light. Yellow: First immerse in a solution of nitrate of lead, then in a concentrated »olation of chromate of potash. Brown: Dip into a solution of per- manganate of potash made strongly alkafine bythe addition of soda. Blue: Dip into a solution of indigo neutralised by the addition of soda. Red: First dip into a diluted bath of nitric acid; then into an ammoniacal »oiution of carmine. Green: Dip into a solution of verdi- gna- Aniline colors may also be employed but they are leas permanent. Bkncliing CeUutoid.—If the celluloid has become discolored throughout, its vbiteneas can hardly be restored, but if merely superficially discolored, wipe with a woolen rag wet with absolute alcohol and ether mixed in equal proportions. This dissolves and removes a minute superficial layer and lavs bare a new surface. To restore the polish rub briskly first with a woolen cloth and fin- ish with silk or fine chamois. A little jeweler's rouge or putzpomade greatly facilitates matters. Ink marks may be removed in the same manner. Printer's ink may be removed from celluloid by rubbing first with oil of turpentine and afterwards with alcohol and ether. Process of Impregnating Fabrics with Celluloid.— The fabric is first saturated with a dilute celluloid solution of the consistency of olive oil, which solution penetrates deepljr into the tissue; dry quickly in a heating chamber and satu- rate with a more concentrated celluloid solution, about as viscous as molasses. If oil be added to the celluloid solution, the (quantity should be small in the first solution, e. g., 1 to 2 per cent, in the following ones 5 to 8 per cent, while the outer layer contains very little or no oil. A fabric impregnated in this manner possesses a very fiexible surface, because the outer layer may be very thin, while the interior consists of many flexible fibers surrounded by celluloid. CELLULOID CEMERTS AlffD GLUES: See Adhesives. CELLULOID LACQUER: See Lacquer. CELLULOID PUTTY: See Cements. CELLULOID VARNISH: See Japan Varnish. Cements (See also Putties.) For Adhesive Cements intended for repairing broken articles, see Adhe- sives. Putty for Celluloid. —To fasten cellu- loid to wood, tin, etc., use a compound of 2 parts shellac, 8 parts spirit of cam- phor, and 4 parts strong alcohol. Plumbers' Cement. — A plumbers' ce- ment consists of 1 part black rosin, melted, and 2 parts of brickdust, thor- oughly powdered and dried. Cement for Steam and Water Pipes.— A cement for pipe joints is made as fol- lows: Ten pounds fine yellow ocher; 4 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 162 CEMENTS pounds ground litharffe; 4 pounds whit- tng, and \ pound of nemp^ cut up fine. Mix togetner thoroughly with linseed oil to about the consistency of putty. Gutter Cement. ^Stir sand and fine lime into boiled paint skins while hot and thick. Use hot. Cement lor Pipe Joints. — A good ce- ment for making tight joints in pumps, pipes, etc., is made of a mixture of 15 parts of slaked lime, 50 parts of graphite, and 40 parts of barium sulphate. Tne in- gredients are powdered, well mixed to- gether, and stirred up with 15 parts of boiled oil. A stiffer preparation can be made by increasing the proportions of ffraphite and barium sulphate to 90 and 40 parts respectively, and omitting the lime. Anotner cement for the same purpose consists of 15 parts of chalk and 50 of graphite, ground, washed, mixed, and reground to fine powder. To this mixture is added 20 parts of ground litharge, and the whole mixed to a stiff paste with about 15 parts of boiled oil. This last preparation possesses the ad- vantage of remaining plastic for a long time when stored in a cool place. Finally, a good and simple mixture for ti^teninff screw connections is made from powderea shellac dissolved in 10 per cent ammonia. •The mucinous mass is painted over the screw threads, after the latter have been thorouffblv cleaned, and the fitting is screwed nome. The ammonia soon volatilizes, leaving behind a mass which hardens quickly, makes a tight joint, and is impervious to hot and cold water. Protection for Cement Work.— A coating of soluble glass will impart to cement surfaces exposed to ammonia not only a protective covering, but also increased solidness. Cemented surfaces can be protected from the action of the weather by re- peated coats of a green vitriol solution consisting of 1 part of green vitriol and 9 parts of water. Two coatings of 5 per cent soap water are said to render the cement waterproof; after drying and rubbinff with a cloth or brush, this coat- ing win become ^ossy like oil paint. This application is especially recom- mended for sick rooms, since the walls can be readily cleaned b;r washing with soapy water. The coating is rendered more and more waterproof thereby. The green vitriol solution is likewise commendable for application on old and new plastering, since it produces thereon waterproof coatings. From old plas- tering the loose particles have first to be removed by washing. Puncture Cement.— A patented prepa- ration for automatically repairing punc- tures in bicvcle tires consists of glycerine holding gelatinous silica or aluminum hvdrate in suspension. Three volumes of glycerine are mixed with 1 volume of liquid water glass, and an add is stirred in. The resulting jelly is diluted with S additional volumes of sljrcerine, and from 4 to 0 ounces of this fluid are placed in each tire. In case of puncture, the internal pressure of the air forces the fluid into the nole, which it closes. To Fix Iron in Stone.— Of the quickly hardenin|[ cements, lead and sulphur, the latter is popularly employed. It can be rendered stdl more suitable for pur- poses of pouring by the admixture of Portland cement which is stirred intci the molten sulphur in the ratio of 1 to S Ctrts by weignt. The strenf^h of thr tter is increased by this addition, since the formation of so coarse a crystalline structure as that of solidifying pure sul- phur is disturbed by the powder added. White Portland Cement.— Mix to^th- • er feklspar, 40-100 parts, by weight; kaolin, 100 parts; limestone, 700 partji: magnesite, 20-40 parts; and sodium chloride, 2.5-5 parts, sil as pure as possible, and heat to USO"" to 1500"" C. (2606'' to 2782<' P.), until the whole haa become sintered together, and forms m nice, white cement-Tike mass. Cement for Ckmng CimckB in Stoi — Make a putty of reduced iron (iron by hydrogen) and a solution of sodium or potassium silicate, and force it into the crack. If the crack be a very nar- row one, make the iron and silicate into paste instead of putty. This material grows firmer and narder the longer the mended article is used. Cement for Waterpipe.— I.— Mix to- gether 11 parts, by weight, Portlan«l cement; 4 parts, by weight, lead white; 1 part, by weight, lithari^; and make to a paste with boiled oil in which 9 per cent of its weight of colophony has been dissolved. II.— Mix 1 part, b^ weight, torn- up wadding; 1 part, by weight, of quicklime, and 9 parts, by weight* of boiled oil This cement must be used as soon a^ made. Cement lor Pallet Stones. —Place small pieces of shellac around the stone when in position and subject it to heat. OftrYi the lac spreads unevenlv or awelU up; and this, in addition lo being unM|(htl>\ is apt to displace the stone. Thta can be avoided as follows: The pallets arc Digitized by VjOOQ IC CEMENTC 163 held in lonff fliding tongs. Take a piece of Aheilac, neat it and roll it into a pylin- der between the fingers; again heat the extremity and draw it out into a fine thread. This thread will break off, leav- ing a Doint at the end of the lac. Now heat tJie tongs at a little distance from the pallets, testing the degree of heat by touctiinjg the ton^s witn the shellac. When it melts easily, lightly touch the two sides of the notch with it; a very thin layer can thus be spread over them, and tbe pallet stone can then be placed in position and held until cold enough. The tongs will not lose the heat sud- denly, ao that the stone can easily be raised or lowered as required. The pro- jrctinff particles of cement can be re> movea by a brass wire filed to an angle and forming a scraper. To cement a ruby pin, or the like, one may also use shellac dissolved in spirit, applied in the consistency of syrup, and liquefied again by means of a hot pincette, by seizing the stone with it. DEIITAL CEMEIITS: Fairthome^s Cement— Powdered glass, 5 parts; powdered borax, 4 parts; silicic acid, 8 parts; zinc oxide, 200 parts. Powder verv finely and mix; then tint with a small Quantity of golden ocher or manganese. The compound, mixed be- fore use with concentrated syrupy zinc- rhJoride solution, soon becomes as hard a.« marble and constitutes a very durable tooth cement. Huebner's Cement.— Zinc oxide, 500.0 parts; powdered manganese, 1.5 parts; yrllow ocher, powdered, 1.5-4.0 parts; powdered borax, 10.0 parts; powdered ffia«s, 100.0 parts. As a binaing liquid it is well to use acid-free zinc chloride, which can be prepared by dissolving pure zinc, free from iron, in concentrated, pure, hydro- rhioric acid, in such a manner that zinc i% always in excess. When no more hj^- drogen is evolved the zinc in excess is otiU left in the solution for some time. The latter is filtered and boiled down to the consistency of syrup. Commercial zinc oxide cannot be em- ffloyed without previous treatment, be- cause it b too loose; the denser it is the l>etter i» it adapted for dental cements, and the harder the latter will be. For \hi% reason it is well, in order to obtain a dense product, to stir the commercial pure zinc oxide into a stiff paste with vat«r to which S per cent of nitric acid has been added; tlie paste is dried and t^aled for some time at white heat in a Ucssian crucible. After cooling, the zinc oxide, thus ob- tained, is very finely powdered and kept in hermetically sealed vessels, so that it cannot absorb carbonic acid. The dental cement prepared with such zinc oxide turns very hard and solidifies with the concentrated zinc-chloride solution in a few minutes. Phosphate Cement— Concentrate pure phosphoric acid till semi-solid, and mix aluminum phosphate with it by heat- ing. For use, mix with zinc oxide to the consistency of putty. The cement is said to set in 2 minutes. Zinc Amalgam, or Dentists' Zinc. — This consists of pure zinc filings com- bined with twice their weight of mercury, a gentle heat being employed to render the union more complete. It is best ap- plied as soon as made. Its color is gray, and it is said to be effective and durable. Sorel's Cement— Mix zinc oxide with half its bulk of fine sand, add a solu- tion of zinc chloride of 1.260 specific gravity, and rub the whole thoroughly together in a mortar. The mixture must be applied at once, as it hardens very quickly. Metallic Cement— Pure tin, with a small proportion of cadmium and suf- ficient mercury, forms the most lasting and, for all practical purposes, the least objectionable amalgam. Melt 2 parts of tin with 1 of cadmium, run it into in- gots, and reduce it to filings. Form tnose into a fluid amalgam with mercury, and squeeze out the excess of the latter througn leather. Work up - the solid residue in the hand, and press it into the tooth. Or melt some beeswax in a pip- kin, throw in 5 parts of cadmium, and when melted add 7 or 8 parts of tin in small pieces. Pour the melted metals into an iron or wooden box, and shake them until cold, so as to obtain the alloy in a powder. This is mixed with 2 J to S times its weight of mercury in the palm of the hand, and used as above descnbed. CEMENT COLORS: See Stone. CEMENT, MORDANT FOR: See Mordants. CEMENT, PAINTS FOR: See Paint. CEMENT, PROTECTION OF, AGAINST ACID: See Acid- Proofing. CEMENTATION: See Steel. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 164 CERAMICS CHAIN OF FISE: See Pyrotechnics. CHAmS (WATCH), TO CLEAN: See CleAning P^epmmtioM and Meth- ods. CHALK FOR TAILORS. Knead together ordinary pipe clay, moistened with ultramarine blue for blue, finely ground ocher for yellow, etc., until they are uniformly mixed, roll out into thin sheets, cut and press into wood- en or metallic molds, well oiled to pre- vent sticking, and allow to dry slowly at ordinary temperature or at a very gentle heat. CHAMOIS SKIN. TO CLEAN: See Qeaning Preparations and Meth- ods. CHAPPED HANDS: See Cosmetics. CHART A SINAPIS: See Mustard Paper. CHARTREUSE : See Wines and Liquors. Ceramics GROUND CERAMICS— LAYING FOR: See Oil. OIL NotM for Potten, GIam-, and Brick- makers. — It is of the highest importance in selecting oxides, minerals, etc., for manufacturing different articles, for potters' use, to secure pure goods, es- pecially in the purchase of the following: Lead, mangjanese, oxide of sine, borax, whiting, oxide of iron, and oxide of cobalt. The different ingredients com- E rising any given color or glaze should e thoroughly mixed before being cal- cined, otherwise the mass will be of a streaky or variegated kind. Calcination requires care, especially in the manu- facture of enamel colors. Over-firing, particularly of colors or enamels com- posed in part of lead, borax, antimony, or litharge, causes a dullness of shade, or film, tnat reduces their value for decora- tive purposes, where clearness and bril- liancy are of the first importance. To arrest the unsightly defect of "crazing," the following have been the most successful methods employed, in the order given: I. — Flux made of 10 parts tincal; 4 parts oxide of zinc; 1 part soda. II. — A calcination of 5 parts oxide of line; 1 part peari ash. III. — Addition of raw oxide of zinc, 6 pounds to each hundredweight of glaze. To glazed brick and tile makers, whose chief difficulty appears to be the produc- tion of a slip to suit the contraction of their clay, and adhere strongly to either a day or a burnt brick or tiHe, the follow- ins method may be reoommended: Mix together: Ball day 10 parts Cornwall stone 10 parts China day 7 parts Flint 6i parts To be mixed and lawned one week before use. To Cut Pottery.— Pottery or any soft or even hard stone substance can be cut without chipping by a disk of soft iron, the edge of wnicn has been char|^ with emery, diamond, or other ffrinding pow- der, that can be obtainea at any tool agency. The cutting has to be done with a liberal supplv of water fed con- tinually to the revmvittg disk and the substance to be cut. BRICK AND ULEMAKERS' GLAZED BRICKS: White.— When the brick or tile leaves the press, with a ver^ soft brush cover the part to be fflazed with No. 1 Slip; after- wards dip the face in the same mixture. No. I Slip.— Same day as brick . . 9 parts Flint I part Ball clay 5 parU China 4 parts Allow the brick to remain slowly drr- ing for 8 to 10 hours, then when mout dip in the white body. White Body.— China day t4 parts Ball clay 8 parU Fddspar 8 parts Flint 4 parts The brick should now be dried slowly but thoroughly, and when perfectly dry dip the face in clean cold water, and im» mediately afterwards in ^aae. Hard Glaze.— Feldspar 18 parts Cornwall stone 94 parts Whiting. U part* Oxide of zinc 14 parts Plaster of Paris f part Digitized by VjOOQ IC CERAMICS 165 SoftGUze.— White lead 13 parts Feldspar 20 parts Oxide of zinc 3 parts Plaster of Paris 1 part Flint glass 13 parts Cornwall stone 3} parts Paris white if parts Where clay is used that will stand a very high fire, the white lead and glass may be left out. A wire brush should now be used to remove all superfluous daze, etc., from the sides and ends of the brick, which is then ready for the kiln. In placing, set the bricks face to face, about an inch space being left between the two glased faces. All the mixtures, after being mixed with water to the con- sistency oi cream, must be passed 2 or 3 times through a very fine fawn. The kiln most not be opened till perfectly cold. ProoeflB for Colored Glazes.— Use color, 1 part, to white body, 7 parts. Use color, 1 part, to glaze, 9 parts. Prepamtion of Colors. — The specified ingreoients should all be obtained finely ground, and after beinff mixed in the proportions given should, in a saggar or some day vessel, be fired in the brick kiln and afterwards ground for use. In firin|( the ingredients the highest heat attainable is necessary. Torquoise. — Oxide of zinc 8 parts Oxide of cobalt 1} parts Gnsi Green. — Oxide of chrome 6 parts Flint 1 part Oxide of copper ) part Royal Blue.— Pure alumina 20 parts Oxide of zinc 8 parts Oxide of cobalt 4 parts Matirine Blue. — Oxide of cobalt 10 parts Paris white 9 parts Sulphate barytes 1 part Red Brown. — Oxide of zinc 40 parts Crocus of martis 6 parts Oxide of chrome 6 parts Red lead 5 parts Boradc add 5 parts Red oxide of iron .... 1 part Ormoge.— Pure alumina 5 parts Oxide of zinc 2 parts Bichromate of potash. 1 part Iron scale } pitrt Claret Brown. — Bichromate of potash. 2 parts Flint 2 parts Oxide of zinc 1 part Iron scale 1 part Blue Green. — Oxide of chrome 6 parts Flint 2 parte Oxide of cobalt f part Sky Blue.— Flint 9 parte Oxide of zinc 18 parte Cobalt 21 parte Phosphate soda 1 part Chrome Green. — Oxide of chrome 8 parte Oxide of copper 1 part Carbonate of cobalt . . 1 part Oxide of cobalt 2 parte OUve.— Oxide of chrome 8 parte Oxide of zinc 2 parte Flint 5 parte Oxide of cobalt 1 part Blood Red.— Oxide of zinc 80 parte Crocus martis 7 parte Oxide of chrome 7 parte Litharge 5 parte Borax 5 parte Red oxide of iron 2 parte Black.— Chromate of iron 24 parte Oxide of nickel 2 parte Oxide of tin 2 parte Oxide of cobalt 5 parte Imperial Blue. — Oxide of cobalt 10 parte Black color 1) parte Paris white 7) parte Flint 21 parte Carbonate of soda ... 1 part Mahogany.— Chromate of iron 80 parte Oxide of manganese. . 20 parte Oxide of zinc 12 parte Oxide of tin 4 parte Crocus martis 2 parte Gordon Green. — Oxide of chrome 12 parte Paris white 8 parte Bichromate of potash. 4) parts Oxide of cobalt f part Violet.— Oxide of cobalt 2) parte Oxide of manganese. . 4 parte Oxide of zinc 8 parte Cornwall stone 8 parte Digitized by VjOOQ IC 166 CERAMICS Lavender. — Calcined oxide of zinc 5 parts Carbonate of cobalt . . f part Oxide of nickel } part Paris white 1 part Blown. — Manganese 4 parts Oxide of chrome 2 parts Oxide of zinc 4 parts Sulphate barytes 2 parts Dove. — Oxide of nickel 7 parts Oxide of cobalt 2 parts Oxide of chrome 1 part Oxide of flint 18 parts Paris white 8 parts Tellow Green.— Flint 6 parts Paris white 4 parts Bichromate of potash. 4) parts Red lead 2 parts Fluorspar 2 parts Plaster of Paris 1 ) parts Oxide of copper \ part BODIES REQUIRING NO STAIN: Ivory.— Cane marl 16 parts Ball clay 12 parts Feldspar 8 parU China clay 6 parts Flint 4 parts Creani.— > Ballclav 22 parts China clay 5 ) parts Flint 5 parts Feldspar 3} parts Cane marl 12 parts Black.— Ballclav 120 parts Ground ocher 120 parts Ground manganese. 35 parts Bitff.- Ballclav 12 parts China clay 10 parts Frldiipar 8 parts Hull nre clay 16 parts Yellow ocher 3 parts Drab.- Cane marl SO parts Ball clay 10 parts Stone 7 parts Feldspar 4 parts Brown.— Red marl 50 parts (*hina clay 7 parts Ground manganese. . 6 parts FVldn. or ripening, as it is called, to a state sim- ilar to that in which it originally exi^trtl in the milk. In those English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses which are nearlv in> odorous, and in the superior kinds of French cheese, the casein of the milk b« present in its unaltered state. " The odor and flavor of the cheese i« due to the decomposition of the butter: the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic acids, and the volatile butyric acitl. capric and caproic acids are liberated in consequence of the decomp(»«iti4«n of glycerine. Butyric acid imparts to cheese its characteristic caseous tMlor, and the differences in its pungency ur aromatic flavor depend upon the propor- tion of free butyric, capnc, and caproic acids present. In the cheese of certain dairies and districts, valerianic arid ha« been detected along with the other acid* just referred to. Meam Jljenjo and Laskowski found this acid in the cheei^e of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that uf Roquefort. "The transition of the insoluble int«> soluble casein depends upon the de- composition of the phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of tne butter; maA garate oMime is formed, whilst the pbo^ phoric acid combines with the casria. forming a compound soluble in water. "The bad smell of inferior kinds nl cheese, especially those called mcaagvr or poor cheeses, is caused by certain fetitl products containing sulphur, and vliirli are formed by the decomposition or p«i- tref action of the casein. The altera t»4>u which the butter undergoes (that i»« in becoming rancid), or which occurs in tKe milk-sugar still present, being traaa- mitted to the casein, changes both tl»e compofiition of the latter suDstaace and its nutritive (qualities. ** The principal conditions fur the ntrf>- aration of the superior kinds of riieloyed in its manufacture and the rich- oeM of the milk of which it is made. Much depends upon the quantity of cream it contains, and, consequently, when a superior quality of cheese is de- sired cream is frequently added to the curd. This jplan is adopted in the man- ufactare of Stilton cheese and others of a like description. The addition of a pound or two of butter to the curd for a middling size cheese also vastly improves the quality of the product. To insure the richness of the milk, not only should the cows be properly fed, but certain breeds chosen. Those of Alderney, Cheddar. Cheshire, etc., have been widely preferred. The materials employed in making cheese are milk and rennet. Rennet is Bsed either fresh or salted and dried; generally in the latter state. The milk may be of any kind, according to the quality of the cheese required. Cows* milk is that generally employed, but occa- nonally ewes' milk is used; and some- limes, though more rarely, that from goats. la preparing his cheese the dairy farmer puts the greater portion of the milk into a large tub, to which he adds the remainder, sufficiently heated to raise the temperature to that of new milk. The wnole is then whisked to- gether, the rennet or rennet liquor added, and the tub covered over. It is now al- itmed to stand until completely " turned," when the curd is gently struck down several times^ with the skimming dish, after which it is allowed to subside. The vat, covered with cheese cloth, is next placed on a " horse " or " ladder " over the tub, and filled with curd by m^^ns of the skimmer, care being taken to allow as little as possible of Uie oily particles or butter to run back with the vbey. The curd is pressed down with the bands, and more added as it sinks. Tkb process is repeated until the curd riies Id about two inches above the edffe. The newly formed cheese, thus partially •eparated from the whey, is now placed in a dean tub, and a proper Quantity of xalt, as well as of annotta, added when ^kal eoloring is used, after which a board 14 placed over and under it, and pressure applied for about 2 or 3 hours. The cheese is next turned out and surrounded by a fresh cheese cloth, and then again submitted to pressure in the cheese press for 8 or 10 hours, after which it is commonly removed frcnn the press, salted all over, and again pressed lor 15 to 20 hours. The quality of the cheese es- pecially depends on this part of the proc- ess, as if any of the whey is left in the cheese it rapid! ^r becomes bad-flavored. Before placing it in the press the last time the common practice is to pare the edges smooth and sightly. It now only remains to wash tne outside of the cheese in warm whey^ or water, to wipe it dry, and to color it with annotta or reddle, as is usually done. The storing of the newly made cheese is the next point that engages the atten- tion of the maker and wholesale dealer. The same principles which influence the maturation or ripening of fermented liquors also operate nere. A cool cellar, neither damp nor dry, and which is un- influenced by change of weather or sea- son, is commonly regarded as the best for the purpose. If possible, the tem- perature should on no account be per- mitted to exceed 50^ or 52<* F. at any portion of the year. An average of about 45® F. is preferable when it can be procured. A place exposed to sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese as it is for storing beer. *'The quality of Roauefort cheese, which is prepared from sneep's milk, and is very excellent, depends exclusively upon the places where the cheeses are kept after pressing and during maturation. These are cellars, communicating with mountain grottoes and caverns which are kept constantly cool, at about 41® to 42® F., by currents of air from clefts in the mountains. The value of these cel- lars as storehouses varies with their property of maintaining an equable and low temperature." It will thus be seen that very slight differences in the materials, in the prep- aration, or in storing of the cheese, ma- terially influence the quality and flavor of this article. The ricnness of the milk; the addition to or subtraction of cream from the milk; the separation of the curd from the whe^ with or without com- pression; the salting of the curd; the collection of the curd, either whole or broken, before pressing; the addition of coloring matter, as annotta or saffron, or of flavorine; the place and method of stor- ing; ana the length of time allowed for maturation, all tend to alter the taste and odor of the cheese in some or other par- ticular, and that in a way readily percep- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 176 CHEESE Uble to the palate of the connoisseur. No other alimentary substance appears to be so seriously affected by slight variations in the quality of the materials from which it u niade, or by such ap- parently trifling differences in the metn- ods of pre|>aring. The varieties of cheese met with in commerce are very numerous, and differ greatlv from each other in richness, color, and flavor. These are commonly dis- tinguished by names indicative of the places in which they have been manufac- tured* or of the quality of the materials from which they have been prepared. Thus we have Dutch, Gloucester, Stil- ton, skimmed milk, raw milk, cream, and other cheeses; names which explain them- selves. The following are the principal varieties: American Factory. —Same as Cheddar. Brickbat.— Named from its form; made, in Wiltshire, of new milk and cream. Brie. — A soft, white, cream cheese of French origin. Cheddar.— A fine, spongy kind of cheese, the eves or vesicles of which con- tain a rich oil; made up into round, thick cheeses of considerable size (150 to 200 pounds). Cheshire. — From new milk, without skimming, the morning's milk being mixed with that of the preceding even- ing's, previously warmed, so that the whole may be brought to the heat of new milk. To this the rennet is added, in less quantity than is commonly used for other kinds of cheese. On this point much of the flavor and mildness of the cheese is said to depend. A piece of dried rennet, of the sixe of a half-dolkr put into a pint of water over night, and allowed to stand until the next morn- ing, is suflicient for 18 or 20 gallons of rouk; in large, round, thick cheeses (100 to 800 pounds each). They are gen- erally solid, homogeneous, and dry, and friaUe rather than viscid. Cottesluun. — A rich kind of cheese, in flavor and consistence not unlike Stilton, from which, however, it differs in shape, being flatter and broader than the latter. Cream. — From the "strippings" (the last of the milk drawn from the cow at each milking), from a mixture of milk and cream, or from raw cream only, ac- cording to the quality desired. It is usually made in small oblong, square, or rounded cakes, a general pressure only (that of a 2- or 4-pound weight) being applied to press out the whey. After W hours it is placed upon a board or wood- en trencher, and turned every dav until dry. It ripens in about S weeks. A little salt is generally added, and fre- quently a little powdered lump sugar. Dameon. — Prepared from damsons boiled with a little water, the pulp pasM-d through a sieve, and then boiled with about one-fourth the weight of sugar, until the mixture solidifies on cooling: it is next poured into small tin molds pre- viously dusted out with sugar. Cherry cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum chee«»e, etc., are prepared in the same way« using the respective kinds of fruit. Tnejr are all very agreeable candies or confectjont. Derbyshire.— A small, white, rirfa variety, very similar to Dunlop chec»e. Dunlop. — Rich, white, and buttery: in round forms, weighing from SO to 60 pounds. Dutch (Holland).— Of a globular form, 6 to 14 pounds each. Those frf»m Edam are very highly salted; those fr«>m Gouda less so. Emmenthaler.— Same as Gniy^. Gloucester.- Single Gloucester^ from milk deprived of part of its cream; dou- ble Gloucester, from milk retaining the whole of the cream. Mild tasted, semi- buttery consistence, without being fri- able; in large, round, flattish forma. Green or Sage.— From milk mixed with the juice of an infusion or decoction <»f sage leaves, to which marigold flower* and parsley are frequently added* Gruy^. — A fine kind of cheese made in Switxeriand, and largely consuinem- pletely dissolved. Pour this warm solu- tion over the polished side of the glass, so that the liquid is evenly distributetl. The best way is to pour the solution on the upper right-hand comer, allowing it to flow into the left-hand corner, from there to the left below and right below, finally letting the superfluous liquid run off. Take the photograph, which has been previously .slightly moistened on the back, lay it with the picture side on the gelatin-covered plate, cen- tering it nicely, and squeeze out the excess gelatin solution gently, prefer- ably by means of a rubber squeegee. Care must be taken, however, not to dis- place the picture in this manipulation, as it is easilv spoiled. The solution must never be allowed to boil, since this would render the ^Imtin brittle and would result in the Dicture. after having been finished, craclung off from the glass in a short time. When the picture has been attached to the glai.smuth ^It renders alcoholic fermentation more complete. II. — Calcium sulphite (sulphite of limel M largely used to prevent fermen- tation in cider. About } to } of an ounce - and-down cisnr without the graceful curve of the 'Terfecto**; a •'Conchas** u very short and fat, and a "Londres** i« shaped like a "Perfecto** except that it does not taper to so small a head at the liffhting end. A **Reina Victoria** is a "Londres** that comes packed in a rib- bon-tied bundle of 50 pieces, instead of in the usual four layers of 13, 12, 13 and 12. How to Keep Cignn.— Ci^rs kept in a case are influenced every time the cm»ectin may be removed by cautious precipita- tion with tannin, of which onlv an ex- ceedingly small amount is usuallv neces- sary. It combines with the gelatinous substances better with the aid of heat than in the cold. There must be no ex- cess of tannin used. Another method of clarifying liquids turbid from particles of gum, albumen, pectin, etc., is to add to them a definite ?|uantity of alcohol. This causes the ormer substances to separate in more or less large flakes. The quantity of alco- hol required varies greatly according to the nature of the liquid. It should be determined in each case by an experiment on a small scale. Resinous or waxy substances, such as are occasionally met with in honey, etc., may be removed by the addition of bole, ulped filtering paper, and heating to oiling. In each case the clarifying process may be hastened b^ making the separat- ing particles s|>ecincally heavier; tnat is, by incorporating some heavier sub- stance, such as talcum, etc., which may cause the flocculi to sink more rapidly, and to form a compact sediment. Clarifying powder for alcoholic liquids: Egg albumen, dry 40 parts Sugar of milk 40 parts SUrch to parts Reduce them to very fine powder, and mix thoroughly. t For clarifying liquors, wines, essences, etc., take for every quart of liquid 75 grains of the above mixture, shake re- peatedly in the course of a few days, the mixture being kept in a warm room, then filter. Powdered talcum renders the same service, and has the additional advan- tage of being entirely insoluble. How- ever, the above mixture acts more ener- getically. CLAY: Claying Mixture for Forges. --Twenty parts fire clay; 20 parts cast-iron turn- ings; 1 part common salt; } part sal am- moniac; all b^ measure. The materials should be thoroughly niixed dry and then wet down to the con- sistency of common mortar, constantly stirring the mass as the wetting proceed:*. A rough mold shaped to fit the tuyere opening, a trowel, and a few minute«* time are all that are needed to compete the successful claying of the forge. Thw mixture dries hard and when glased by the fire will last. Plastic Modeling Clay.— A perma- nently plastic cla^ can be obtained by first mixing it with glycerine, turpen- tine, or similar bodies, and then adding vaseline or petroleum residues rich in vaseline. The proportion of clay to the vaseline varies according to the desire*! consistency of the product, the admix- ture of vaseline varying from 10 to 50 per cent. It is obvious that the hardne^% of the material decreases with tbr amount of vaseline added, so that the one richest in vaseline will be the softest. By the use of various varieties of clay and the suitable choice of admixtures, the plasticity, as well as the color of the i may be varied. Geaning Preparations and Methods (See also Soaps, Polishes, and House- hold Formulas). TO REMOVE STAINS FROM THE HANDS: Removal of Aniline-Dre Stains from the Skin.— Rub the stained Mn with a pindi of sli^htl)r moistened red vr%%- tals of chromic trioxiIake a hot solution of sodium hydrate m distilled water, of strength of from S per cent to 5 per cent, according to the age, etc., of the stain. Have pre- pared some bits of heavy blotting paper somewhat larger than the spot to be re- moved; also, a blotting pad, or several pieces of heavy blotting paper. I^y the soiled page face downward on the blot- ting pad, then, saturating one of the bits of Diotter with the hot sodium hydrate solution, put it on the stain and go over it with a hot smoothing iron. If one ap- plication does not remove all the greaNC or stain, repeat the operation. Then saturate another bit of blotting paper with a 4 per cent or 5 per rent solution of hv- drochloric acid in distilled water, appl^ it to the place, and pa^s the iron over it to neutrahze the strong alkali. TIiIh prcice^s will instantly restore anv faded writing or printing, and make the paper bright and fresh again. Glycerine as a Detergent.— For cer- tain kinds of obstinate spots (such as coffee and chocolate, for instance) there is no better detergent than glycerine, especially for fabrics with delicate colors. Apply the glycerine to the spot, with a sponge or otherwise, let stand a min- ute or so, then wash off with water or alcohol. Hot glycerine is even more efficient than cold. CLEAimiG SKINS AHD LEATHER: See also Leather. To Clean Colored Leather.— Pour ear- bon bisulphide on non- vulcanised gutta- percha, and allow it to stand about ^4 hours. After shaking actively add more gutta-percha gradually until the sohitioo becomes of gelatinous consistency. This mixture is applied in suitable quan- tity to oil-stained, colored leather and allowed to dry two or three hours. The subsec^uent operation consists merely in removing the coat of crutta-percha from the surface of the leatner — that is, rub- bing it with the fingers, and rolUng it off the surface. The color is not injured in the least by the sulphuret of carbon; only those leathers on which a dressing containing starch has been used look a little lighter in color, but the better class of leathers are not so dressed. The dry gutta-per- cha can be redissolved in sulphuret of carbon and used over again. To Clean Skina Used for Poliahiac Purposes. — First beat them thorousrhly to get rid of dust, then ^o over the sunace on both sides with a piece of good white soap and lay them in warm water in which has been put a little soda. Let them lie here for i hours, then wash them in plentv of tepid water, rubbing then vigorously until perfectly dean. Thi« bath should also oe maoe alkaline with soda. The skins are finally rinsed to warm water, and dried quickly. Cold water must be avoided at all stages of the cleansing process, as it has a tendency to shrink ana harden the skins. The bc*st way to clean a chamois skin is to wash and rinse it out in clean water immediately after use, but this practice is apt to be neglected so that the skin be* comes saturated with dirt and grime. To clean it, first thoroughly soak in clean, soft water. Then, after suapinit it and rolling it into a compact wad, Wat with a small round stick — a buggy spoke. say --turning the wad over repeatedly, and keeping it well wet and soaped. This should suflice to loosen the dirt. Then rinse in clean water until the skin Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 187 U cle«n. As wringing by hand is apt to injure the chamois skm, it is advisable to use a small clothes wringer. Before using the skin again rinse it in clear water to which a litUe pulverized alum has been added. STRAW-HAT RENOVATION: To Renovate Straw Hats.— I. — Hats made ot natural (uncolored) straw, which have become soiled by wear, may be cleaned bj thoroughly sponging with a weak solution of tartaric acid in water, followed by water alone. The hat after bcin^ so treated should be fastened by the nm to a board by means of pins, so that it will keep its shape in drying. n. — Sponge the stzaw with a solution of By weight Sodium hyposulphite. 10 parts Glycerine 5 parts Alcohol 10 parts Water 75 parts Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours and tnen apply By weight Citric acid 2 parts Alcohol 10 parts Water 90 parts Press with a moderately hot iron, after stiffening with weak gum water, if neces- ni. — ^If the hat has become much dark- ened in tint by wear the fumes of burning sulphur may be employed. The material should be first cleaned by thoroughly sponging with an aqueous solution^ of potassium carbonate, followed by a sim- uar application of water, and it is then sospended over the sulphur fumes. These are generated by placing in a metal or earthen dish, so mounted as to keep the beat from setting fire to anything beneath, some brimstone (roll ^ sulphur), and sprinkling over it some live coals to start combustion. The operation is con- ducted in a deeo box or barrel, the dish of burning sulphur being placed at the bottom, and the article to be bleached being suspended from a string stretched srross the top. A cover not fitting so tigbtljr as to exclude all air is placed over it, and the apparatus allowed to stand for a few hours. Hats so treated will require to be stif- fened by the application of a little gum viter, and pressed on a block with a hot iron to bring them back into shape. Waterproof Stiffei^ for Straw Hats. ^If a waterproof stiffening is reouired oae one of the varnishes for which for- Balas follow: I. — Copal 450 parts Sandarac 75 parts Venice turpentine 40 parts Castor oil 5 parts Alcohol 800 parts II.— Shellac 500 parts Sandarac 175 parts Venice turpentine 50 parts Castor oil 15 parts Alcohol 2,000 parts III.— Shellac 750 parts Rosin 150 parts Venice turpentine 150 parts Castor oil 20 parts Alcohol 2,500 parts How to Clean a Panama Hat. — Scrub with castile soap and warm water, a nail brush being^used as an aid to get the dirt away. The hat is then placea in the hot sun to dry and in the course of two or three hours is ready for use. It will not only be as clean as when new, but it will retain its shape admirably. The cleaned hat will be a trifle stiff at first, but will soon grow supple under wear. A little glycerine added to the rinsing water entirely prevents the stiffness and brittleness ac(]uired by some hats in dry- ing, while a little ammonia in the wasn- ing water materially assists in the scrub- bing process. Ivory, or, in fact, any good white soap, will answer as well as castile for the purpose. It is well to rinse a second time, adding the glycerine to the water used the second time. Im- merse the hat completely in the rinse water, movinj^ it aoout to get rid of traces of the dirtv water. When the hat has been thorou^nly rinsed, press out the surplus water, using a Turlosh bath towel for the purpose, and let it rest on the towel when drying. PAINT, VARNISH, AND ENAMEL RE- MOVERS: To Remove Old Oil, Paint, or Varnish CoatB. — I. — Apply a mixture of about 5 parts of potassium silicate (water glass, SO per cent), about 1 part of soda lye (40 per cent), and 1 part of ammonia. The composition dissolves the old varnish coat, as well as the paint, down to the bottom. The varnish coatings which are to be removed may be brushed off or left for days in a hardened state. Upon being thoroughly moistened with water the old varnish may be readily washed off, the lacquer as well as the oil paint coming off completely. The ammonia otherwise employed dissolves the var- nish, but not tne paint. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 188 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS II. — Apply a mixture of 1 part oil of turpentine and i parts of ammonia. This is effective, even if the coatings withstand the strongest lye. The two liquids are shaken in a bottle until they mix like milk. The mixture is applied to the coating with a little oakum ; after a few minutes the old paint can be wiped off. To Clean Brushes and Vessels of Dry Paint (see also Brushes and Paints). — The cleaning of the brushes and ves- sels in which the varnish or oil paint had dried is usually done by boifing with soda solution. This frequentl}[ spoils the brushes or cracks the vessels if of glass; besides, the process is rather slow and dirty. A much more suitable remedv is amyl acetate, which is a liquid witn a f pleasant odor of fruit drops, used mainlv or dissolving and cementing celluloid. If amyl acetate is poured over a paint brush the varnish or hardened paint dis- solves almost immediately and the brush is again rendered serviceable at once. If necessary, the process is repeated. For cleaning vessels shake the liquid about in them, which softens the paint so that it can be readily removed with paper. In this manner much labor can be saved. The amyl acetate can be easily removed from the brushes, etc., by alcohol or oil of turpentine. Varnish and Paint Remover.— Dis- solve 20 parts of caustic soda (98 per cent) in 100 parts of water, mix the solu- tion with iO parts of mineral oil, and stir in a kettle provided with a mechanical stirrer, until the emulsion is complete. Now add, with stirring, 20 parts of saw- dust and pass the whole through a paint mill to obtain a uniform intermixture. Apply the paste moist. To Remove Varnish from Metal.— To remove old varnish from metals, it suf- fices to dip the articles in equal parts of ammonia and alcohol (95 per cent). To Remove Water Stains from Var- nished Furniture. —Pour olive oil into a dinh and scrape a little white wax into it. This mixture should be heated until the wax melts and rubbed sparingly on the stains. Finally, rub the surface with a linen rag until it is restored to bril- liancy. To Remove Paint, Varnish, etc., from Wood. — Varnish, paint, etc., no matter how old and hard, mav be softened in a few minutes so that they can he easily scraprti off, by applying the following mixture: Water glass 5 parttf Soda lye, 40<» B. (27 per cent) I part Ammonia water 1 pari Mix. Removing Varnish, etc. — A patent has been taken out in Eoffland for a liquid for removing varnish, lacquer, tar. and paint. The composition is made by mixing 4 ounces of benzol, 8 ounces i>f fusel oil, and 1 ounce of alcohol.^ It t% .stated by the inventor that this mixture, if applied to a painted or varnished sur- face, will make the surface quite dean in less than 10 minutes, and that a paint- soaked brush " as hard as iron ** can Ix* made as soft and pliable as new by simply soaking for an hour or so in the mixture. To Remove Enamel and Tin Solder.— Pour enough of oil of vitriol (concen- trated sulpnunc acid) over powdered fluorspar in an earthen or lead vessel. &o as just to cover the parts whereby hydro* fluoric acid is generated. For use, dip the article suspended on a wire into the liquid until the enamel or the tin is eaten away or dissolved, which does not injure the articles in any way. If heated* the liquid acts more raoidly. The work should always be conaucted in the opNpo air, and care should be taken not tt» in- hale the fumes, which are highly inju- rious to the health, and not to |(et any liquid on the skin, as hydrofluoric acid is one of the most dangerous poUon*. Hydrofluoric acid must l^ kept in earth- en or leaden vessels, as it destroys gla»«. Removing Paint and Varnish from Wood. — The following compound i« given as one which will clean paint «>r varnish from wood or stone without in- juring the material: Flour or wood pulp. . 385 parts Hvdrochloric acid. . . 450 parts Bleaching powder.. . 160 parts Turpentine 5 parts This mixture is applied to the surfaee and left on for some time. It is thru brushed off, and brings the paint awa« with it. It keeps moist quite long enoui^K to be easily removed after it has acted. Paste for Removing Old Plaint or Varnish Coats.— I. — Sodium hydrate 5 parts Soluble soda glass ... S parts Flour paste 6 parts Water 4 parts II.— Soap 10 parts Potaftnium hvdrate. . . 7 parts Potassium sAicate. ... it parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 189 To Remove Old EnameL — Lay the trticles horixontally in a vessel contain- ing i concentrated solution of alum and bou them. The solution should be just sufficient to cover the pieces. In 20 or iS minutes the old enamel will fall into diut, and the article can be polished with emery. If narrow and deep vessels are lued the operation will require more time. IHK ERADICATORS: Two^Solution Ink Remover. — I.— (a) Citric acid 1 part Concentrated solu- tion of borax ... 2 parts Distilled water. ... 16 parts Dissolve the acid in the water, add the borax solution, and mix by agitation. (6) Chloride of lime. . . S parts Water 16 parts Concentrated bor- ax solution 2 parts Add the chloride of lime to the water, f\kMke well and set aside for a week, then decant the clear liquid and to it add the borax solution. For use, saturate the spot with solu- tion (a], apply a blotter to take off the ex- cess of liquid, then apply solution (6). Wbeo the stain has disappeared, apply the blotter and wet the spot with clean water; finally dry between two sheets of blotting paper. II.— (a) Mix, in equal parts, potassium chloride, potassium nypochlorite, and oil uf peppermint. (6) sodium chloride, bydrochioric acid and water, in equal parts. Wet the spot with (a), let dry, then briufth it over lightly with (6), and rinse in clear water. A good single mixture which will an- swer for most inks is made by mixing citric acid and alum in equal parts. If deMred to vend in a liquid form add an equal part of water. In use, the powder i« spread well over the spot anci (if on clutb or woven fabrics) well rubbed in with the fineers. A few drops of water aie then adaed, and also ruboed in. A final rinsing with water completes the process. InkEraaeiB. — I. — ^Inks made with nut- Rtlls and copperas can be removed by UMHg a moaeratelT concentrated solu- tion of oxalic acid, followed by use of pure water and frequent drying with dean blotting paper. Most other black inks are erasedf b^ use of a weak solution of chlorinated lime, followed by dilute acetic acid and water, with frequent dry- ing with blotters. Malachite green ink is bleached by ammonia water; silver inks bv potassium cyanide or sodium hyposulphite. Some aniline colors are easilv removed by alcohol, and nearly all by chlorinated lime, followed by diluted acetic acid or vinegar. In all cases applv the substances with camel's-hair brushes or feathers, and allow them to remain no longer than necessarv, after which rinse weU with water and dry with blotting paper. II. — Citric acid 1 part Water, distilled 10 parts Concentrated solution of borax 2 parts Dissolve the citric acid in the water and add the borax. Apply to the paper with a delicate camel's-hair pencil, re- moving any excess of water with a blot- ter. A mixture of oxalic, citric, and tar- taric acids, in equal jparts, dissolved in just enough water to give a clean solution, acts energetically on most inks. Erasine Powder or Pounce. — Alum, 1 part; anu>er, 1 part; sulphur, 1 part; saltpeter, 1 part. Mix well together and keep in a ^lass bottle. If a little of this powder is placed on an ink spot or fresh writing, rubbing very lightly with a clean linen rag, the spot or the writing will disappear at once. Removing Ink Stains.— I.—The ma- terial requinng treatment should first be soaked in clean, warm water, the super- fluous moisture removed, and the fabric spread over a clean cloth. Now allow a few minims of liquor ammoniee fortis, specific gravity 0.891, to drop on the ink spot, then saturate a tiny tuft of absorbent cotton- wool with acidum phosphoricum dilutum, B. P., and apply repeatedly and with firm pressure over the stain ; repeat the proceaure two or three times, and finally rinse well in warm water, after- wards drying in the sun, when every trace of ink will have vanished. This method is equally reliable for old and fresh ink stains, is rapid in action, and will not injure the most delicate fabric. II. — To remove ink spots the fabric is soaked in warm water, then it is squeezed out and spread upon a clean piece of linen. Now apply a few drops of liquid ammonia of a specific gravity of 0.891 to the spot, and dab it next with a wad of cotton which has been saturated with dilute phosphoric acid. After repeating the process several times and drying the piece in the sun, the ink spot will have disappeared without leav- ing the slightest trace. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 190 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS III. — Ink spotji may he removed by the following mixture: Oxalic acid 10 parts Stannic chloride .... 2 parts Acetic acid 5 parts Water to make 500 parts Mix. ly. — The customary method of cleans- ing ink spots is to use oxalic acid. Thick blotting paper is soaked in a concen- trated solution and dried. It is then laid immediately on the blot, and in many instances will take the latter out without leaving a trace behind. ^ In more stub- born cases the cloth is dipped in boiling water and rubbed with crvstals of oxalic acid, after which it is soalced in a weak solution of chloride of lime — say 1 ounce to a quart of water. Under such circum- stances the linen should be thoroughly rinsed in^ several waters afterwards. Oxalic acid is undesirable for certain fabrics because it removes the color. V. — Here is a more harmless method: Equal parts of cream of tartar and citric acid, powdered fine, and mixed together. This forms the ** salts of lemon '* sold by druggists. Procure a hot dinner plate, lay the part stained in the plate, and moisten with hot water; next rub in the above powder with the bowl of a spoon until the stains disappear; then rinse in clean water and dry. To Remoye Red (Aniline) Ink.— Stains of red anilines, except eosine, are at once removed by moistening with alcohol of 94 per cent, acidulated with acetic acid. Eosine does not disappear so easily. The amount of acetic acid to be used is ascertained by adding it, drop by drop, to the alcohol, testing the mixture from time to time, until when dropped on the stain, the latter at once disappears. CLEAHING OF WALLS, CBILIHGS, AND WALL PAPER: See also Household Formulas. To Renovate Brick Walla.— Dissolve glue in water in the proportion of 1 ounce of fflue to every gallon of water; add. while hot, a piece of alum the size of a hen*s ef^g, ^ pound Venetian red, and 1 pound Spanisti brown. Add more water if too dark; more red and brown if too light. Cleaning Pointed Doors, Walls, etc.— The following recipe is designed for Sainted objects that are much soiled, immer gently on the fire, stirring con- stantly. SO parts, by weight, of pulverized borax, and 450 parts of brown soap of good quality, cut in small pieces, in S.000 parts of water. The licjuid is applied by means of flannel and nnsed on at once with pure water. To Remotre Aniline Stains from Cdl- inp^ etc. — In renewing ceilings, the old aniline color stains are often very annoy- ing, as Ihey penetrate the new coatiag. Painting over with shellac or oO paint will bnng relief, but other drawbacks appear. A verv practical remedy is to place a tin vessel on the floor of the room. and to burn a quantity of sulphur in it after the doors and windows oi the room have been closed. The sulphur vapors destroy the aniline stains, which disap- pear entirely. Old Ceilinn.— In dealing with old ceilings the distemper must be washed off down to the plaster face, all cracks raked out and stopped with putty (|^as- ter of Paris and atstemper mixc^), and the whole rubbed smooth with pumi«*c stone and water; stained parts should be Sainted with oil color, and the whole istempered. If old ceilings are in bad condition it is desirable that they should be lined with paper, which should have a coat of weak sixe before being distem- pered. Oil Stains on Wall Pftper.^Make a medium thick paste of pipe day and water, applying it carefully flat upon the oil stain, out avoiding all friction. Tbe paste is allowed to remain 10 to 12 hours, after which time it is very carefully re* moved with a soft rag. In many cases a repeated action will be necessary until the purpose desired is fully reached. Finally, however, this will be obtained without blurring or destroying tbe de- sign of the wall paper, unless it be «if the cheapest variety. In the case of a light, delicate paper, the paste should be com* posed of magnesia and bensine. To Clean Painted Walla.— A simpir method is to put a little aqua ammonia in moderately warm water, dampcti a flannel with it, and gently wipe over the painted surface. No scrubbing u nec- essary. Treatment of Whltewnabed Wallg.— It is sugf^ested that whitewashed walU which it IS desired to paper, with a view to preventing peeling, should be treate^l with water, after which the scraper should be vigorously used. If the wbtte- wafth has been thoroughly soaked it ran easily be removed with the scrape^r <*are should be taken that every part uf the wail is well scraped* Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 191 ClMUiing Wan Paper.—I. — To clean waU pftP«r the dust should first be re- moved oy lightly briuhinff, preferably with a feather duster, ana the surface then gently rubbed with slices of moder- itelT stale bread, the discolored surface of the bread being removed from time to time, so as to expose a fresh portion for use. Care should be taken to avoid scratching the paper with the crust of the bread, and the ruDbine should be in one direction, the surface oeing systematically fone over, as in painting, to avoid the production of streaks. II. — Mix 4 ounces of powdered pumice with 1 quart of flour, and with the aid of witer make a stiff doti^h. Form the dough into rolls 2 inches in diameter and 6 inches long; sew each roll separately ID a cotton doth, then boil for 40 or 50 minutes, so as to render the mass firm. Allow to stand for several hours, remove the crust, and thev are ready for use. in. — Bread will clean paper; but un- less it is properly used the lob will be a tery tedious one. Select a tin " loaf at least two davs old. Cut off the crust at one end, ana rub down the paper, com- mencing at the top. Do not rub the bread backwards and forwards, but in single strokes. When the end gets dirty take a very sharp knife and pare off a thin layer; then proceed as before. It is well to make sure that the walls are quite dry before using the bread, or it may smear the pattern. If the room is famished it will, of course, be necessarv to place cloths around the room to catch the crumbs. IV.— A preparation for cleansing wall paper that often proves much more effec- tual than ordinary bread, especially when the paper is very dirty, is made by mix- ing j dough and } plaster of Paris. This should be made a day before it is needed for use, and should be very gently baked. If there are any grease spots they fhonld be removed oy holding a hot fiatiron against a piece of blotting paper placed over them. If this fails, a little fuller's earth or pipe clay should be made into a paste with water, and this should then be carefully plastered over the grease spots and allowed to remain till quite drv, when it will be found to have absorbed the grease. v.— Mix together 1 pound each of rve flour and white flour into a dougn, which is partially cooked and the crust removed. To this 1 ounce common salt and i ounce of powdered naph- thaline are added, and finally 1 ounce of com neal, and | ounce of burnt umber. The composition is formed into a mass. of the proper size- to be grasped in the hand, and in use it should be drawn in one direction over the surface to be cleaned. VI. — Procure a soft, flat sponge, being careful that there are no hard or gritty places in it, then get a bucket of new, clean, dry,^ wheat bran. Hold the sponge flat side up, and put a handful of bran on it, then quickly turn against the wall, and rub the wall gently and care- full v with it; then repeat the operation. Hold a large pan or spread down a drip cloth to catch the bran as it falls, but never use the same bran twice. Still another way is to use Canton flannel in strips a foot wide and about 8 jards long. Roll a strip around a stick 1 inch thick and 10 inches long, so as to have the ends of the stick covered, with the nap of the cloth outside. As the cloth gets soiled, unroll the soiled ^rt and roll it up with the soiled face inside. In this way one can change nlaces on the cloth when soiled and use tne whole face of the cloth. To take out a grease spot requires care. First, take several thicknesses of brown wrapping paper and make a pad, place it against the grease spot, and hold a hot flatiron against it to draw out the grease, which will soak into the brown paper. Be careful to have enough layers of brown paper to keep the iron from scorching or discoloring the wall paper. If the first application does not take out nearly all the grease, repeat with clean brown paper or a blotting pad Then take an ounce vial of washed sulphuric ether and a soft, fine, clean sponge and sponge the spot carefully until all the grease disap- pears. Do not wipe the place with tne sponge and ether, but dab the sponge carefully against the place. A small <]uantity of ether is advised, as it is very inflammable. CLOTHES AND FABRIC CLEAlfERS: Soaps for Clothing and Fabrics. — When the fabric is washable and the color fast, ordinary soap amd water are sufiicient IPor removing grease and the or- dinarily attendant dirt; but special soaps are made which may possibly be more effectual. I. — Powdered borax 80 parts Extract of soap bark 80 parts Ox gall (fresh) 120 parts Castile soap 450 parts First make the soap-bark extract by boiling the crushed bark in water until it has assumed a dark color, then strain the liquid into an evaporating dish, and Digitized by VjOOQ IC 19S CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS by the aid of heat evaporate it to a solid extract; then powder and mix it with the borax and the ox gall. Melt the castile soap by adding a small quantity of water ana warming, then add the other ingre- dients and mix well. About 100 parts of soap bark make 20 parts of extract. II. — Castile soap 2 pounds Potassium carbonate. . 4 pound Camphor * ounce Alcohol } ounce Ammonia water | ounce Hot water, ) pint, or sufficient. Dissolve the potassium carbonate in the water, add the soap previously re- duced to thin shavings, Jceep warm over a water bath, stirring occasionally, until dissolved, adding more water if neces- sary, and finally, when of a consistence to become semisolid on cooling, remove from the fire. When nearly ready to set, stir in the camphor, previously dis- solved in the alcohol and the ammonia. The soap will apparently be quite as efficacious without the camphor and ammonia. If a paste is desired, a potash soap should be used instead of tne castile in the foregoing formula, and a portion or all of the water omitted. Soaps made from potash remain soft, while soda soaps harden on the evaporation of the water which they contain when first made. A liquid preparation may be obtained, of course, by the addition of sufficient water, and some more alcohol would probably improve it. Clothefl-CleaninE Flutdi : See also Household Fonnulas. I. — Borax 1 ounce Castile soap I ounce Sodium carbonate. .. 8 drachms Ammonia water 5 ounces Alcohol 4 ounces Acetone 4 ounces Hot water to make. . . 4 pints Dissolve the borax, sodium bicarbo- nate, and soap in the hot water, mix the acetone and alcohol together, unite the two Holutions, and then add the ammonia water. The addition of a couple of ounces of rose water will render it some- what fragrant. II. — A strong decoction of soap bark, preserved by tne addition of alcohol, forms a good liquid cleanser for fabrics of the more delicate sort. Ill* — Chloroform 15 parts Kther 15 parts Alcohol 120 parts Decoction of quillaia bark of 80<» . . . . 4,500 parts IV.— Acetic ether 10 parts Amyl acetate 10 parts Liquid ammonia.. . . 10 parts Dilute alcohol 70 parts V. — Another good non-inflammable spot remover consists of equal parts of acetone, ammonia, and diluted alctibol. For use in large quantities carbon tetra- chloride is suggested. VI. — Castile soap 4 a v. ounces Water, boiling 32 fluidounces Dissolve and add: Water....'. 1 gallon Ammonia 8 fluidounces Ether 2 fluidounces Alcohol 4 fluidounces To Remove Spots from l^diur Qoth. —It is best to use benzine, which is ap- plied by means of a cotton rag. Toe bensine also takes off lead-pencil marks, but does not attack India and other ink». The places treated with bensine should subsequently be rubbed with a little talcum, otherwise it would not be pos- sible to use the pen on them. Removal of Paint from Clothing.— Before paint becomes '*drv** it can be removea from cloth by the liberal appli- cation of turpentine or benzine. If the spot is not large, it may be immersed in tne liquid; otherwise, a thick, folded, absorbent cloth should be placed under the fabric which has been spotted, and the liquid sponged on freely enough that it may soak through, carryinf^ the grea«y matter with it. Some skill in manipu- lation is requisite to avoid simply spread- ing the stain and leaving a **ring** to show how far it has extended. When benzine is used the operator must be careful to apply it only in the absence of light or fire, on account of tht extremely inflammable character of the vaoor. Varnish stains, when fresh, are trraled in the same way, but the action of the solvent may possibly not be so complete on account of the gum rosins present. When either paint or varnish ha« dried, its removal becomes more diflS- cult. In such case soaking in strong ammonia water may answer. An emul- sion, formed by shaking together 2 fmtt% of ammonia water and 1 of spirits of tur- pentine, has been recommended. To Remove Vaaelina Stains from Clothing. — Moisten the spots with a naix* ture of 1 part of aniline oil, I of pow« Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 193 drird soap, and 10 of water. After allowing the cloth to lie for 5 or 10 min- utes, wash with water. To Remove Grease Spots from Plush. —Place fresh bread rolls in the oven, break them apart as soon as they have become very hot, and rub the spots with the crumbs, continuing the work by us- inff new rolls until all traces of fat nave (li.e purchased of any dealer in paints. To make it, put 70 parts of lin- seed oil in a very capacious ve**el i«*n account of the foam that ensues) and ad«l to it M parts of powdered litharge. 40 parts of powdered minium, and 10 |iart% of lead acetate, also powdered, lit til until the oil is completely oxidised. Mir ring constantly. When completel^f o\i> dized the oil is no longer red, hut w of » dark brown color. When it acqiurr» Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 195 this color, remove from the fire, and add 160 part5 of turpentine oil, and stir well. This brunoline serves splendidly for polishing furniture or other polished vood. To Clean Lacquered Goods. —Papier- mtche and lacquered goods may be dfmned perfectly by rubbing thoroughly with a paste made of wheat flour and olive oil. Apply with a bit of soft flan- Dd or old linen, rubbing hard; wipe off and polish by rubbing with an old silk handkerchief. Polish for VamiBhed Work. —To reno- Tate varnished work make a polish of 1 quart good vinegar, 2 ounces butter of antimony, 2 ounces alcohol, and 1 quart oil. Shake well before, using. To Clean Paintings. —To clean an oil painting, take it out of its frame, lay a piece of cloth moistened with rain water on it, and leave it for a while to take up thf dirt from the picture. Several appli- cations may be required to secure a perfect result. Then wipe the picture very gently with a tuft of cotton wool damped with absolutely pure linseed oil. Golo frames may be cleaned with a freshly cut onion; they should be wiped with a soft sponge wet with rain water a few hours after the application of the onion, and finally wiped with a soft rag. RemoTinc and Preventing Match Karks. — The unsightly marks made on a painted surface by striking matches on it can sometimes be removed bv scrub- bing with soapsuds and a stiff brush. To prevent match marks dip a bit of flanndl in alboline (liquid vaseline), and with it go over the surface, rubbing it hard. A second rubbing with a dry bit of flannel completes the job. A man may '* strike *' a match there all day, and neither get a light nor make a mark. GLOVE CLEANERS: Powder for Cleaning Gloves. — I. — White bole or pipe clay 60.0 parts Orris root (pow- dered) 90.0 parts Powdered grain soap 7.5 parts Powdered borax. . . 15 . 0 parts Ammonium chlor- ide 2.5 parts Mix the above ingredients. Moisten the gloves with a damp cloth, rub on the powder, and brush on after drying. Il.—Pour pounds powdered pipeclay, i pounds powdered white soap, 1 ounce lemon oil, thoroughly rubbed together. To use, make powder into a thin cream with water and rub on the ffloves while on the hands. This is a cheaply pro- duced compound, and does its work ef- fectually. Soaps and Pastes for Cleaning Gloves. — I. — Soft soap 1 ounce Water 4 ounces Oil of lemon } drachm Precipitated chalk, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the oil, and make into a stiff paste with a sufficient quantity of chalk. II. — White hard soap 1 part Talcum 1 part Water 4 parts Shave the soap into ribbons, dissolve in the water by the aid of heat, and in- corporate the talcum. III. — Curd soap 1 av.^ ounce Water 4 fluidounces Oil of lemon 4 fluidrachm French chalk, a sufficient quantity. Shred the soap and melt it in the water by heat, add the oil of lemon, and make into a stiff paste with French chalk. IV. — White castile soap, old and dry 15 parts Water 15 parts Solution of chlorin- ated soda 16 parts Ammonia water. ... 1 part Cut or shave up the soap, add the water, and heat on the water bath to a smooth paste. Remove, let cool, and add the other ingredients and mix thor- oughly. V. — Castile soap, white, old, and dry 100 parts Water 75 parts Tincture of quillaia 10 parts Ether, sulphuric. . . 10 parts Ammonia water, FF 5 parts Benzine, deodorized 75 parts Melt the soap, previously finely shaved, in the water, bring to a boil and remove from the fire. Let^ cool down, then add the other ingredients, incor- porating them thoroughly. This should be put up in collapsible tubes or tightly closed metallic boxes. This is also use- ful for clothing. Liquid Cloth and Glove Cleaner. — Gasoline 1 gallon Chloroform. 1 ounce Carbon disulphide. . . 1 ounce Digitized by VjOOQ IC 196 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS Essential oil almond. . 5 drops Oil bergamot 1 drachm Oil cloves 5 drops Mix. To be applied with a sponge or soft cloth. STONE CLEAlflNG: Cleaning and Polishing Harble, — I. — Marble that has become dirty by ordinary use or exposure may be cleaned by a simple bath of soap and water. If this does not remove stains, a weak solution of oxalic acid should be applied with a sponge or rag. washing c^uickly and thoroughly with water to minimize injury to the surface. Rubbing well after this with chalk moistened with water will, in a measure, restore the luster. Another method of finishing is to apply a solution of white wax in turpentine (about 1 in 10), rub- bing thoroughly with a piece of flannel or soft leather. If the marble has been much exposed, so that its luster has been seriously im- paired, it may be necessary to repolish it in a more thorough manner. ^ This niav be accomplished b^ rubbing it first with sand, beginning with a moaorately coarse-grained article and changing this twice for finer kinds, after which tripoli or pumice is used. The final polisn is given by the so-called putty powder. A plate of iron is generally used in applying the coarse sand; with the fine sand a leaden plate is used; and the pumice is employed in the form of a smooth-surfaced piece of convenient size. For the final polishing coarse linen or bagging is used, wedded tightlv into an iron planing tool. During all tnese applications water is allowed to trickle over the face of the stone. The putty powder referred to is bin- oxide of tin, obtained by treating metal- lic tin with nitric acid, which converts the metal into hydrated meta^tannir acid. This, when heated, becomes anhydrous. In this condition it is known as putty powder. In practice putty powder is mixed with alum* sulphur, and other substances, the mixture u««ed bring de- pendent upon the nature of the htone to be poll shea. Acrording to Warwick, colored mar- ble should not be treated with soap and water, but only with the solution oi bees- wax ab«>ve mentioned. 11. — Take i parts of sodium bicarbon- ate, 1 part of powdered pumice stone, and 1 part of finely pulvenz<*d chalk. IVhh through a fine sieve \o srre<«n out all particles capable of scratching the inarole. and ado sufficient water to form a pasty mass. Rub the marble with il vigorously, and end the cleaning with soap and water. III.— Oxgall Ipart Saturated solution of sodium carbo- nate 4 parts Oil of turpentine. . 1 part Pipe day enough to form a paste. IV. — Sodium carbonate, t ounces Chlorinated lime. . 1 ounce Water 14 ounces Mix well and apply the magma to the marble with a clotn, rubbing well in, and finally rubbing dry. It may be neces- sary to repeat this operation. V. — Wash the surface with a mixture of finely powdered pumice stone and vin- egar, ana leave it for several hours; then brush it hard and wash' it clean. W*hen dry, rub with whiting and wash leather. VI.— Soft soap 4 parts Whiting. 4 parU Sodium bicarbonate 1 part Copper sulphate. . . S parts Mix thoroughly and rub over the mar* ble with a piece of flannel, and leat*e it on for 24 hours, then wash it off with clean water, and polish the marble with a piece of flannel or an old piece of fell. VII. — A strong solution of oxalic acid eifectualljr takes out ink stains. In handling it the poisonous nature of this acid should not oe forgotten. VIII.— Iron mold or ink spots may be taken out in the following man- ner: Take i ounce of butter of antimony and 1 ounce of oxalic acid and disM»lvV them in 1 pint of rain water; add enough flour to bring the mixture to a proper consistency. Lay it evenly on the stained part with a brush, and. after il has remained for a few days, wash il off and repeat the process if the stain is nol wholly removed. IX.— To remove oil stains apply com- mon clay saturated with benzine. If the grease has remained in long tbr polish will be injured, but the stain will be removed. X. — The following method for remor- ing rust from iron depends upon the Mtlu* biTity of the sulphide of iron in a solution of cyanide of potassium. Clay is mudr- into a thin paste with ammonium sul- phide, and the rust spot smeared with the mixture, care being taken that tlir spot is only just covered. After Iro minutes this paste is washed off and re* pl}icrfl*by one consisting of white Ivoir mixed with a solution of piitaA%iuin cyanide (1 to 4), which is in its lurn Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 197 wasiied off after about 2} hours. Should a reddish spot remain after washing off the first paste, a second layer may be ap- plied for about 5 minutes. XI. — Soft soap.. 4 ounces Whiting 4 ounces Sodium carbonate. 1 ounce Water* a sufficient quantity. Make into a thin paste, apply on the soOed surface, and wash off after 24 hours. XII. — In a spacious tub place a tall re»el upside aown. On this set the article to be cleaned so that it will not stand in the water, which would loosen the cemented parts. Into this tub pour a few inches of cold water — hot water renders marble dull — take a soft brush and a piece of Venetian soap, dip the former in the water and rub on the latter carefully, brushing off the article from top to bottom. When in this manner dust and dirt have been dissolved, wash off all Aoap particles by means of a water- ing pot ana cold water, dab the object with a clean sponge, which absorbs the moLiture, place it upon a cloth and care- fullv dry with a very clean, soft cloth, rublbinn^ gently. This treatment will restore the former gloss to the marble. XIII. — Mix and shake thoroughly in a (Kittle equal quantities of sulphuric aots with pure turpentine oil, then covering the piace with white argillaceous earth (pipe clay), leaving it to dry, and finally rubbing with sharp soda lye, using a brush. Caustic am- monia also removes oil-paint spots from sandstones. RUST REMOVERS: To Remoye Rust from Iron or Steel Utensils. — I. — Apply the following solution by means of a brush, after having removed any grease by rubbing with a clean, dry cloth: 100 parts of stannic chloride are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; this solution is added to one containing t parts tartaric acid dissolved in 1,000 parts of water, and finally 40 cubic cen- timeters indigo solution, diluted with 4,000 parts of water, are added. After allowing the solution to act upon the stain for a few seconds, it is rubbed clean, first with a moist cloth, then with a dry cloth; to restore the polish use is made of silver sand and Jewelers* rouge. II. — When tne rust is recent it is re- moved by rubbing the metal with a cork charged with oil. In this manner a per- fect polish is obtained. To take off old rust, mix equal parts of fine tripoli and flowers of sulphur, mingling this mixture with olive ou, so as to lorm a paste. Rub the iron with this preparation by means of a skin. III. — The rusty piece is connected with a piece of sine and placed in water containing a little sulphuric acid. After the articles have been in the liquid for several days or a week, the rust will have completely disappeared. The length of time will depend upon the decrth to which the rust has penetrated. A little sulphuric acid may oe added from time to time, but the chief point is that the «nc always has good electric contact with the iron. To insure this an iron wire may be firmly wound around the iron object and connected with the sine. The iron is not attacked in the least, as long as the cine is kept in good electric contact with it. When the articles are taken from the liquid they assume a dark grav or black color and are then washed ana oiled. IV. — The rust on iron and steel ob- jects, especially large pieces, is- readilv removed by rul>bing the pieces with oil of tartar, or with very fine emery and a little oil, or by putting powdered alum in strong vinegar and rubbing with this alumed vinegar. V. — Take cyanide of calcium, W parts; white soap, powdered, 45 partt: Spanish white, 50 parts; and water, 400 parts. Triturate all well and rub the piece with this paste. The effect will be quicker if before using this paste the rusty object has been soaked for 5 t«» 10 minutes in a solution of cyanide uf potassium in the ratio of 1 part of rya> nide to 2parts of water. VI. — To remove rust from polished steel cjranide of potassium is excellent. If possible, soak the instrument to lie cleaned in a solution of cvanide of pota«- sium in the proportion of 1 ounce of eta- nide to 4 ounces of water. Allow ttii* to act till all loose rust is removed* and then polish with cyanide soap. The latter is made as follows: Potassium cya- nide, precipitated chalk, white ca^tile soap. Make a saturated solution of the cyanide and add chalk su£ficient to make a creamy paste. Add the soap cat in fine shavings and thoroughly incorporate in a mortar. When the mixture is still cease to add the soap. It should be re- membered that potassium cyanide u m virulent poison. VII. — Applv turpentine or keroaenr oil, and after letting it stand over night, clean with finest emery cloth. VIII. — To free articles of iron and steel from rust and imbedded yraiiia «i# sand the articles are treated with 6uor- hydric acid (about^ 4 per cent) I to iB hours, wherebv the impurities lait not thr metal are dissolved. This is followed hy a washing with lime milk, to neutralise any fluorhydric acid remaining. Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 199 To RemoTe Rust from Nickel.— First ntAst Ihe articles well ; then, after a few daji. rub tbem with a rag charged with tmiiioiua. If the rust spots persist, add a few drops of hydrochloric acid to the immoiua, rub and wipe off at once. Nfxt rinse with water, dry, and polish with tripoli. RemoTAi of Rust.— To take off the nut from small articles which glass or fmery paper would bite too deeply, the ink-erasing rubber used in business offices may be employed. By beveling it, ur cuttinff it to a point as needful, it can bf introouced into the smallest cavities tnd windings, and a perfect cleaning be flfeclcd. To Remove Rust from Instruments.— I— Lay the instruments over night in 1 saturated solution of chloride of tin. The rust spots will disappear through reduction. Upon withdrawal from tne solution the instruments are rinsed with vitrr, placed in a hot soda-soap solution, and dried. ^ Cleaning with absolute alco- hol and polishing chalk may also follow. II. — Make a solution of 1 part of kerosene in 800 parts of benzine or car- bon tetrachloride, and dip the instru- ments, which have been dried by leaving theni in heated air, in this, moving their parts, if movable, as in forceps and scis- »or9, about under the liquid, so that it may enter all the crevices. Next lay the instruments on a plate in a dry room, so that the benzine can evaporate. Nee- dles are simply thrown in the paraffine solution, ana taken out with tongs or tweezers, after which they are allowed to dryoD a plate. in.— Pour olive oil on the rust spots and letTc for several days; then rub with emery or tripoli, without wiping off the ^ ms far as possible, or always oringing it back on the spot. Afterwards remove the emery and the oil with a rag, rub ai^ain with emenr soaked with vinegar, tnd finally with fine plumbago on a piece of chamois skin. To Preterre Steel from Rust.— To pre^rvr steel from rust dissolve 1 part caoutchouc and 16 parts turpentine vith a gentle heat, then add S parts hoiled oU, and mix by bringing them to *be heat of boiling water. Apply to the tieel with a brush, the same as varnish. It can be removed again with a cloth »oaked in turpentine. METAL CLEAHINO: Pxeterring Id Small Iron Artides.— The coating of silver chloride may be reduced with molten potassium cyanide. Then boil the article in water, displace the water with alcohol, and dry in a drying closet. When dry brush with a soft brush and cover with " zaponlack " (any good transparent lacquer or varnish will answer). Instead of potassium cyanide alone, a mixture of that and potassium carbonate may be used. After treatment in this way, delicate objects of silver become less brittle. Another way is to put the article in molten sodium carbonate and remove the silver carbonate thus formed, by acetic acid of 50 per cent strength. This process produces the finest possible polish. The potassium-cyanide process may be used with all small iron objects. For larger ones molten potassium rhodanide is recommended. This converts the iron oxide into iron sulphide that is eas- ily washed off and leaves the surface of a fine black color. Old coins may be cleansed by first immersing them m strong nitric acid and then washing them in clean water. Wipe them dry before putting away. To Clean Old Medals.— Immerse in lemon juice until the coating of oxide has completely disappeared; 24 hours is gen- erally sufficient, but a longer time is not harinful. Steel Cleaner.— Smear the object with oil, preferably petroleum, and allow some days for penetration of the surface of the metal. Then rub vigorously with a piece of flannel or willow wood. Or, with a paste composed of olive oil, sulphur flowers, and tripoli, or of rotten stone and oil. Finallv, a coating may be em- ployed, made of 10 parts of potassium cyanide and 1 part of cream of tartar; or 25 parts of potassium cyanide, with the addition of 55 parts of carbonate of lime and 20 parts of white soap. Restoring Tarnished Gold.— Sodium bicaH!>onate. 20 ounces Chlorinated lime 1 ounce Common salt 1 ounce Water 16 ounces Mix well and apply with a soft brush. A very small quantity of the solution is sufficient, and it may be used either cold or lukewarm. Plain articles may be brightened by putting a drop or two of the liquid upon them ana lightly brushing the surface with fine tissue paper. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 200 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS Cleaning Copper. — I. — Use Armenian bole mixed into a paste with oleic acid. II. — Rotten stone 1 part Iron subcarbonate. . S parts Lard oil, a suflBcient quantity. nL — Iron oxide 10 parts Pumice stone 32 parts Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity. I V.—Soap, cut fine 16 parts Precipitated chalk . . it parts Jewelers' rouge 1 part Cream of tartar 1 part Magnesium carbonate 1 part Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soap in the smallest quan- tity of water that will effect solution over a water bath. Add the other ingredients to the solution while still hot, stirring constantly. To RemoTe Hard Grease, Paint, etc., from Machinery. — To remove grease, paint, etc., from machinery add lialf a pound of caustic soda to it gallons of water and boil the parts to be cleaned in the fluid. It is possible to use it several times before its strength is exhausted. Solutions for Cleaning Metals.— I.— Water «0 parts Alum 2 parts Tripoli 2 parts Nitric acid 1 part II.— -Water 40 parts Oxalic acid 2 parts Tripoli 7 parts To Cleanse IHckeL— I. — Fifty parts of rectified alcohol; 1 part of sulphuric acid; 1 part of nitric acid. Plunge the piece in the bath for 10 to 15 seconds, rinse it off in cold water, and dip it next into rectified alcohol. Dry with a fine linen rag or with sawdust. II.— Stearineoil 1 part Ammonia water 25 parts Benzine 50 parts Alcohol 75 parts Rub up the stearine with the ammonia, add the benzine an*d then the alcohol, and agitate until homogeneous. Put in wide-mouthed vessels and close care- fully. To Clean Petroleum Lamp Bumere.— DiMiolve in a quart of soft water an ounce or an ounce and a half of washing soda, uning an old half-gallon tomato can. ' Into this put the burner after removing; I the wick, set it on the stove, and let it boil strongly for 5 or 6 minutes, then take out, rinse under the tap, and dry. , Every particle of carbonaceous matter will tnus be ffot rid of, and the burner be as clean ana serviceable as new. Thi4 ought to be done at least everv month, but the light would be better if it were done every 2 weeks. Gold-Ware Cleaner.-— Acetic acid 2 parts Sulphuric acid 2 parts Oxalic acid 1 part Jewelers' rouge 2 parts Distilled water 200 parts Mix the acids and water and stir in the rouge, after first rubbing it up with a por- tion of the liquid. With a clean doth, wet with this mixture, go well over the article. Rinse off with hot water and dry. SilTerware Cleaner.— Make a thin jmMf of levigated (not precipitated) chalk and sodium hyposulphite, in equal part%, rubbed up in distilled water. Applv this paste to the surface, rubbing »rfl with a soft brush. Rinse in clear watrr and dry in sawdust. Some authoriti«*'« advise the cleaner to let the paste dry on the ware, and then to rub off and rtn«c with hot water. Silyer-Coin Cleaner. -^Make a bath of 10 parts of sulphuric acid and 90 partu «»f water, and let the coin lie in this until the crust of .silver sulphide is dissolved. Fr«>in 5 to 10 minutes usually suffice. Rin«r in running water, then rub with a »ots or places with a soft, linen rag, or a bit of chamois. There are some bronzes gilt with imi- tation gold and varnished. Where the work is well done and the inlding^ has not been on too long, thev will deceive even the practiced eye. The deception, how- ever, may easilv be detected by touching a spot on the gut surface with a glass rod dipped in a solution of corrosive subli- mate. If the gilding is true no discolor- ation will occur, but if false a brown spot will be produced. To Clean a Oai Stove.— An easy meth- od of removing grease spots consists in immersing the separable parts for sev- eral hours in a warm lye, heated to about 70*" C. (158'' F.). said lye to be made of 0 parts of caustic soda and 180 parts of water. These pieces, together with the fixed parts of the stove, may be well brushed with this lye and afterwards rinsed in dean, warm water. The grease will be dissolved, and the stove restored almost to its original state. Cleaning Copper SinkB.-;-Make rot- ten stone into a stiff paste with soft soap and water. Rub on with a woolen rag, and polish with drv whiting and rotten stone. Finish with a leather and dry whiting. Many of the substances and mixtures used to clean brass will effec- tively clean copper. Oxalic acid is said to be the best medium for cleaning cop- per, but after using it the surface of the copper must be well washed, dried, and then rubbed with sweet oil and tripoli. or some other polishing agent. Otherwise the metal will soon tarnish again. TrMtment of Cast-iron GnTe Crosses. — The ru»t must first be thoroughlv re- moved with a steel- wire bru^h. nhen this is done apply one or two coats of red lead or graphite paint. After this prim- ing has oecome hard, paint with double- burnt lampblack and enual parts of oil of turpentine and varnisn. This coating is followed by one of lampblack ground with coach varnish* Now paint the sin- gle portions with ** mixtion ** (gilding oil) and gild as usual. Such crosses look better when they are not altogether black. Ornaments roav be very wdl treated in colors with oil paint and then varnished. The crosses treated in this manner are preserved for many years, but it is essential to use good exterior or coach varnish for varnishing, and not the so-called black varnish, which is mosdy composed of asphalt or tar. Qeaning Inferior Gold Artidas.— The brown film which forms on low-qualitv ffold articles is removed by coating witn uming hydrochloric acid, whereupon thev are brushed off with Vienna lime and petroleum. Finally, clean the ob- jects with benzine, rinse again in pure Denzine, and dry in sawdust. To Clean Bronze. — Clean the bronse with soft soap; next wash it in plenty c»f water; wipe, let dry, and applv li^ht en* caustic mixture composed of spirit of turpentine in which a small quantity of yellow wax has been dissolved. The en- caustic is spread by means of a linen or woolen wad. For gilt bronze, add I spoonful of alkali to 5 spoonfuls of water and rub the article with this by means of a ball of wadding. Next wipe with a clean chamois, simUar to that employed in silvering. How to Clean Brass and SteeL— To clean brasses quickly and economically, rub them with vinegar and salt or with oxalic acid. Wash immediately after the rubbing, and polish with tripoli and sweet oil. Unless the acid is washed off the article will tarnish quickly. Copper kettles and saucepans, brass andiron%. fenders, and candlesticks and trays are best cleaned with vinegar and salt. Cooking vessels in constant use need only to be well washed afterwartls. Thing* for show — even pots and pans — need the oil polishing, which gives a deep. rich, yellow luster, good for six montlui. Oxalic acid and salt should be anplogpnd for furniture brasses — if it touches the wood it only improves the tone. Wipe the brasses well with a wet cloth, and polish thoroughlv with oil and tripoli. Sometimes powdered rotten stone doe^ better than the tripoli. Rub. after usinir. either with a dry cloth or leather, until there is no trace of oil. The braM to h^ cleaned mu^ \te freed rcmpletely from grease, caked dirt, and gnme. WasK with stroni^ ammonia suds and rinse dry before beginning with the acid and aaJir The best treatment for wrou|;bt steel is to wash it yery clean with a stiff bmali Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 20S ind ammonia soapsuds, rinse well, dry b? heat, oil plentifully with sweet oil, and dttst thickly with powdered quicklime. Let the lime stay on 2 days, then brush it oB with a dean, very stiff brush. Polish with a softer brush, and rub with cloths antil the luster comes out. By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be kept from rust almost indefinitely. Before wettine any sort of bric-a-brac, and especially oronses, remove all the dust possible. After dusting, wash well in strong white soapsuds and ammonia, rinse dean, polish with just a suspicion of oil and rotten stone, and rub off after- wards every trace of the oil. Never let acid touch a bronze surface, unless to eat and pit it for antique effects. Composition for Cleanizig Copper, Hickel, and other Metals. — Wool grease, 46 parts, by weight; fire clay, 30 parts, by weight; paramne, 5 parts, by weight; Caoova wax, 5 parts, b^ weight; cocoa- nut oil, 10 parts, by weight; oil of mir- baoe, 1 PArt, hj weiffht. After mixing these different mgredients, which con- stitute a paste, this is molded in order to ^▼e a cylindrical form, and introduced into a case so that it can be used like a stick of cosmetic. PtttzPomade. — I. — Oxalic acid, 1 part; caput mortuum, 15 parts (or, if white pumade is desired, tripoli, 12 parts); powdered pumice stone, best grade, 20 parts; palm oil, 60 parts; petroleum or oleine, 4 parts. Perfume with mirbane oil. IL— Oxalic add. ....... 1 part Peroxide of iron (jewelers' rouge).. 15 parts Rotten stone 20 parts Palmoil 60 parts Petrolatum 5 parts Pulverixe the acid and the rotten stone and mix thoroughly with the rouge. Sift to remove all gnt, then make into a paste with the oil and petrolatum. A little nitro- benzol may be added to scent the mixture. IIL—Oleine 40 parts Ceresine 5 parts Tripoli 40 parts Light mineral oil (0.870) 20 parts Mdt the oldne, ceresine, and min- eral oil together, and stir in the tripoli; next, grind evenly in a paint mill. To CUmn Gnnuned Parts of Ma- chinery.— Bofl about 10 to 15 parts of ^sttstic soda or 100 parts of soda in 1,000 parts of water, immerse the parts to be cleaned in this for some time, or, better, boil them with it. Then rinse and dry. For small shops this mode of cleaning is doubtless the oest. To Remove ^ver Platinff.^I.^Put sulphuric acid 100 parts and potassium nitrate (saltpeter) 10 parts in a vessel of stoneware or porcelain, heated on the water bath. Wnen the silver has left the copper, rinse the objects several times. This sOver stripping bath may be used several times, if it is Kept in a well-closed bottle. When it is saturated with silver, decant the liquid, boil it to dryness, then add the residue to the deposit, and melt in the crucible to obtain the metal. Il.y-Stripping silvered articles of the silvering may be accomplished by the fol- lowing mixture: Sulphuric acid, 60^ B., 9 parts; nitric acid, 40** B., 1 part; heat the mixture to about 166*' P., and im- merse the articles by means of a copper wire. In a few seconds the acid mixture will have done the work. A thorough rinsing off is, of course, necessary. To Clean Zinc Articles.— In order to clean articles of zinc, stir rye bran into a paste with boiling water, and add a hand- ful of silver sand and a little vitriol. Rub the article with this paste, rinse with water, dry, and polish with a cloth. To Remove Rust from IHckeL— Smear the rusted parts well with grease (ordi- nary animal fat will do), and allow the article to stand several days. If the rust is not thick the grease and rust may be rubbed off with a cloth dipped in am- monia. If the rust is very deep, applj^ a diluted solution of hydrochloric acid, taking care that the acid does not touch the metal, and the rust may be easily rubbed off. Then wash the article and polish in the usual way. Compound for Cleaning Brass,— To make a brass cleaning compound use oxalic acid, 1 ounce; rotten stone, 6 ounces; enough whale oil and s{>irits of turpentine of equal parts, to mix, and make a paste. To Clean Gilt Obiects.— I.— Into an ordinary drinking ^lass pour about 20 drops of ammonia, immerse the piece to be cleaned repeatedly in this, and brush with a soft orush. Treat the article with pure water, then with alcohol, and wipe with a soft rag. il. — Boil common alum in soft, pure water, and immerse the article in the solution, or rub the spot with it» and dry with sawdust. III. — For cleaning picture frames. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 204 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS moldinffs, and, in fact» all kinds of gilded work, the best medium is liquor potassae, diluted with about 5 volumes of water. Dilute alcohol is also excellent Methylated wood spirit, if the odor is not objectionable, answers admirably. To Scale Cast Iron.— To remove the scale from cast iron use a solution of 1 part vitriol and 2 parts water; after mix- ing, apply to the scale with a cloth rolled in the form of a brush, using enough to wet the surface well. After 8 or 10 hours wash off with water, when the hard, scaly surface will be completely removed. Cleaning Funnels and Measures.— Funnels and measures used for measur- ing varnishes, oils, etc., may be cleaned hy soaking them in a strong solution of Ive or pearlash. Another mixture for Oie same purpose consists of pearlash with quicKlime in aqueous solution. 1 he measures are allowed to soak in the solution for a short time, when the resin- ous matter of the paint or varnish is easily removed.^ A thin coating of pe- troleum lubricating oils mav be removed, it is said, by the use of naphtha or petro- leum benzine. To Clean Aluminum. —I. —Aluminum articles are very hard to clean so they will have a bright, new appearance. Tliis is especiall3r the case with the matted or frosted pieces. To restore the pieces to brilliancy place them for some time in water that has been slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. II. — Wash the aluminum with coal-oil, ga-Moline or benzine, then put it in a con- centrated solution of caustic potash, and after washing it with plentv of water, dip it in the bath composed of } nitric arid and i water. Next, subject it to a bath of concentrated nitric acid, and finally to a mixture of rum and olive oil. To render aluminum capable of being worked like pure copper, } of oil of tur- pentine and i stearic acid are used. For polishing by hand, take a solution of 30 parts of borax and 1,000 parts of water, to which a few drops of spirits of ammonia have been added. How to Clean Tarnished Silver.— I.— If the articles are only slightly tarnished, mix S parts of best wa.%hed and purified ehalk and 1 part of white soap, adding water, till a thin paste is formed, which nhould )>e rubbed on the sih'cr with a dry brush, till the articles are quite bright. As a !tub2ititute, whiting, mixed with caus- tic aminonia to form a paste, may be used. This mixture is very effective, but it irritates the eyes and nose. II. — An efficacious preparation is ob- tained by mixing beech-wood ashes, t parts; Venetian soap, ris part; cookiiw salt, 2 parts; rain water, 8 parts. Brush the silver with this lye, using a somewhat stiff brush. III. — ^A solution of crystallised potas- sium permanganate has been recom- mended. IV. — ^A grayish violet film which silver- ware acquires from perspiration, can he readily removed by means of ammonia. V. — ^To remove spots from silver lay it for 4 hours in soapmakers' lye. then throw oo fine powdered gypsum, moisten the latter with vinegar to cause it to adhere, drjr near the fire, and wipe off. Next rub the spot with dry bran. This not only causes it to disappear, but gives extraor- dinary gloss to the silver. VI. — Cleaning with the usual fine powders is attended with some difficulty and inconvenience. An excellent rv^utt is obtained without injury to the silver by employing a saturated solution of hypo- sulphite of soda, which is put on with a brush or rag. The article is then washed with plenty of water. VII. — Never use soap on silverware, as it dulls the luster, giving the artiric more the appearance of pewter than silver. When it wants cleaning, rub it with a piece of soft leather and prepared chalk, made into a paste with pure water* entirely free from grit. To Clean Dull Gold. —I.— Take 80 parts by weight, of chloride of lime, and rub it up with gradual addition of water in a porcelain mortar into a thin, even pa«tr, which is put into a solution of 80 part*, by weight, of bicarbonate of soda, and iMI parts, bv weight, of salt, in S,000 parts* by weight, oi water. Shake it, and let stand a few days before using. If the preparation is to be kept for any length of time the bottle should be placed, well corked, in the cellar. For use, lay Ihc tarnished articles in a dish, ponr the liquid, which has previously been well shaken, over them so as just to cover them, and leave them therein for a few days. 11. — Bicarbonate of soda. SI parta Chloride of lime. . . . 15.& parts Cooking salt 15 parts Water t40 parU Crrind the chloride of lime with a litttr water to a thin past**, in a |Kirrt4ain %r%- hcl, and add the remaining rbemi«^l« Wanh the objeets with the aid of a M»ft brufth with the solution, rinse »e%rral times in >»accr, anu ury in fine aawUusl. Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 205 Cteftning Bronze Objects. — Employ p«>w to obtain a paste, which is applied uith a brush. After the brushing, rinse off and dry in the sun or near a stove. acaning Gilded Bronzes. — I. — Com- mence by reniovins the spots of srease and wax with a little potash or soda dis- MWved in water. Let dry, and apply the f(»llowing mixture with a rag: Carbonate of soda, 7 parts; whiting, 15 parts; alco- hol (.SS""), 50 parts; water. 126 parts. When this coating is dry pass a fine linen cloth or a piece of supple skin over it. The hollow parts are cleaned with a brush. II. — After removing the urease spots, let dry and pass over all the damaged parts a pencil dipped in the following mixture: Alum, 2 parts; nitric acid, 66; water, 860 parts. When the gilding be- comes bright, wipe, and dry in the sun or near a fire. III. — Wash in hot water containing; a little soda, dry, and pass over the gilding a pencil soaked in a liquid made of 30 parts nitric acid, 4 parts of aluminum ohosphate, and 126 parts of pure water. l>nr in sawdust. fV. — Immerse the objects in boiling M>ap water, and facilitate the action of the soap b^ rubbing with a soft brush; put the objects in hot water, brush them carefully, and let them drv in the air; when t£ey arc quite dry rub the shining parts only with an old linen cloth or a soft leather, without touching the others. Stripping Gilt Articles. — Degilding or stripping gilt articles may be done bv at- taching the object to the positive pole of a battery and immersing it in a solution romposed of 1 pound of cyanide dissolved in afiout 1 gallon of water. Desilvering may be effected in the same manner. To Cleftn Tarnished Zinc— Appier with a rag a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid «ith 12 parts of water. Rinse the zinc with clear water. deanins Pewter Articles.— Four hot Ue of wood ashes upon the tin, throw on uod, and rub with a hard, woolen rag, hat felt, or whisk until all particles of dirt have been dissolved. To polish pewter plates it is well to have the turner make limilar wooden forms fitting the plates, and to rub them clean this way. Next they are rinsed with dean water and placed on a table with a clean linen cover «Q which thev are left to dry without heing touched, otherwise spots will ap- pfar. This scouring is not necessarv so oflrn if the pewter is rubbed with wneat bran after use and cleaned perfectly. New pewter is polished with a paste of whiting and brandy, rubbing the dishes with it until the mass becomes dry. To Clean Files.— Files which have be- come clogged with tin or lead are cleaned by dipping for a few seconds into concentrated nitric acid. To remove iron filin^^s from the file cuts, a bath of blue vitriol is employed. After the files have been rinsed in water they are like- wise dipped in nitric acid. File-ridjges closed up by zinc are cleaned by im- mersing the files in diluted sulphuric acid. Such as have become filled with copper or brass are also treated with nitric acid, but here the process has to be repeated several times. The files should always be rinsed in water after the treat- ment, brushed with a stiff brush, and dried in sawdust or by pouring alcohol over them, and letting it burn off on the file. Scale Pan Cleaner. — About the quick- est cleaner for brass scale pans is a solu- tion of potassium bichromate in dilute sulphuric acid, using about 1 part of chromate, in powder, to S parts of acid and 6 parts of water. In tnis imbibe a cloth wrapped around a stick (to protect the hands), and with it rub the pans. Do this at tap or hydrant, so that no time is lost in placing the pan in running water after having rubbed it with the acid solution. For pans not very badly soiled rubbing with ammonia water and rinsing is sufficient. Tarnish on Electro-Plate Goods.— This tarnish can be removed by dipping the article for from 1 to 15 minutes — that is, until the tarnish shall have been removed — in a pickle of the following composition: 'Rain water 2 gallons and potassium cvanide } pound. Dissolve together, and fill into a stone jug or jar, and close tightly. The article, after having been immersed, must be taken out and thoroughly rinsed in several waters, then dried with fine, clean saw- dust. Tarnish on jewelry can be speed- ily removed by this process; but if the c}[aiiide is not completely removed it will corrode the goods. OIL-, GREASE-, PAINT-SPOT ERAD- ICATORS: Grease- and Paint-Spot Eradicators. — I.— Benzol 600 parts Benzine 600 parts Soap, best white, shaved 6 parts Water, warm, sufficient. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 206 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS DUsolve the soap in the warm water, using from 50 to 60 parts. Mix the ben- sol and benzine, and add the soap solu- tion, a little at a time, shaking up well after each addition. If the mixture is slow in emulsifying, add at one time from 50 to 100 parts of warm water, and shake violently. Set the emulsion aside for a few days, or until it separates, then de- cant the superfluous water, and pour the residual pasty mass, after stirring it up well, into suitable boxes. II. — Soap spirit 100 parts Ammonia solution, 10 per cent 25 parts Acetic ether 15 parts m. — Extract of quillaia . 1 part Borax 1 part Ox gall, fresh 6 parts Tallow soap 15 parts Triturate the quillaia and borax to- S ether, incorporate the ox gall, and, nally, add the tallow soap and mix thoroughly by kneadinff. llie product IS a plastic mass, whicn may be rolled into sticks or put up into boxes. Remoying OU Spots from Leather.— To remove oil stains from leather, dab the spot carefully with spirits of sal am- moniac, and after allowing it to act for a while, wash with clean water. This treatment may have to be repeated a few times, taking care, however, not to injure the color of the leather. Sometimes the spot may be removed very simply by spreading the place rather thickly with butter and letting this act for a few hours. Next scrape off the butter with the point of a knife, and rinse the stain with soap and lukewarm water. To Clean Liiiolettm.~Rust spots and other stains can be removed from lino- leum by rubbing with s^l chips. To RemoTe Putty, Grease, etc., from Plate Glass.— To remove all kinds of greasy materials from glass, and to leave the latter bright and clean, use a i>aste made of benzine and burnt magnesia of such consistence that when the mass is Eressed between the fingers a drop of enzine will exude. With this mixture and a wad of cotton, go over the entire surface of the glass, rubbing it well. One rubbing is usuallv suflSctent. After drying, any of the substance left in the comers, etc., is easily removed bv brush- ing with a suitable brush. Tne same preparation is very useful for cleaning mirrors and removing grease stains from books, papers, etc. Removing Spots from Fumitnre.— White spots on polished tables are re- moved in the following manner: Coat the spot with oil and pour on a rag a few drops of " mixtura balsamica oleosa,** which can be bought in eyeryf drug store, and rub on the spot, which will disappear immediately. To Remove Spots from Drawings, etc. — Place soapstone, fine meerschaum shavings, amianthus, or powdered mag- nesia on the s|>ot, and, if necessary, lav on white filtering paper, saturating it with peroxide of hydrogen. Allow this to act for a few hours, and remove tbe application with a brush. If necessary, repeat the operation. In this manner black coffee spots were removed from a valuable diagram without erasure by knife or rubber. WATCHMAKERS' AHD JEWELERS' CLEAHING PREPARATlOlfS: To Clean the Tops of Qocks in Re- pairing.—Sprinkle whiting on the top. Pour good vinegar over this and rub vigorously. Rinse in clean water and dry slowly in the sun or at the fire. A good polish will be obtained. To Clean Watch Chains.— Gold or silver watch chains can be cleaned with a verv excellent result, no matter whether they be matt or polished, by laying them for a few seconds in pure aqua ammonia : they are then rinsed in alcohol, and finally shaken in clean sawdust, free fn»m sand. Imitation gold and plated chainii are first cleaned in benzine, thea rinsed in alcohol, and afterwards shaken in dry sawdust. Ordinarv chains are fink dipped in the following pickle: Pure nitric acid is mixed witn concentrated sulphuric acid in the proportion of 10 parts of the former to < parts of the latter : a little Ubie salt is added. The chains are boiled in this mixture, then rinsed several times in water, afterwards in alcohol, and finally dried in sawdust. Cleaning Brass Mountings on Clock Cases, etc. — The brass mountings are first cleaned of dirt bv dipping them fur a short time into boning soda lye, and next are pickled, stUI warm, if possil>lr. in a mixture consisting of nitric arid, 60 parts; sulphuric acid, 40 parts; cooking salt, 1 part; and shining soot Uamp- black), i part, whereby tuey acquire a handsome golden-yellow coloring. The pickling; mixture, however, must not be em- ployed immediately after pouring tr^getbfr the arids. which causes a strong genera- tion of beat« but should settle for at least Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 207 I day. This makes the articles hand- somer and more uniform. After the dip- {Mog the objects are rinsed in plenty of clean water and dried on a hot, iron pfate» and at the same time warmed for lac- quering. Since the pieces would be (scouered too thick ana unevenly in pure fTola varnish, this is diluted with alcohol, 1 part of gold varnish sufficing for 10 parts of alcohol. ^ Into this liquid dip the mounting previously warmed and dry them again on the hot plate. Gilt Zinc Clocks. —It frec^uently hap- pens that clocks of gilt zinc become covered with green spots. To remove soch spots the following process is used: Soak a small wad of cotton in alkali and rub it on the spot. The green color will disappear at once, but the gilding being ^ne, a black spot will remain. Wipe o9 well to remove all traces of the alkali. To repUice the gilding, put on, by means of liquid gum arable, a nttle bronze pow- der of the color of the eilding. The powdered bronze is applied dry with the aid of a brush or cotton wad. When the Eliding of the clock has become black or dull from^ age, it may be revived by im- mersion in a bath of cyanide of potas- lium, but frequently it suffices to wash it with a soft brush in soap and water, in which a little carbonate of soda has been dissolved. Brush the piece in the lather, rinse in clean water, and drv in rather hot saTrdust. The piece should be dried well inside and outside, as moisture will cause it to turn black. To CleAn Gummed Up Springs.— Dissolve caustic soda in warm water, place the spring in the solution and leave U there for about one half hour. Any oil still adhering may now easily be taken off with a hard brush; next, dry the spring with a dean doth. In this man- ner gummed up parts of tower clocks, locks, etc., may oe quickly and thor- oughly deaned, and oil paint may be removed from metal or wood. The lye i« sharp, but free from danger, nor are the steel parts attacked by it. To Clean Soldered Watch Cases.— Gold, silver, and other nietallic watch tmses which in soldering have been ex- po9ed to heat, are laiain diluted sul- phuric acid (I part acid to 10 to 15 parts Water), to free them from oxide. Heat- tag the acid accelerates the cleaning proe- e«4. The articles are then well nnsed in water and dried. Gold cases are next hnisbed with powdered tripoli moistened ^Ih oil, to remove the pale spots caused t7 the heat and boiling, ano to restore the original color. After that they are cleaned with soap water and finally pol- ished with rouge. Silver cases are pol- ished after boinng, with a scratch brush dipped in beer. A Simple Way to Clean a Clock.— Take a bit of cotton the size of a hen's egg, dip it in kerosene and place it on tne floor of the clock, in the corner; shut the door of the clock, and wait S or 4 days. The clock will be like a new one — and if you look inside you will find the cotton battinff black with dust. The fumes of the oil loosen the i>articles of dust, and they fall, thus cleaning the clock. To Restore the Color of a Gold or Gilt DiaL — Dip the dial for a few seconds in the following mixture: Half an ounce of cyanide of potassium is dissolved in a quart of hot water, and 2 ounces of strong ammonia, mixed with \ an ounce of alcohol, are added to the solution. On removal from this bath, the dial should immediately be immersed in warm water, then brushed with soap, rinsed, and dried in hot boxwood dust. Or it mav simi>ly be immersed in dilute nitric acid; but in this case any painted figures will be destroyed. A Bath for Cleaning Clocks.— In an enameled iron or terra -cotta vessel pour 2,000 parts of water, add 60 parts of scraped l^arseilles soap, 80 to 100 parts of whiting, and a small cup of spirits of ammonia. To hasten the proc- ess of solution, warm, but do not allow to boil. If the clock is very dirty or much oxi- dized, immerse the pieces in the bath while warm, and as long as necessary. Take them out with a skimmer or strainer, and pour over them some ben- zine, lettinff the liquid fall into an empty vessel. Tnis being decanted and bot- tled can be used indefinitelv for rinsing. If the bath has too much alkali or is used when too hot, it may affect the polish and render it dull. This may be obviated by trying different strengths of the alkali. Pieces of blued steel are not injured by the alkali, even when pure. To Remove a Figure or Name from a Dial. — Oil of spike lavender may be employed for erasing a letter or number. Enamel powder made into a paste with water, oil, or turpentine is also used for this purpose. It should be previously levigated so as to obtain several degrees of fineness. The powder used for repol- ishing the surface, where an impression has been removed, must be extremely fine. It is applied with a piece of peg- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 208 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS wood or ivory. The best method is to employ diamond powder. Take a little of the powder, make into a paste with fine pil, on the end of a copper polisher the surface of which has been f resnly filed and slightly rounded. The marks will rapidly disappear when rubbed with this. The surface is left a little dull; it may be rendered bright bv rubbing with the same powder mixea with a jgreater quan- tity of oil, and applied with a stick of peg wood. Watchmakers will do well to try on disused dials several degrees of fineness of the diamond powder. Cleaning Pearls. — Pearls turn yellow in the course of time by absorbing per- spiration on account of being worn in the hair, at the throat, and on the arms. There are several ways of rendering them white again. I. — The best process is said to be to put the pearls into a bag with wheat bran and to beat the bag over a coal fire, with constant motion. II. — Another method is to bring 8 parts each of well-calcined, finely pow- dered lime and wood charcoal, which has been strained through a gauze sieve, to a boil with 500 parts of pure rain water, suspend the pearls over the steam of the boiling water until they are warmed through, and then boil them in the liquid for 5 minutes, turning fre- quentlv. Let them cool in the liquid, talue tnem out, and wash off well with dean water. III. — Place the pearls in a piece of fine linen, throw salt on them, and tie them up. Next rinse the tied-up pearls in lukewarm water until all the salt has been extracted, and dry them at an ordi- narv temperature. IV. — The pearls may also be boiled about I hour in cow*s milk into which a little cneese or soap has been scraped; take them out, rinse off in fresh water, and dry them with a clean, white cloth. V. — Another method is to have the pearls, strung on a silk thread or wrapped up in thin gauze, mixed in a loaf of bread oi barley flour and to have the loaf baked well in an oven, but not too brown. When cool remove the pearls. yi. — Hang the pearls for a couple of minutes in hot, strong, wine vinegar or highly diluted sulphuric acid, remove, and rinse them in water. Do not leave them too long in the acid, otherwise they will be injured by it. GLASS CLEAHIHO: Cleaning Preparation for GlaM with Metal Decorations.— Mix 1,000 parts of denaturized spirit (90 per cent) with 150 parts, by weight, of ammonia; 90 parts of acetic ether; 16 parts of ethylic ether: 200 parts of Vienna lime; 950 part« of bolus; and 550 parts of oleine. With this mixture both glass and metal can l>e quickly and thoroughly cleaned. It is particularly recommended for show windows ornamented with metal. Paste for Cleaning Glass.— Prepared chalk 0 pounds Powdered French chalk 1 } pounds Phosphate calcium ... 9\ pounds Quillaia bark ....... 2| pounds Carbonate ammonia. . 18 ounces Rose pink 6 ounces Mix the ingredients, in fine powder, and sift through muslin. Then mix with soft water to the consistency <»f cream, and apply to the glass by mean% of a soft TA^ or sponge; allow it to dry (»ii. wipe off with a cloth, and polish with chamois. Cleaning Optical Lenses.— For thi» purpose a German contemporary rec- ommends vegetable pith. Tne medulla of rushes, elaers, or sunflowers is cut tmt. the pieces are dried and pasted sini;U alongside of one another upon a piece tif cork, whereby a brush-like apparatus t.4 obtained, which is passed over the siur- face of the lens. For very small ieii^^ pointed pieces of elder pith are em- ployed. To dip dirty and greasy len^*4 into oil of turpentine or elder and ruK them with a linen rag, as has been pur- posed, seems hazardous, because the C «n- ada balsam with which the lenses arr cemented might dissolve. To Remove Glue from Glass.— If irluf has simply dried upon the gla«i« h««( water ought to remove it. If. howe%rr. the spots are due to size (the gelatinous wash used by painters) when dried thry become very refractory and recourse must be had to chemical means for tbnr removal. The commonest sire being a solution of gelatin, alum, and it>«in Ji*- solved in a .solution of soda and cotii> bined with starch, hot solutions of cau'«. tic soda or of potash may be used. If that fails to remove them, try dilut«*«i hydrochloric, sulphuric, or any uf the stronger acids. If the spots still remain some abrasive powder (flour uf emen^ i must be used and the gla&s repc»li»h^Hl with jewelers* rouge applied by mc«n4 «>f a chamois skin. Owing to tbe vanctl nature of sizes used the above are unit suggestions. aeaning Window Panes.— Take Ji- luted nitric acid about as strong as strt>ng Digitized by VjOOQ IC CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS S09 ▼inegar and pass it over the glass pane, leave it to act a minute and throw on pulverized whiting, but just enough to ^ve off a hissing sound. Now rub both vrith the band over the whole pane and , polish with a dry rag. Rinse off with dean water and a little alcohol and polish dry and dear. Repeat the process on the other side. The nitric acid removes all impurities which have remained on the ^lass at the factory, and even with inferior panes a good appearance is ob- tained. To Clean Store Windows. — For clean- ing the large panes of glass of store win- dows, and also ordinary show cases, a semiliquid paste may be employed, made of calcined magnesia and punfied benzine. The glass should be rubbed with a cotton rag until it is brilliant. Cliwninj^ Lamn Globes. — Pour 2 spoon- fub of a slightly nea ted solution of potash into the globe, moisten the whole surface with it, and rub the stains with a fine linen rag; rinse the globe with clean water and carefully dry it with a fine, soft doth. To Clean Mirron. — Rub the mirror with a ball of soft paper slightly damp- ened with methylated spirits, then with a duster on which a little whiting has been sprinkled, and finally polish^ with clean paper or a wash leather. This treatment win make the glass beautifully bright. To Clean Milk Glass. — To remove oil «p«)ts from milk glass panes and lamp globes* knead burnt magnesia with ben- zine to a plastic mass, which must be kept in a tight-closing bottle. A little of this sutMtance rubbed on the spot with a linen rag will make it disappear. To Remove Oil-Palnt Spots from Gkus. — If the window panes have been be«pattered with oil paint in painting vails^ the spots are, ot course, easilv re- moved while wet. When they have become dry the operation is more diffi- fMlt and alcohol and turpentine in eaual parts, or spirit of sal ammoniac shoula be lued to soften the paint. After that go over it with chalk. ^ Polishing with salt win also remove paint spots. The salt f^lcs somewhat, but it is not hard cnungli to cause scratches in the glass; a ftihaeanent polishing with chalk is also advisable, as the drving of the salt might iojare the glass. For scratching off soft paint spots sheet zinc must be used, as it cannot damage the glass on account of its M^ne«s. In the case of silicate paints I the i«>-caUed weather-proof coatings) the panes must be especially protected, be- cause these paints destroy the polish of the glass. Rubbing the spots with brown soap is also a good wav of remov- ing the spots, but care must be taken in rinsing off that the window fnunes are not acted upon. Removing Silver Stains.— The follow- ing solution will remove silver stains from the hands, and also from woolen, linen, or cotton goods: Mercuric chloride. ... 1 part Ammonia muriate. ... 1 part Water 8 parts The compound is poisonous. MISCELLAHEOUS CLEAHtllG METH- ODS AND PROCESSES : Universal Cleaner. — Green soap 20 to 25 parts Boiling water 750 parts Liquid ammonia, caustic 80 to 40 parts Acetk ether 80 to 80 parts Mix. To Clean Playing Cards.-— Slightly soiled playing cards may be made clean by ruboing them with a soft rag dipped in a solution of camphor. Very little of the latter is necessary. To Remove Vegetable Growth from Buildings. — To remove moss and lichen from stone and masonry, apply water in which 1 per cent of carbolic acki has been dissolved. After a few hours the plants can be washed off with water. Solid Cleansing Compound. — The basis of most of the solid grease eradicators is benzine and the simplest form is a benzine jelly made by shaking 8 ounces of tincture of quillaia (soap bark) with enough benzine to make 16 fluidounces. Benzine ma^ also be solidified by the use of a soap with addition of an excess of alkali. Formulas in which soaps are used in this way follow: I. — Cocoanut-oil soap. St av. ounces Ammonia water. . . 8 fluidounces Solution of potas- sium 1 } fluidounces Water enough to make 12 fluidounces Dissolve the soap with the aid of heat in 4 fluidounces of water, add the am- monia and potassa and the remainder of the water. If the benzine is added in small por- tions, and thoroughly agitated, 2) fluid- ounces of the above will be found suffi- cient to solidify 82 fluidounces of bensine. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 210 CLEANING PREPARATIONS— COFFEE II. — Castile soap, white. 3 } av. ounces Water, boiling S{ fluidounces Water of ammonia 6 fluidrachms Benzine enough to make 16 fluidounces Dissolve the soap in the water, and when cold, add the other ingredients. To Clean Oily Bottles.— Use 2 heaped tables poonfuls (for every ouart of capac- ity) of fine sawdust or wneat bran, and shake well to cover the interior surface thoroughly; let stand a few minutes and then add about a gill of cold water. If the bottle be then rotated in a horizontal position, it will usually be found clean after a single treatment. In the case of drying oils, especially when old, the bot- tles should be moistened inside with a little ether, and left standing a few hours before the introduction of sawdust. This method is claimed to be more rapid and convenient than the customary one of using strips of paper, soap solution, etc. Cork Cleaner. — Wash in 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid, then im- merse in a solution of sodium hypo- sulphite and hydrochloric acid. Finally the corks are washed with a solution of soda and pure water. Corks containing oil or fat cannot be cleaned by this method. To Clean Sponges.— Rinse well first in verv weak, warm, caustic-soda lye, then with clean water, and finally leave the sponges in a solution of bromine in water until clean. They will whiten sooner if exposed to the sun in the bromine water. Then repeat the rinsings in weak lye and clean water, using tlie latter till all smell of bromine has disappeared. Dry quickly and in the sun if possible. CLEARIHO BATHS: See Photography. CLICHi METALS: See Alloys. CLOCK-DIAL LETTERING: See Watchmakers' Formulas. CLOCK-HAHD COLORING: See Metals. CLOCK OIL: See Oil. CLOCtC REPAIRING: See Watchmaking. CLOCKMAKERS' CLEANING PROC- ESSES. See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. CLOTH TO IRON, GLUEING: See Adhesives. CLOTHES CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth ods; also, HouMhold Formulas. CLOTHS FOR POLISHING: See Polishes. CLOTH, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. CLOTHING, CARE OF: See Household Formulas. COACH VARNISH: See Varnishes. COALS. TO EAT BURNING: See Pyrotechnics. COAL OIL: See Oil. COBALTIZING: See Plating. COCOAS: See Beverages. COCOA CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. COCOANUT CAKE: See Household Formulas and Recipes. COCHINEAL INSECT REMEDY: See Insecticides. COD-LIVER OIL AND ITS EMULSION : See Oil, Cod- Liver. COFFEE, SUBSTITUTES FOR. I. — ^Acom. — Prom acorns deprived »>f their shells, husked, dried, and roasted. II. — ^Bean. — Horse beans roasted along with a little honey or sugar. UL— Beet Root— From the jeUow beet root, sliced, dried in a kiln or ovm, and ground with a little coffee. IV. —Dandelion. — From dandelion roots, sliced, dried, roasted, and ground with a little caramel. All the above are roasted, before pind- ing them, with a little fat or lard. Tbu^ which are larger than coffee berries are cut into small slices before being roastrtl They possess none of the^ exhilarating properties or medicinal virtues of the genuine coffee. V. — Chicory. — This is a common adul- terant. The roasted root is prepared hy cutting the full-grown ,root into slices^ and exposing it to heat in iron cylindrrv along with about 1} per cent or t per cent of lard, in a similar way to that adopted for coffee. When groaod to powder in a mill it conatitutea the thi- Digitized by VjOOQ IC COFFEE— COLD AND COUGH MIXTURES 211 cicy coffee 80 generally employed both a> anubstitute for coffee and as an adulterant. The addition of 1 part of Kood» fresh, roasted chicory to 10 or 12 [larts of coffee forms a mixture which Tirlds a beverage of a fuller flavor, and of a deeper color than that furnished by an equal quantity of pure or unmixed rofTre. In this way a less quantity of rtiffee mav be used, but it should be re- mfmberea that the article substituted fur it does not possess in any desree the peculiar exciting, soothing, and nunger- ''taying properties of that valuable prod- uct. Tne use, however, of a larger proportion of chicory than that just named imparts to the beverage an in- sipid flavor, intermediate between that of treacle and licorice; while the con- tinual use of roasted chicory, or highly chicorized coffee, seldom fails to weaken the powers of digestion and derange the bowels. COFFEE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. COFFEE EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts. COFFEE SYRUPS: See Syrups. COFFEE FOR THE SODA FOUN- TAIH: See Beverages. COIL SPRnO: See Steel. com CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- COINS. IMPRESSIONS OF: Sre Matrix Mass. COIN METAL: See Alloys. COLAS: See Veterinary Formulas. Cold and Cough Mixtures Cough Symp. — The simplest form of f*tni^h syrup of good keeping equality is «%rup of wild cherry containing am- ninnium chloride in the dose of 2} grains tit each teaspoonful. Most of the other compounds contain ingredients that are proDe to undergo fermentation. I. — Ipecacuanha wine 1 fluidounce Spirit of anise. ... 1 fluidrachm Syrup 16 fluidounces Syrup of squill 8 fluidounces Tincture of Tolu. 4 fluidrachms Distilled water enough to make 80 fluidounces II. — Heroin 6 grains Aromatic sulphur- ic acid 1 } fluidounces Concentrated acid infusion of roses 4 fluidounces Distilled water. . . 6 fluidounces Glycerine 5 fluidounces Oxymel of squill. . 10 fluidounces III. — Glycerine 2 fluidounces Fluid extract of wild cherry .... 4 fluidounces Oxymel 10 fluidounces Svrup 10 fluidounces Cochineal, a sufficient quantity. Benzoic-Acid PastiUes. — Benzoic acid 105 parts Rhatany extract .... 5^5 parts Tragacanth 35 parts Sugar 140 parts The materials, in the >hape of pow- ders, are mixed well and sufficient fruit paste added to bring the mass up to 4,500 parts. ^ Roll out and divide into lozenges weighing 20 grains each. Cough Balsam with Iceland Moss. — Solution of morphine acetate. . 12 parts Sulphuric acid, dilute 12 parts Cherry-laurel water. 12 parts Orange-flower water, triple 24 parts Svrup, simple 128 parts Gjycerine 48 parts Tincture of saffron. . 8 parts Decoction of Iceland moss 112 parts Mix. Dose: One teaspoonful. Balsamic Cough Syrup. — Balsam of Peru 2 drachms Tincture of Tolu .... 4 drachms Camphorated tincture of opium 4 ounces Powdered extract lic- orice 1 ounce Syrup sauill 4 ounces Syrup dextrine (glu- cose) sufficient to make 16 ounces Add the balsam of Peru to the tinc- tures, and in a mortar rub up the extract of licorice with the syrups. Mix to- gether and direct to be taken in tea- spoonful doses. Whooping-Cough Remedies. — ^The fol- lowing mixture is a spray to be used Digitized by VjOOQ IC 818 COLD AND COUGH MIXTURES— CONDIMEN'l-S in the sick room in cases of whooping cough: Thymol 1.0 Tincture of eucalyptus. 80.0 Tincture of benzoin .... 80.0 Alcohol 100.0 Water enough to make 1000.0 Mix. Pour some of the mixture on a cloth and hold to mouth so that the mix- ture is inhaled, thereby giving relief. Expectorant Ifixtures. — I. — Ammon. chloride. 1 drachm Potass, chlorate.. 80fprain8 Paregoric 2 fluidrachms Syrup of ipecac. . . 2 fluidrachms Syrup wild cherry enough to make 2 fluidounces Dose: One teaspoonful. II. — Potass, chlorate.. 1 drachm Tincture guaiac . . 8} drachms Tincture rhubarb. 1 } drachms Syrup wild cherrv enough to maxe 8 fluidounces . Dose: One teaspoonful. Eucalyptus Bonbons for Coughs. — Eucalyptus oil 5 parts Tartaric acid 15 parts Extract of malt. ... 24 parU Cacao 100 parU Peppermint oil ... . 1.4 parts Bonbon mass 2,208 parts Mix^ and make into bonbons weighing 80 grains each. COLD CREAM: See Cosmetics. COLIC IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. COLLODION. Turpentine 5 parts Ether and alcohol. ... 10 parts Collodion 94 parts Castor oil 1 part Dissolve the turpentine in the ether and alcohol mixture (in e(|ual parts) and filter, then add to the mixture of collo- dion and castor oil. This makes a good elastic collodion. See also Court Plaster, Liquid. COLOGNE: See Perfumes. COLOGNE FOR HEADACHES: See Headaches. COLORS: See Dyes and Pigments. C()LORS, FUSIBLE ENAMEL: See Enameling. COLORS FOR PAINTS: See Paint. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY: See Photography. COLORS FOR STRUPS: See Syrups. CONCRETE: See Stone, Artificial. Condiments Chowchow.— Curry powder 4 ounces Mustard powder 6 ouocrs Ginger. 8 ouocrs Turmeric 2 ounces Cayenne 2 drachms Black pepper powder. 2 drachms Coriander 1 drachm Allspice 1 dradim Mace 80 grains Thyme 80 grains Savory 80 grains Celery seed 2 drackms Cider vinegar 2 gallons Mix all the powders with the vinegar, and steep the mixture over a very gentle fire for S hours. The pickles are to be parboiled with salt, and drained, and the spiced vinegar, prepared as above, is to be poured over them while it is still warm.^ The chowchow keeps best in small jars, tightly covered. • Essence of Eztnct of Soup Herbs.— Thyme, 4 ounces; winter savory. 4 ouorr«; sweet marjoram, 4 ounces; sweet ba^d. 4 ounces; grated lemon peel, 1 ouor«*; eschalots, 2 ounces; bruised celery seeil. 1 ounce; alcohol (50 per cent), 64 oum^r^. Mix the vegetables, properly bruised, add the alcohol, close tne container and f^t aside in a moderately warm place to dijMt for 16 days. Filter and press out« Prr> serve in 4>ounce bottles, well corked. Tomato Bouillon Extract.— Toma< toes, 1 quart; arrowroot, 2 ounces: ex- tract of beef, 1 ounce; bav leaves, I ounce; cloves, 2 ounces; red pepper, 4 drachms; Worcestershire sauce, quantity sufficient to flavor. Mix. Mock Turtle Extract.— Extract oC beef, 2 ounces; concentrated chicken. 2 ounces; dam juice. 8 ounces; tincture of black pepper, 1 ounce; extract «i# celery. 8 dracnms; extract of orange perl« soluble, 1 drachm; hot water enoiagh tu make 2 quarts. Digitized by VjOOQ IC CONDIMENTS 218 RELISHES: Digestive Relish. — I.— Two ounces Jamaica ginger; 2 ouDces black peppercorns; 1 ounce mus- tard seed; 1 ounce coriander fruit (seed); I ounce pimento (allspice); } ounce mace; } ounce cloves; ) ounce nutmegs; \ ounce chili pods; 3 drachms cardamom MTd»; 4 ounces garlic; 4 ounces escha- loU; 4 pints malt vinegar. Bruise spices, ^rlic» etc., and boil in vinegar for 15 minutes and strain. To this add SJ pints mushroom ketchup; 1} pints India soy. Again simmer for 15 minutes and strain through muslin. II.— One pound sov; 60 ounces best vinegar: 4 ounces ketchup; 4 ounces gar- lic; 4 ounces eschalots; 4 ounces capsi- cum; } ounce cloves; } ounce mace; } ounce cinnamon; 1 drachm cardamom seeds. Boil well and strain. Ltnoolxisliira Relish. — Two ounces gar- lic; % ounces Jamaica ginger; 3 ounces black peppercorns; } ounce cayenne pep- per; } ounce ossein; ^ ounce nutmeg; i ounces salt; 1) pints India soy. Enough malt vinegar to make 1 gallon. Bruise spices, garlic, etc., and simmer is ) a gulon of vinegar for 20 minutes, Atrain and add soy and sufficient \inegar to make 1 gallon, then boil for 5 minutes. Keep in bulk as long as possible. Cany Powder. — I. — Coriander seed 6 drachms Turmeric 5 scruples Fresh ginger 4} dracnms Cumin seed 18 grains Black pepper 54 grains Poppy seed 94 grains Garlic 2 heads Cinnamon 1 scruple Cardamom 5 seeds Ooves 8 onlv Chillies 1 or 2 poas Grated cocoanut. ... } nut 0. — Coriander ae^ } pound Turmeric \ pound Cinnamon seed 2 ounces Cayenne } ounce Mustard. 1 ounce Ground ginger 1 ounce Allspice i ounce Fenugreek seed 2 ounces TABLE SAUCES: Wofcestenhiie Sftuce*— — Pimento 2 drachms Gove 1 drachm Black pepper 1 drachm Ginger 1 drachm Curry powder 1 ounce Capsicum 1 drachm Mustard 2 ounces Shallots, bruised 2 ounces Salt 2 ounces Brown susar 8 ounces Tamarinds 4 ounces Sherry wine 1 pint Wine vinegar 2 pints The spices must be freshly bruised. The ingredients are to simmer together with the vinegar for an hour, adding more of the vinegar as it is lost bv evap- oration; then add the wine, ana if de- sired some caramel colorinff. Set aside for a week, strain, and botUe. Table Sauce. — Brown sugar, 16 parts; tamarinds, 16 parts; onions, 4 parts; powdered ginger, 4 parts; salt, 4 parts; garlic, 2 parts; cayenne, 2 parts; soy, 2 parts; ripe apples, 64 parts; mustard powder, 2 parts; curry powder, 1 part; vinegar, quantity sufficient. ^ Pare and core the apples, boil them in sufficient vinegar with the tamarinds and raisins untilsoft, then pulp through a fine sieve. Pound the onions and garlic in a mortar and add the pulp to tnat of the apples. Then add the other ingredients and vin- egar, 60 parts; heat to ooiling, cool, and add sherry wine, 10 parts, and enough vinegar to make the sauce just pourabie. If a sweet sauce is desired add sufficient treacle before the final boiling. Epicure's Sauce. — Eight ounces tam- arinds; 12 ounces sultana raisins; 2 ounces garlic; 4 ounces eschalots; 4 ounces horse-radish root; 2 ounces black pepper ; ) ounce chili pods ; 3 ounces raw Jamaica ginger; 1} pounds golden syrup; 1 pound burnt sugar (caramel); 1 ounce powdered cloves; 1 pint India >oy; 1 gallon malt vinegar. Bruise roots, spices, etc., and boil in vinegar for 15 minutes, then strain. To the strained liquor add golden syrup, soy, and burnt sugar, then simmer for 10 minutes. Piccalilli Sauce. — One drachm chili pods; li ounces black peppercorns; % ounce pimento; } ounce garlic; A gal- lon malt vinegar. Bruise spices and garlic, boil in the vinegar for 10 minutes, and strain. One ounce ground Jamaica ginger; 1 ounce turmeric; 2 ounces flower of mus- tard; 2 ounces powdered natal arrowroot; 8 ounces strong acetic acid. Rub pow- ders in a mortar with acetic acid and add to above, then boil for 5 minutes, or until it thickens. FLAVORING SPICES. I. — Five ounces powdered cinnamon bark; 2) ounces powdered cloves; 2) Digitized by VjOOQ IC 214 CONDIMENTS ounces powdered nutmegs; 1} ounces powdered caraway seeds; IJ ounces powdered coriander seeds; 1 ounce pow- dered Jamaica ginger; ) ounce powaered allspice. ^ Let all be dry and in fine pow- der. Mix and pass through a sieve. II.— Pidding ^ Spice.— Ten pounds small Jamaica ginger; 2} pounds black peppercorns; if pounds white pepper- corns; 1) (wunas allspice; } pound long pepper; 1^ pounds mustard^ seed; 1 pound chill ^ods. Cut up ginger ana long pepper into small |)ieces, and mix all the otner ingredients intimately. One ounce to each pint of boiling vin- egar is sufficient, but it may be made stronger if desired hot. Essence of SftTory Spices. — Two and one-half ounces black peppercorns; 1 ounce pimento; } ounce nutmeg; ) ounce mace; } ounce cloves; \ ounce cinnamon bark; | ounce caraway seeds; 20 grains cayenne pepper; 15 ounces spirit of wine; 6 ounces distilled water. Bruise all the spices and having mixed spirit and water, diigest in mixture 14 days, shaking fre- quently, then filter. MUSTARD: The Prepftred Mustards of Commerce. —The mustard, i. e., the flower or pow- dered seed, used in preparing the different condiments, is derived from three varie- ties of Brassica (Cruct'/efw) — Brtunea alba Z*., Brasnea nigra, and Brassica juncea. The first yields the "white'* seed of commerce, which produces a mild mustard; the second the *' black" seed, yielding the more pungent powder: and the latter a verv pungent and oily mus- tard, much employed b^ Russians. The pungency of tne condiment is also af- fected by the method of preparing the paste, excessive heat destroying the sharpness completely. The pungency is further controlled and tempered, in the cold processes, by the addition of wheat or rye flour, which also has the advantage of serving as a binder of the mustard. The mustard flour is pre- pared by first decorticating the seed, then ^(rinding to a fine powder, the ex- pression of the fixed oil from which completes the process. This oil, unlike the volatile, is of a mild, pleasant taste, and of a greenish color, wbich, it is said, makes it valuable in the sophistication and imitation of *'olive*' oils, refined, cottonseed, or peanut oil l>eing thu^ con- verted into huile xnerge de Lucca, Flor- ence, or some other noted brand of olive oil. It is also extensively u«ed for illu- minating purposes, especially in south- ern Rusiiia. The flavors, other than that of the mustard itself, of the various prepara- tions are imparted by the judicious Mst of spices — cinnamon, ^ nutmeg, dovm, pimento, etc. — aromatic herbs, such a» thyme, sage, chervil, parslev, mint* marjoram, tarragon, etc., and finally chives, onions, shallots, leeks, garlic, etc. In preparing the mustards on a large scale, the mustard flower and wheat or rye flour are mixed and ground to a smooth paste with vinegar, must (un- fermented grape iuice), wine, or « hat« ever is used in tne preparation a mill similar to a drug or paint mill l>eing usetl for the purpose. This dough iromedi- ately becomes sfiongv, and in this rondi* tion, technically called "cake," is a»e«i as the basis of the various mustards of commerce. Mustard Cakes.— In the mixture, the amount of flour used dejpends on the gungency of the mustard dower, and the avor desired to be imparted to the fin- ished product. The cakes are bru«dlt divided into the yellow and the bronn. A ffeneral formula for the yellow cake i^: Yellow mustard, from 20 to SO |M*r cent; salt, from 1 to S per cent: spices, from i to } of 1 per cent; wheat flour, from 8 to 12 per cent. Vinegar, must, or wine, complete the mixture. The brown cake is made with blark mustard, and contains about the follow- ing proportions : Black mustard, from 90 to SO per cent; salt, from 1 to S per cent; »picr%. from I to i of 1 per cent; wheat ur rjr flour, from 10 to 15 per crnt. The variations are so wide, however, that it is iropoHjiible to give exact prtw portions. In the manufarture of tabic mustards, in fact, as in every other kin«l of manufacture, excellence is attainrd only hj practice and the exerrii»e i»f sound judgment and taste by the inanu> facturer. Moutarde des Jesuittes.— Twelve s«r- dels and 280 capers are crushed ibti» a paste and stirred into 3 pints of iMiilmc wine vinegar. Add 4 ounces of bruvi n cake and 8 ounces of yellow cake and mix well. Kirsclmer Wine Mustard. --Reduce 90 quarts of freshly expressed grmpc juioe to half that quantity, by boUinff^over a moderate fire, on a water bath . iH«mi1 vr in the boiling liquid 5 pounds of suipar. and pour the syrup through a rolaodrr containing 2 or 3 large horse-radisbrs cut Digitized by VjOOQ IC CONDIMENTS 215 ioto Tery thin slices and laid on a coarse toweJ spread over the bottom and sides of the colander. To the colate add the following, all in a state of fine powder: Cardamom seeds .... 2} drachms Nutmeg 2| drachms Cloves 4} drachms Cinnamon 1 ounce Ginger 1 ounce Brown mustard cake. 6 pounds Yellow mustard cake. 9 pounds Grind all together to a perfectly smooth paste, and strain several times through muslin. Dueneldorff Mustard.— Brown mustard cake. 10 ounces Yellow mustard cake . 48 ounces Boiling water 96 ounces Wine vinegar 64 ounces Cinnamon 5 drachms Cloves 15 drachms Suj^ar 64 ounces Wine, good white .... 64 ounces Mix after the general directions given shove. German Table Mustard.— Laurel leaves 8 ounces Cinnamon 5 drachms Cardamom seeds.... 2 drachms Suj^ar. 64 ounces Wme vinegar 96 ounces Brown cake 10 ounces Yellow cake 48 ounces Mix after general directions as given above. Krems Mustard| Sweet. — Yellow cake 10 pounds Brown cake.^ 20 pounds Fresh grape juice .... 6 pints Mix and boil down to the proper con- fistency. Krems Mustard, Sour. — Brown mustard flour. 80 parts Yellow mustard flour. 10 parts Grape juice, fresh. ... 8 parts Mix and boil down to a paste and then stir in 8 parts of wine vinegar. Tarragon Mustard. — Brown mustard flour. 40 parts Yellow mustard flour. 20 parts Vinegar. 6 parts Tarragon vinegar. ... 6 parts Bofl the mustard in the vinegar and add the tarragon vinegar. Tarrafon Mustard, Sharp. — This is prepared by adding to every 100 pounds of the above 21 ounces of white pepper, S ounces of pimento, and 2) ounces of cloves, mixing^ thoroughly by grinding together in a mill, then put in a warm spot and let stand for 10 days or 2 weeks. Finally strain. Moutarde auz Epices.— Mustard flour, vellow. 10 pounds Mustard flour, brown. 40 pounds Tarragon 1 pound Basil, nerb 6 ounces Laurel leaves 12 drachms White pepper 3 ounces Cloves 12 drachms Mace 2 drachms Vinegar 1 gallon Mix the herbs and macerate them in the vinegar to exhaustion, then add to the mustards, and grind together. Set aside for a week or ten days, then strain through muslin. In all the foregoing formulas where the amount of salt is not specified, it is to be added according to the taste or dis- cretion of the manufacturer. Mustard Vinegar. — Celery, chopped fine. 82 parts Tarragon, the fresh herb 6 parts Cloves, coarsely pow- dered 6 parts Onions, chopped fine 6 parts Lemon peel, fresh, chopped fine 8 parts White-wine vinegar. . 575 parts White wine 515 parts Mustard seed, crushed 100 parts Mix and macerate together for a week or 10 days in a warm place, then strain off. Ravigotte Mustard. — Parsley 2 parts Chervd 2 parts Chives 2 parts Cloves 1 part Garlic 1 part Thyme 1 part ' Tarragon 1 part Salt 8 parts Olive oil 4 parts White- wine vinegar.. 128 parts Mustard flower, sufficient. Cut or bruise the plants^ and spices, and macerate them in the vinegar tor 15 or 20 davs. Strain the liquid through a cloth and add the salt. Rub up mustard with the olive oil in a vessel set in ice, adding a little of the spiced vinegar from time to time, until the whole is incorpo- rated and the complete mixture mates 884 parts. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 216 CONDIMENTS— CONFECTIONERY COroiMERTS, TESTS FOR ADUL- TERATED: See Foods. CONDITION POWDERS FOR CAT- TLE: See Veterinary FormuUs. CONDUCnVITT OF ALUMINUM AL- LOYS: See A]loys. Confectionery Cream Bonbons for Hoaraeness. — Stir into 500 partfl of cream 500 parts of white Bu^ar. Put in a pan and cook, with continuous stirring, until it becomes brown and viscid. Now put in a bak- ing tin and smooth out, as neatly as pos- sible, to the thickness of, sav, twice that of the back of a table knife and let it harden. Before it gets completely hard draw lines with a knife across the sur- face in such manner that when it is quite hard it will break along them, easily, into bits the size of a lozenge. Nut Candy Sticks.— Cook to SSO"" F. 8 pounds best sugar in 9 pints water, with 4 pounds glucose addeci. Pour out on an oiled slat) and add 5 pounds al- monds, previously blanched, cut in small pieces, and dried in the drying room. Mix up well together to incorporate the nuts thoroughly with the sugar. When it has cooledenough to be handled, form into a round mass on the slab and spin out in long, thin sticks. Fig Saoares.— Place 5 pounds of sugar and 5 pounds of glucose in a cop- per pan, with water enough to dissolve the sugar. Set on the fire, and when it starts to boil add 5 pounds of ground figs. Stir and cook to 240° on the ther- mometer. Set off the fire, and then add 5 pounds of fine cocoanuU: mix well and pour out on greased marble, roll smooth, and cut like caramels. Caramels. — Heat 10 pounds sugar and 8 pounds glucose in a copper kettle until dissolved. Add cream to the mixture, at intervals, until 2} Quarts are uned. Add ^1 pounds caramel butter and l*i ounces paraffine wax to the mixture. Cook to a rather stiff ball, add nuts, pour out between iron bars and, when cool enough, cut into strips. For the white ones flavor with vanilla, and add i pounds melted chocolate liquor for the chocolate caramel when nearly cooked. Candy Orange Drops.— It is compar- atively easy to make a hard candy, but to put the material into **drop'* form apparently requires experience and a machine. To make the candy itself, put, say, a pint of water into a suitable pan or ket^e, heat to boiling, and add gradually to it 2 pounds or more of sugar, stirring well so as to avoid the risk of burning the sugar. Continue boiling the syrup so formed until a little of it poured on a cold slab forms a mass of thr required hardness. If the candy is to \tc of orange flavor, a little fresh oil of or- ange is added just before the ma«« ii ready to set and the taste is impruvrd according to the general view at lea-M by adding, also, say, 2 drachms of citric acid dissolved in a very little water. A% a coloring an infusion of safliower «)r tincture of turmeric is used. To make such a mass into tablets, it i% necessary only to pour out on a wrll> greased slab, turning the edges back if inclined to run, until the candy is firm, and then scoring with a knife so that it can easily be broken into pieces whrn cold. To make ''drops'* a suitable mold is necessary. Experiment as to the sufliciency of the boiling in making candy may be saved and greater certainty of a ^ood re«ult •4'- cured bv the use of a chemical thermom- eter. As the syrup is boiled and the water evaporates the temperature of the liquid rises. When it reaches tiO^ F„ the sugar is then in a condition to vield the "thread" form; at «40* "soft fcall" is formed: at «45^ "hard ball**: at itS^". "crack": and at «90^ "hard crack.'* By simply suspending the thermometer in the liquid and observing it from time to time, one may know exactly when tu end the boiling. Glim Drops. — (irind 25 pounds of Arabian or Senegal gum, place it in a copper pan or in a steam jacket kettle, and pour S gallons of boiling water over it: stir it up well. Now set the pan with the gum into another pan containing boiling water and stir tne gum slowly until dissolved, then strain it through a No. 40 sieve. Cook 10 pounds of sugar with sufficient water, 9 pounds of glu- cose, and a teaspoonful of cream of tar- tar to a stiff Imll, pour it over the gum. mix well, set the pan on the kHtle with thr hot water, and let it steam for 1} hour*, taking care that the water in the kHIIr dors not run dry; then open the dcMir of the stove and cover the fire with ashe«. and let the gum settle for nearly an hour, then remove the scum which has settl^^I on top, flavor and run out with the fun- Digitized by VjOOQ IC CONFECTIONERY «17 nel dropper into the starch impressions, and pUce the trays in the drying room for 2 days, or until dry; then take the drops out of the starch, clean them of! well and place them in crystal pans, one or two layers. Cook sugar and water to $44^ on the syrup gauge and pour over the drops lukewarm. Let stand in a moderately warm place over night, then drtin the svrup on, and about an hour afterwards knock the gum drops out on a clean table, pick them apart, and place on trays untO dry, when they are ready for isle. A Good Summer Taffy. — Place in a kettle 4 pounds of sugar, 3 pounds of friucose, and 1} pints of water; when it boils drop in a piece of butter half the «ize of an egg and about 2 ounces of paraffine wax. Cook to 262^ pour on a tUb, and when cool enough, pull, flavor, and color if you wish, rull until light, then spin out on the table in strips about S inches wide and cut into 4- or 4i-inch lengths. Then wrap in wax paper for the counter. This taffy keeps long with- out being grained by the heat. Chewing Candy. — Place 20 pounds of sugar in a copper pan, add 20 pounds of glucose, and enough water to easily dis- solve the sugar. Set on the fire or cook in the steam pan in 2 quarts of water. Have a pound of egg albumen soaked in i quarts of water. Beat this like eggs into a very stiff froth, add gradually the sugar and glucose; when well beaten up, add 5 pounds of powdered sugar, and beat at very little heat either in the steam beater or on a pan of boiling water until light, and does not stick to the back of the hand, flavor with vanilla,' and put in trays dusted with fine sugar. When cold it may be cut* or else it mav be stretched out on a sugar-dusted table,^ cut, and wrapped in wax papier. This chewing candy has to be kept in a very dry place, or else it will run and get sticky. Montpelier Cough Drops.— Brown sugar 10 pounds Tartaric acid 2 ounces Cream of tartar i ounce Water U quarts Anise^seed flavoring, quantity sufficient Melt the sugar in the water, and when at a sharp boil add the cream of tartar. Cover the pan for 5 minutes. Remove the lid and let the sugar boil up to crack degree. Turn out the batch on an oiled •Ub, and when cool enou|[h to handle mold in the acid and flavoring. Pass it tiruQgh the acid drop rollers, and when the drops are chipped up, and before sifting, rub some icing witn them. Medicated Cough Drops. — Light-brown sugar. . . 14 pounds Tartaric acid 1} ounces Cream of tartar } ounce Water 2 quarte Anise-seed, cayenne, clove, and pepper- mint flavoring, a few drops of each. Proceed as before prescribed, but when sufficientlv cool pass the batch through the acia tablet rollers and dust with sugar. Horehound Candy.— Dutch crushed sugar. 10 pounds Dried horehound leaves 2 ounces Cream of tartar } ounce Water 2 quarts Anise-seed flavoring, quantity sufficient. Pour the water on the leaves and let it gently simmer till reduced to 8 pints; then strain the infusion through muslin, and add the liquid to the sugar. Put the pan containing the syrup on the fire, and when at a sharp bou add the cream of tartar. Put the lid on the pan for 6 min- utes; then remove it, and let the sugar boil to stiff boil degree. Take the pan off the fire and rub portions of the sugar against the side until it produces a creamy appearance; then add the flavor- ing. Stir all well, and pour into square tin frames, previously well oiled. Menthol Cough Drops. — Gelatin 1 ounce Glycerine (by weight) 2} ounces Orange-flower water. . 2^ ounces Menthol 5 srains Rectified spirits 1 drachm Soak the gelatin in the water for 2 hours, then heat on a water bath until dissolved, and add 1 } ounces of glycerine. Dissolve the menthol in the spirit, mix with the remainder of the glycerine, add to the glyco-gelatin mass, and pour into an oiled tin tray (such as the lid of a bis- cuit box). When the mass is cold divide into 10 dozen pastilles. Menthol pastilles are said to be an excellent remedy for tickling cough as well as laryngitis. They should be freshly prepared, and cut oblong, so that the patient may take half of one, or less, as may be necessary. Violet Flavor for Candy.— Violet fla- vors, like violet perfumes, are very com- plex mixtures, and their imitation is a Digitized by VjOOQ IC 218 CONFECTIONERY correspondingly difficult undertaking. The oasis is vanilla (or ▼anillin), rose, and orris, with a verv little of some pun- gent oil to bring up the flavor. The fol- lowing will give a basis upon which a satisfactory flavor may be built: Oil of orris 1 drachm Oil of rose 1 drachm Vanillin 2 drachms Cumarin 80 grains Oil of clove SO minims Alcohol 11 ounces Water 5 ounces Make a solution, adding the water last. CONFECTIOIIERT COLORS. —The following are excellent and entirely harmless coloring agents for the pur- poses named: Red. — Cochineal syrup prepared as follows: Cochineal, in coarse powder 6 parts Potassium carbonate 9 parts Distilled water IS parts Alcohol 12 parts Simple syrup enough to make 500 parts Rub up the potassium carbonate and the cochineal together, adding the water and alcohol, little by little, under constant trituration. Set aside over night, then add the syrup and filter. Pink.— Carmine 1 part Liquor potassse 6 parts Rose water, enough to make 48 parts Mix. Should the color be too high, dilute with water until the requisite tint is acquired. Ormng«. — Tincture of red sandalwood, 1 part; ethereal tincture of orlean, quan- tity sufficient. Add the tincture of or- lean to the sandalwood tincture until the desired shade of orange is obtained. A red added to any of the yellows gives an orange color. The aniline colors made by the **Ak- tiengesellschaft fUr Anilin - Fabrika- tion,'* of Berlin, are absolutely non-toxic, and csn be used for the purposes recom- mended, i. e., the coloration of syrups, cakes, candies, etc., with perfect ccinfi- dence in their innocuity. Pastilto Yellow.— Citron yellow II 7 parts Grape sugar, first quality 1 part White dextrine ^ parts Sftp-Blue Paste.— Dark blue S parts Grape sugar 1 part Water 6 parU Sugar-Black Paste.-- Carbon black S parts Grape sugar 1 part Water 0 parU CinnatMU' Red.*— Scarlet 65 parU White dextrine SO parts Potato flour 5 parts Bluish Rose.*— Grenadine 05 parts White dextrine SO parts Potato flour 5 parts Tellowish Rose.— Rosa II OOparU Citron vellow 5 parts White dextrine SO parts Potato flour 5 parts ^olet.— Red violet 65 parts White dextrine SO parts Potato flour 5 parts Carmine Green. — Woodruff (Waldmeis- ter) green 55 parts Rosa ll 5 parts Dextrine S5 parts Potato flour 5 parts To the colors marked with an asterisk (*) add, for every 4 pounds, 4} ounces, a grain and a half each of potassium iodide and sodium nitrate. Colors given in form of powders should be dissolved in hot water for use. Tellow.— Various shades of yellow mmy be obtained by the maceration of llesiello saffron, or turmeric, or grains d* Avignon in alcohol until a strong tior- ture IS obtained. Dilute with water until the desired shade is obtained. Ao aqueous solution of quercitrine also gives an excellent yellow. Blue.— Indigo carmine 1 part Water « parU Mix. Indigo carmine is a beautiful, power- ful, and harmless agent. It may usually be bought commercially, but if it can- not l>e readily obtained, proceed as fol- lows: Into a capsule put SO grains of indiitu in powder, place on a water bath, a»«i beat to dryness. When entirely dry pul Digitized by VjOOQ IC CONFECTIONERY— COPPER 219 into a Urge porcelain mortar (the sub- &UDce swells enormously under subse- quent treatment — hence the necessity for a large, or comparatively large, mor- Ur) and cautiously add, drop by drop, WO grains, by weight, of sulpnuric acid, C. P., stirring continuously during the addition. Cover the swollen mass close- ly, and set aside for 24 hours. Now add S fluidounces of distilled water, a few drops at a time, rubbing or stirring continuously. Transfer the liquid thus obtained to a tall, narrow, glass cylinder or beaker, cover and let stand for 4 days, fiving the liquid an occasional stirring. Mike a strong solution of sodium car- bonate or bicarbonate* and at the end of the time named cautiously neutralize the liquid, adding the carbonate a little at a time, stirring the indigo solution and teiiting it after each addition, as the least excess of alkali will cause the indigo to ^fparate out, and fall in a doughy mass. Stop when the test shows the near ap- proach of neutrality, as the slight re- maining acidity will not affect the taste or the properties of the liquid. Filter, and evaporate in the water bath to dry- nes%. The resultant matter is sulphin- di^otate of potassium, or the **indigo carmine" of commerce. Tincture of indigo may also be used as a harmleas blue. Green«— The addition of the solution indigo carmine to an infusion of any of the matters given under "yellow" will pro- duce a green color. Tincture of crocus and ^ycerine in equal parts, with the ad«iition of indigo-carmine solution, also l^ves a fine green. A solution of com- mercial chlorophyll gives grass-green, in shades varving according to the concen- tMtion of the solution. Voice and Throat Lozenges. — Catechu 191 grains Tannic acid 278 grains Tartaric acid 87S grains Capsicin 80 minims Black-currant paste. 7 ounces Refined sugar. Mucilage of acacia, of each a sufficient quantity. Mix to produce 7 pounds of lozenges. COHSTIPATION IN BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas. COOKING TABLE: See Tables. COOLING SCR^N: See Refrigeratioo. Copper Annealing Copper.— Copper is almost universally annealed in muffles, in which it is raised to the desired temperature, and subsequently allowed to cool either in the air or in water. A muffle is nothing more or less than a reverberatory furnrce. It is necessary to watch the copper carefullv, so that when it has reached the right temperature it may be drawn from the muffle and ajlowed to cool. This is important, for if the copper is heated too high, or is left in the muffle at the ordi- nary temperature of annealing too long, it is burnt, as the workmen say. Copper that has been burnt is vellow, coarsely granular, and exceedingly brittle — even more brittle at a red neat than when cold. In the case of coarse wire it is found that only the surface is burnt, while the interior is damaged less. This causes the exterior to split loose from the in- terior when bent or rolled, thus giving the appearance of a brittle copper tube with a copper wire snugly fittea into it. Cracks a half inch in depth have been observed on the surface of an inffot on its first pass through the rolls, all due to this exterior burning. It is apparent that copper that has been thus over- heated m the muffle is entirely unfit for rolling. It is found that the purer forms of copper are less liable to be harmed by overheating than samples containing even a small amount of impurities. Even the ordinary heating in a muffle will often suffice to burn in this manner the surface of some specimens of copper, rendering them unfit for further working. Copper Uiat has been thus ruined is of use only to be refined again. As mav be inferred only the highest grades or refined copper are used for drawing or for rolling. This is not be- cause the lower ^ades, when refined, can- not stand sufficiently high tests, but be- cause methods of working are not adequate to prevent these grades of cop- per from experiencing the deterioration due to overheating. The process of refining copper con- sists in an oxidizing action followed by a reducing action which, since it is per- formed by the aid of gases (generated by stirring the melted copper with a pole, is called poling. The object of the oxida- tion is to oxidize and either volatilize or turn to slag all the impurities contained in the copper. This procedure is ma- terially aided by the fact that the sub- Digitized by VjOOQ IC S20 COPPER oxide of copper is freely soluble in metallic copper and thus penetrates to all parts of tne copper, and parting with its oxygen, oxiaizes the impurities. The object of the reducing part of the refining process is to change the excess of the suboxide of copper to metallic copper. Copper containing even less than 1 per cent of the suboxide of copper shows decreased malleability and duc- tility, and is both cold-short and red- short. If the copper to be refined con- tains any impurities, such as arsenic or antimony, it is well not to remove too much of the oxygen in the refining proc- ess. If this is done, overpoled copper is produced. In this condition it is brittle, granular, of a shining yellow color, and more red-short than cold- short. When the refining has been prop- erlv done, and neither too much nor too little oxygen is present, the copper is in the condition of '* tough pitch, and is in a fit state to be worked. Copper is said to be "tough pitch" when it requires frequent bending to break it, and when, after it is broken, the color is pale red, the fracture has a silky lus- ter, and is fibrous like a tuft of silk. On hammering a piece to a thin plate it should show no cracks at the edge. At tough pitch copper offers the nighest def^ree of malleabilitjr and ductility of which a given specimen is capable. This is the condition in which refined copper is (or should be) placed on the market, and if it could be worked with- out changing this tough pitch, any specimen of copper that could oe brought to this condition would be suitable for rolling or drawing. But tough pitch is changed if oxygen is either added or taken from refined copper. By far the more important of these is the removal of oxygen, especially from those specimens that contain more than a mere trace of impurities. This is shown bv the absolutely worthless condition of overpoled copper. The addition of carbon also plays a very important part in the production of overpoled copper. That the addition of oxygen to refined copper is not so damaging is shown by the fact that at present nearly all the cop- per that is worked is considerably oxi- dized at some stage of the process, and not especially to its detriment. Burnt copper is nothing more or less than copper m the overpoled condition. This is brought about by the action of reducing gases in the muffle. By this means the small amount of oxygen nec- essary to give the copper its tough pitch is removed. This oxygen is combined with impurities in the copper, and thus renders them inert. For example, the oxide of arsenic or antimony is inca- pable of combining more than mechan- ically with the copper, but when its oxy- gen IS removed the arsenic or antimony IS left free to combine with the copper. This forms a brittle alloy, and one that corresponds almost exactly in its proper- ties with overpoled copper. To be sure overpoled copper is supposed to contain carbon, but that this is not the essentisj ruling principle in case of annealing is shown by the fact that pure copper does not undergo this change under condi- tions that ruin impure copper, and al>o by the fact that tne same state may he produced by annealing in pure hydro- gen and thus removing the oxygen that renders the arsenic or antimony inert. No attempt is made to deny tne well- known fact that carbon does combine with copper to the extent of 0.2 per cent and cause it to become exceedingly brittle. It is simply claimed that this i<« Srobably not what occurs in the pro- uction of so-called burnt copper during annealing. The amount oi impuritir« capable of rendering copper easily burnt is exceedingly small. This may oe l>et« ter appreciated when it is considered that from 0.01 to 0.2 per cent expre.v»e^ the amount of oxyf^en necessary to ren- der the impurities inert. The removal of this very small amount of oxygen, which is often so small as to be aim<»«i within the limits of the errors of analysis, will suflSce to render copper overpoled and ruin it for any use. There are methods of avoiding the numerous accidents that may occur in the annealing of copper, due to a chanp* of pitch. As already pointed out. the quality of refined copper is lowered if oxygen be either added to or taken from it. It is quite apparent, therefore, that a reallv good metnod of annealing cop- per will prevent any change in the state of oxidation. It is necessary to prevent access to the heated copper both of at- mospheric air, which would oxidixr it. and of the reducing gases used in heal- ing the muffle, which would take oxyirrn away from it. ^ Obviously the only m^y of accomplishing this is to inclone tbV copper wnen heated and till cool in an atmosphere that can neither oxidise n^r deoxidize copper. By so doing copper may be heated to the melting point and allowed to cool again without suffering as regards its pitch. There ar« (*i>m> paratively few gases that can be used fur this purpose, but, fortunately, one which is exceedingly cheap and aniwrsally Digitized by VjOOQ IC COPPER 221 preTmlent fulfills all reauirements, viz., &temiD. In order to apply the principles enunciated it is necessary only to anneal copper in the ordinary^ annealing pots surn as are used for iron, care being taken to inclose the copper while heatins ind while cooline in an atmosphere of steam. This will effectually exclude air and prevent the ingress of gases used in beating the annealer. Twenty-four hours may be used in the process, as in the annealing of iron wire, with no detri- ment to the wire. This may seem in- credible to those manufacturers who have tried to anneal copper wire after the manner of annealing iron wire. By this method perfectly bright annealed wire may be produced. Such a process of annealing copper offers many advan- tages. It allows the use of a grade of copper that has hitherto been worked only at a great disadvantage, ovring to its tendency to get out of pitch. It allows the use of annealers such as are ordi- narily employed for annealing iron, and thus cheapens the annealing consider- ably as compared with the present use of mumes. Tnere is no chance of produc- ing the overpoled condition from the action of reducing gases used in heating the muffles. There is no chance of pro- ducing the undernoled condition due to the absorption of suboxide of copper. None of the metal is lost as scale, and the sarinff that is thus effected amounts to a considerable percentage of the total ralue of the copper. The expense and time of cleaning are wholly saved. In- ridrntallv bright annealed copper is producea by a process which is appli- cable to copper of anv shape, size, or ctindition-j-a product tnat has hitherto been obtained only by processes (mostly «erret) which are too cumbersome and too expensive for extensive use; and, as i» the case with at least one process, with the danger of producing the overpoled condition, often in only a small section of the wire, but thus ruining the whole piece. COPPER COLORING: Blacking Copper. — To give a copper article a Black covering,^ clean it with emery paper, heat gently in a Bunsen or a spirit flame, immerse for 10 seconds in jiolution of copper filings in dilute nitric acid, and heat again. Red Coloring of Copper. — A fine red color maj be pven to copper by gradu- ally beating it in an air batn. Prolonged beating at a comparatively low temper- ature, or rapid heating at a high tem- poature, produces the same reswt. As soon as the desired color is attained the metal should be rapidly cooled by quenching in water. The metal thus colored may be varnished. To Dye Copper Parts Violet and Or- ange.— I^olished copper acquires an orange-like color leamng to gold, when dipped for a few seconds into a solution of crystallized copper acetate. A hand- some violet is obtained by placing the metal for a few minutes in a solution of antimony chloride and rubbing it after- wards with a piece of wood covered with cotton. During this operation the cop- per must be heated to a degree bearable to the hand. A crystalline appearance is produced by boiling the article in copper sulphate. Pickle for Copper.— Take nitric acid, 100 parts; kitchen salt, 2 parts; calcined soot, 2 parts; or nitric acid, 10 parts; sul- phuric acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 1 part. As these bleacbing[ baths attack the copper quickly, the objects must be left in only for a few seconds, washing them afterwards in plenty of water, and drying in sawdust, bran, or spent tan. Preparations of Copper Water. — I. — Water, 1,000 parts; oxalic acid, 80 parts; spirit of wine, 100 parts; essence of tur- pentine, 50 parts; fine tripoli, 100 parts. II. — Water, 1,000 parts; oxalic acid, 80 parts; alcohol, 50 parts; essence of turpentine, 40 parts; fine tripoli, 50 parts. III. — Sulphuric acid, 800 parts; sul- phate of alumina, 80 parts; water, 520 parts. Tempered Copper. — Objects made of copper may be satisfactorily tempered by subjecting them to a certain decree of heat for a determined period of time and bestrewing them with powdered sulphur during the heating. While hot the objects are plunged into a bath of blue vitriol; after the bath they may be heated again. COPPER ALLOYS: See Alloys. COPPER CLEANIKG: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. COPPER ETCHING: See Etching. COPPER IN FOOD: See Food. COPPER LACQUERS: See Lacquers. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 222 COPPER— COPYING PRINTED PICl^URES COPPER PAPER: See Paper, Metallic. COPPER PATnnZING AHD PLATING : See Plating. COPPER POLISHES: See Polishes. COPPER, SEPARATION OF GOLD FROM: See Gold. COPPER SOLDER: See Solders. COPPER VARNISHES: See Varnishes. COPYING PRINTED PICTURES. The so-called "metallic'* paper used for steam- :?ngine indicator cards has a smooth surface, chemically prepared so that black lines can be drawn upon it with pencils made of brass, copper, sil- ver, aluminum, or any of the softer metals. When used on the indicator it receives the faint line drawn by a brass point at one end of the pencil arm, and its special advantage over ordinary paper is that the metallic pencil slides over its surface with very little friction, and keeps its point much longer than a graphite pencil. This paper can be used as a transfer paper for copying engravings or sketches, or anything printed or written in ink or drawn in pencil. The best copies can be obtained by following the directions below: Lay the metallic transfer paper, face up, upon at least a dozen sheets of blank paper, and lay the print face down ufran it. On the back of the print place a sheet of heavy paper, or thin cardboard, and run the rubbing tool over this protecting sheet. In tnis manner it is comparative- ly easy to prevent slipping, and prints 8 or 10 inches on a sicle may be copied satisfactorily. Line drawings printed from relief plates, or pictures with sharp contrast of black and white, without any half- tones, give the best copies. Very few half-tones can be transferred satisfac- torily; almost all give streaked, indis- tinct copies, and many of the results are worthless. The transfer taken of! as described is a reverse of the original print. If the question of right and left is not impor- tant this reversal will seldom be objec- tionable, for it is easy to read back- ward what few letters generally occur. However, if desired, the paper mav be held up to the light and examined from the back, or placed before a mirror and viewed by means of its reflected image, when the true relations of right and left will be seen. Moreover, if sufficiently imjrartant, an exact counterpart of the original may be taken from tne revers^ copy by laying another sheet face down- ward upon it, and rubbing on the bark of the iresh sheet just as was done in making the reversed copy. The im- pression thus produced will be fainter than the first, but almost always it can be made dark enough to show a distinct outline which may afterwards be re- touched with a lead pencil. For indicator cards the paper is pre- pared by coating one surface with a suit- able compound, usually zinc oxide mixed with a little starch and enough glue t(i make it adhere. After drying it i^ passed between calendar rolls under great pressure. The various brands manu- tactured for the trade, though perhaps equally good for indicator diagrams, are not equally well suited for copying. If paper of firmer texture could be prrparrti with the same surface finish, prot»al4y much larger copies could be produced. Other Kinds of paper, notably the heavy plate papers used for some of the best trade catalogues, possess this Iran^ fer property to a slight degree, though they will not receive marks from a me- tallic pencil. The latter feature wuuld seem to recommend them for trmiufer pur{K)ses, making them less likely to l>e* come soiled by contact with m«tall:c objects, but so far no kind has hern found which will remove enough ink to give copies anywhere near as dmtk us the indicator paper. Fairly good transfers can be mad** from almost any common printers* ink. but some inks copy much better than others, and some yield only the faintest impressions. The length of time sincr a picture was printed does not seem to de- termine its copying equality. Some very old prints can be copied better than new ones; in fact, it was by accidental trans- fer to an indicator card from a b«M»k nearly a hundred years old that the peculiar property of this '^metallic** paper was discovered. Copying Piocets on Wood.— If woft and elastic, and should be cut to a proper model. it. — The palliative treatment is gen- erally carried out with chemical sub- •itances. The best method, is, briefly, as follows: A ring of glycerine jelly is painted around the circumference of the cum, to form a raised rampart. A piece of salicylic plaster mull is then cut to the Mxe and shape of the central deoression, and applied to the surface of the corn. This is then covered with a layer of glyc- erine jelly, and before it sets a pad of cotton wool is applied to the surface. This process is repeated as often as is necessary, until the horny layer separates and ia cast off. If the point of a sharp, thin-bladed knife be introduced at the groove which runs around the margin of the corn, and be made to penetrate toward its central axLi, by the exercise of a little manual driterity the horny part of the corn can l>e easily made to separate from the parts beneath* III. — Any method of treatment to be curative must secure the removal of the entire corn, together with the under- lying bursa. It is mainly in connection with the latter structure that complica- tiooa, which alone make a corn a matter of 8«rious import, are likely to arise. Freeland confidently advises the full and rcfinpiete excision of corns, on the basis of his experience in upward of 60 cases. Every precaution naving been taken til render the operation aseptic, a spot is selected for the injection of the anaesthetic ftolution. The skin is rendered insen- Ative with ethyl chloride, and 5 minims of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine is in- jected into the subcutaneous tissue be- neath the com. After a wait of a few minutes the superficial narts of the site <4 the incision are renaered insensitive vith ethyl chloride. Anesthesia is now iv>fnplete. Two semtelHptieal incisions meeting at their extremitiea are made through the skin around the drcumference of the growth, care being taken that they pen- etrate well into the subcutaneous tissue. Seizing the parts included in the incision with a pair of dissecting forceps, a wedge- shapea piece of tissue — induding tne corn, a laver of skin and subcutaneous tissue, and the bursa if present — is dis- sected out. The oozing is pretty free, and it is sometimes necessary to torsion a small vessel; but the hemorrhage is never severe. The edges of the wound are brought together by one or two fine sutures; an antiseptic dressing is applied, and the wound is left to heal — primary union in a few days being the rule. The rapidity of the healing is often phenom- enal. There is produced a scar tissue at the site of the corn, but this leads to no untoward results. Cosmetics COLD CREAM. I. — Oil of almonds .... 425 parts Lanolin 185 parts White wax. 62 parts Spermaceti 68 parts Borax 4.5 parts Rose water 800 parts Melt together the first four ingredients, then incorporate the solution of borax in the rose water. IL— Tragacanth 125 parts Bone acid 100 parts Glycerine 140 parts Expressed oil of al- monds 50 parts Glvconine 50 parts Oil of lavender, i . . 0.5 parts Water enough to make 1,000 parts Mix the tragacanth and the boric acid with the fflycerine; add the almond oil, kvender oil, and egg glycerite, whidi have been previously well incorporated, and, lastly, add the water in divided portions until a clear jelly of the desired consistency is obtained. • III. — Oil of almonds 26 ounces Castor oil (odorless). 6 ounces Lard (benzoatad) ... 8 ounces White wax.. ....... 8 ounces Rose water (in win- ter less, in sum- mer more, than quantitv named) .. 12 ounces Orange-dower water 8 ounces Oil ofrose 15 minims Extract of jasmine. . 6 drachms Extract of cassia. ... 4 drachms Borax 2 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Digitized by VjOOQ IC SS6 COSMETICS Melt the oil of sweet almonds, wax, and lard together, and stir in the castor oil; make a solution of the borax in the glycerine and rose and orange-flower waters; add this solution, a little at a time, to the melted fat, stirring con- stantly to insure thorough incorporation; finally add the oil of rose dissolved in the extracts, and beat the ointment until cold. ly. — Spermaceti (pure), i ounce; white wax (pure), J ounce; almond oil. J pound: butter of cocoa, \ pound; lano- lin, i ounces. Melt and stir in I drachm of balsam of Peru. After settling, pour off the clear portion and add i fluidrachms of orange- flower water and stir briskly until it concretes. Camphorated Cold Cream. ~ Oil of sweet al- monds 8 fluidounces White wax 1 ounce Spermaceti 1 ounce Camphor 1 ounce Rose water 5 fluidounces Borax (in fine pow- der) 4 drachms Oil of rose 10 drops Melt the wax and spermaceti, add the oil of sweet almonds, in which the cam- phor has been dissolved with very gentle heat; then gradually add the rose water, in which the borax has previously been dissolved, beating or agitating con- stantly with a wocxien spatula until cold. Lastly add the oil of rose. Petrolatum Cold Cream.— Petrolatum (white).. . 7 ounces Parafline } ounce lanolin « ounces Water 8 ounces Oil of rose 8 drops Alcohol 1 drachm A small r)uantity of borax may be added, if desirable, and the perfume may be varied to suit the Ustc. LIP SaLvES: Pomades for the Lipe.— Lip pomatum which is said always to retain a hand- some red color and never to grow rancid is prepared as follows: L— Parafline 80.0 paris Vaseline 80 . 0 parts Anchusine 0.5 parts Bergamot oil 1.0 part I^ mo n peel 1.0 part IL— Vaeeline Pomade.— I Vaseline oil, white. . . 1,000 parts Wax. white 300 parts , Geranium oil, Afri- ^ can 40 parU Lemon oil 20 parts III^— Roee Pomade. ~- ' * Almond oil 1,000 parta Wax, white SOO parta Alkannin 3 parta Geranium oil 20 parta IV.— Yellow Pomade.— Vaseline oil, white. 1 ,000 parta Wax, white 200 parts Spermaceti 200 parta Saffron surrogate. 10 parta Clove oil 20 parts V. —White Pomade. — Vaseline oil, white. 1 ,000 parta Wax, white 300 parta Bitter almond oil, genuine 10 parts Lemon oil 2 parta VI.— Paraffine 40.0 parta Vaseline 40.0 parta Oil of lemon 0. 76 parta Oil of violet 0 . 75 parta Carmine, quantity suflicient. Lipol.— For treating sore, rough, or inflamed lips, appljr the following night and morning, rubbing in well with the finger tips: Camphor, ) ounce; men- thol, i ounce; eucalyptol, 1 drachm; petrolatum (white), 1 pound; paraffine. 4 pound; alkanet root, ) ounce; oil of bitter almonds, 15 drops; oil of rlovrji. 10 drops; oil of cassia, 5 drops. Digest the root in the melted parafline and pe- trolatum, strain, add the other ingre- dients and pour into lip jars, hot MAKICURE PREPARATIOKS: Powdered Kail Polishes. — I. — Tin oxide 8 drarhmt Carmine } drachm Rose oil 0 dropa Neroli oil 5 dropa II. — Cinnabar 1 drachm Infusorial eaKh 8 drachma III.— Putty powder (fine). 4 drarhm« Carmine 2 grains Oil of rose 1 drop IV. — White castile soap. . . I part Hot water 10 parta Zinc chloride solu* tion, 10 per cent, quantity sufficient Dissolve the soap in the water and to the solution add the sine-chloride s^tli*- tion until no further precipitation nr- curs. Ijet stand over night: pour off the supernatant fluid, wash the precipitate Digitized by VjOOQ IC COSMETICS 227 well wilh water, and dry at the ordinary temperature. Carmine may be added if desired. Polishing Pastes for the Kails. — I. — Talcum 5 drachms Stannous oxide 3 drachms Powdered tragacanth 5 grains Glycerine 1 drachm Rose water, quantity sufficient. Solution of carmine sufficient to tint. Make paste. For softening the nails, curing hang- nails, etc., an ointment i» sometimes used consiHting of white petrolatum, 8 parts; powdered castile soap, 1 part; ana per- fume to suit. II. — Eosine 10 grains White wax i drachm Spermaceti J drachm Soft paraffine 1 ounce Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the eosine in as little alcohol as wilt suffice, melt the other ingredients to- gether, add the solution, and stir until cool. Wail-Cleaning Washes. — L — Tartaric acid 1 drachm Tincture of myrrh . . 1 drachm Cologne water 2 drachms Water 3 ounces Dissolve the acid in the water; mix the tincture of myrrh and cologne, and add to the acid solution. Dip the nails in this solution, wipe, and polish with chamois skin. II.— Oxalic acid 80 grains Rose water 1 ounce HaU Varnish.— Paraffine wax 60 grains Chloroform 2 ounces Oil of rose 3 drops POMADES: I.— Beef-Marrow Pomade.— Vaseline oil, yel- low 20,000 parts Ceresine, yellow 3,000 parts Beef marrow . . 2,000 parU Saffron substi- tute 15 parts Lemon oil 50 parts Bergamot oil. . . 20 parts Clove oil 5 parts Lavender oil... 10 parts II. —China Pomade.— Vaseline oil, yellow 20,000 parts Ceresine, yel- low 5,000 parU Brilliant, brown 12 parts Peru balsam. . . 60 parts Lemon oil. .... 5 parts Bergamot oil . . 5 parts Clove oil 5 parts Lavender oil . . 5 parts III. — Crystalline Honey Pomade. — Nut oil, 125 drachms; spermaceti, 15 drachms: gamboge, 2 drachms; vervain oil. 10 drops; cinnamon oil, 20 drops; bergamot oil, SO drops; rose oil, 3 drops. The spermaceti is melted in the nut oil on a water bath and digested with the gamboge for 20 minutes; it is next strained, scented, and poured into cans which are standing in water. The cool- ing must take place very slowly. In- stead of gamboge, butter color may be used. Any desired scent mixture may be employed. IV.— Herb Pomade.— Vaseline oil, yel- low 20,000 parts Ceresine, yellow 5,000 parts ChlorophvU ... 20 parts Lemon oil 50 parts Clove oil 20 parts Geranium oil, African 12 parU Curled mint oil. 4 parts V. — ^Rose Pomade. — Vaseline oil, white 20,000 parts Ceresine, white 5,000 parts Alkannin. .... 15 parts Geranium oil, African. .... 50 parts Palmarosa oil. 30 parts Lemon oil ... . 20 parts VI.— Strawberry Pomade.— When the strawberry season is on, and berries are plenty and cheap, the following is timely: Strawberries, ripe and fresh 4 parts Lard, sweet and fresh 25 parts Tallow, fresh 5 parts Alkanet tincture, c^uantity suffi- cient. Essential oil, quan- tity sufficient to perfume. Melt lard and tallow together on the water bath at the temperature of boilinff water. Have the strawberries arranged on a straining cloth. Add the alkanet tincture to the melted grease, stir in, and then pour the mixture over the berries. Stir the strained fats until the mass be- Digitized by VjOOQ IC S28 COSMETICS gins to set, then add the perfume and stir in. A little arti6cial essence of strawberries may be added. The odor usually employed is rose, about 1 drop to every 2 pounds. Vll.-Stick Ponuide.— Tallow 500 parU Ceresine 150 parts Wax, yellow 50 parts Rosin, light . . 200 parts Paraffine oil (thick).. SOO parU Oil of cassia 5 parts Oil of bergamot. . 5 parts Oil of clove 2 parts VIII.— VaMline Pdmade.— Melt 250 parts of freshly rendered lard and 25 parts of white wax at moderate heat and mix well with 200 parts of vaseline. Add 15 parts of bergamot oil, S parts of lavender oil, 2 parts of geranium oil, and 2 parts of lemon oil, mixing well. IX.— Witch-Hazel JeUy.— Oil of sweet al- monds 256 parts £xtract of witch- hazel fluid 10 parts Glycerine 32 parts Soft soap 20 parts Tincture of musk, quantity suf- ficient to perfume. Mix in a large mortar the glycerine and soft soap and stir until incorporated. Add and rub in the witch- hasel, and then add the oil, slowly, letting it fall in a very thin, small stream, under con- stant agitation; add the perfume, keep- ing up the agitation until complete in- corporation is attained. Ten drops of musk to a quart of jelly is sufficient. Any other perfume may be used. Colon for Pomade.— Pomade may be colored red by infusing alkanet in the grease; j^ellow may be obtained by using annottu in the same way; an oil-soluble chlorophyll will give a green color by admixture. In coloring grease by means of alkanet or annotto it is best to tie the drug up in a piece of coarse cloth, place in a small portion of the grea.se, heat gently, squeez- ing well with a rod from time to time; and then adding this stroiigljr colored Srease to the remainder. This prore- ure obviates exposing the entire ma.%s to heat, and neither decantation nur straining is needed. Brocq*t Pomade lor Itching.— Arid phenir 1 part Arid salicylic 2 parts Acid tartaric ... 3 parts Glycerole of starch 60 to 100 parts Mix and make a pomade. White Cosmetique.— Jasmine pomade 2 ounces Tuberose pomade. ... 2 ounces White wax 2 ounces Refined suet 4 ounces Rose oil 15 minims Melt the wax and suet over a water bath, then add the pomades, and finally the otto. Glycerine and Cucumlier JeUy. — Gelatin 160 to 240 grains Boric acid 240 grains Glycerine 6 nuidounces Water 10 fluidouncr^ Perfume to suit. The perfume mu.<%t be one that mixes without opalescence, otherwise it mars the beauty of the prep- aration*. Orange-flower water or rt»»e water could be substituted for the water if desired, or another perfume coUM^ting of Spirit of vanillin (15 grains per ounce). 2 fluidrachms Spirit oi coumarin (15 grains per ounce) 2 fluidrachms Spirit of bitter al- monds (}) 8 miniina to the quantities given above would prove agreeable. Cucumber Pomade. — Cucumber pomade. . . 2 ounces Powdered white soap. ) ounre Powdered borax 2 drachms Cherrv-laurel water. . 3 ounces Rectified spirit 3 ounces Distilled water to make 48 ounces Rub the pomade with the soap and borax until intimately mixed, then add the di.Htilled water (which may be warmed to blood heat), ounc*e by 4iunce« to form a smooth and uniform cream. When 40 ounces of water have been %*» incorporated, dinsolve any eer consistence. II.— Zinc oxide 8 parts Bismuth subnttrate . . 8 parts Aluminum oxy chlor- ide 8 parts Almond oil, quantity sufficient, or 5-6 parts. Perfume, quantity sufficient. Mix the sine, bismuth, and aluminum ot^ionde thoroughly; make into a paste with the oil. Any penume may be aaded, but that generally used is composed of 1 drtcfam of essence of bouquet, 12 grains of camphor, and 12 minims of oil of pep- permint for every 3} ounces of paste. Bright Red.— Zinc oxide 10 parts Bismuth subnitrate. . . 10 parts Aluminum oxy chlor- ide 10 parts Almond oil, quantity sufficient. Mix the sine, bismuth, and aluminum salts, and to every 4 ounces of the mix- tare add 21 grainj of cosine dissolved in s drachm oi es.4ence of bouquet, 12 minims oil of peppermint, and 12 grains of cam- phor. Make the whole into a paste with nlmond oil. Red.— Cacao butter 4 a v. ounces White wax 4 av. ounces Olive oil 2 fluidounces Oil of rose 8 drops Oil of bergamot . . 3 drops Oil of neroli 2 drops Tincture musk. . . 2 drops Carmine 00 grains Ammonia water . . 3 fluidrachms Deep, or Bordeaux, Red. — Zinc oxide 80 parts Bismuth subnitrate. . . 80 parts Aluminum oxychlor- ide 30 parts Carmine 1 part Ammonia water 5 parts Essence bouquet 8 parts Peppermint, camphor, etc., quan- tity sufficient. Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum salts. Dissolve the carmine in the am- monia and add solution to the mixture. Add 24 grains of camphor, and 24 minims of oil of peppermint dissolved in the essence bouquet, and make the whole into a paste with oil of sweet almonds. Vermilion. — Vermilion 18 parts Tincture of saffron. . 12 parts Orris root, powdered 30 parts Chalk, precipitated. . 120 parts Zinc oxide 120 parts Camphor 2 parts Essence bouquet. ... 0 parts Oil of peppermint. . . 2 parts Almond od, quantity sufficient. Mix as before. Pink.— Zinc carbonate 250 parts Bismuth subnitrate. . 260 parts Asbestos 250 parts Expressed oil of al- monds 100 parts Camphor 55 parts Oil OI peppermint . . 55 parts Perfume 25 parts Eosine 1 part Dark Red. — Like the preceding, but colored with a solution of carmine. Rouge.— Zinc oxide 2} ounces Bismuth subnitrate. . . 2} ounces Aluminum pJumbate. 2} ounces Eosine 1 drachm Essence bouquet 2 drachms Camphor 6 drachms Oil OI peppermint. ... 20 minims Almond ou, quantity sufficient. Dissolve the eosine in the essence bouquet, and mix with the camphor and peppermint; add the powder and make into a paste with almond oil. Black Grease Paints. — I. — Soot 2 av. ounces Sweet almond oil . 2 fluidounces Cacao butter 6 a v. ounces Perfume, sufficient. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 280 COSMETICS The soot should be derived from burning camphor and repeatedly washed with alcohol. It should be triturated to a smooth mixture with the oil; then add to the melted cacao butter; add the per- fume, and form into sticks. Brown or other colors may be obtained by adding appropriate pigments, such as finely levigated burnea umber, sienna, ocher, jeweler's rouge, etc., to the fore- going base instead of lampblack. II. — Best lampblack 1 drachm Cacao butter 8 drachms Olive oil 3 drachms Oil of neroli 2 drops Melt the cacao butter and oil, add the lampblack, and stir constantly as the mixture cools, adding the perfume toward the end. III. — Lampblack 1 part Cacao butter 6 parts Oil neroli, sufficient. Melt the cacao butter and the lam|>- black, and while cooling make an inti- mate mixture, adding the perfume toward the last. IV. — Lampblack. 1 part Expressed oil of al- monds 1 part Oil cocoanut 1 part Perfume, sufficient. Beat the lampblack into a stiff paste with glycerine. Apply with a sponge; if necessary, mix a little water with it when using. V. — Beat the 6nest lampblack into a stiff paste with glycerine and apply with a sponge; if necessary, add a little water to the mixture when using. Or you can make a grease paint as follows: Drop black, 2 drachms; almond oil, 2 drachms; • cocoanut oil, 6 drachms; oil of lemon, 5 minims; oil of neroli, 1 minim. Mix. Fatty Face Powders. — These have a small percentage of fat mixed with them in order to make the powder adhere to the skin. Dissolve 1 drachm anh^rdrous lano- lin in 2 drachms of ether in a mortar. Add 3 drachms of light magnesia. Mix well, dry, and then add the following: French chalk, 2 ounces; powdered starch, 1} ounces; boric acid. 1 drachm; perfume, a sufficient quantity. A good perfume is coumarin, 2 grains, and attar of rose, 2 minims. KoM Pttt^. — I .—Mix 1 ounce wheat flour with 2 drachms of powdered tragacanth and tint with carmine. Take as much of the powder as necessary, knead into a stiff paste with a little water and appl/ to^ the nose, having previously paintea it with spirit gum. II. — White wax, 8 parts; rosin, white. 8 parts; mutton suet, 4 parts; color to suit. Melt together. Rose Powder.— ^ As a base take 200 parts of powdered iris root, add 600 parts of rose petals, 100 parts of sandalwood. 100 parts of patchouli, 8 parts of oil of geranium, and 2 parts of true rose oil. Rouge Tablets.— There are two dis- tinct classes of these tablets: those in which the coloring matter is carmine, and those in which the aniline colors arc used. The best are those prepared with carmine, or ammonium carroinate* to speak more correctly. The following U an excellent formula: Ammonium carminate. . . 10 parts Talc, in powder 25 parts Dextrin 8 parts Simple syrup, sufficient. Perfume, to taste, sufficient. Mix the talc and dextrin and add the perfume, preferably in the shape of an essential oil (attar of rose, synthetic oil of jasmine, or violet, etc.), using 0 to S drops to every 4 ounces of other io- greaients. Incorporate the ammonium carminate and aad just enough simple syrup to make a mass easily rolled out. Out into tablets of the desired sixe. Th« ammonium carminate is made by addioK 1 part of carmine to 2) parts of strung ammonia water. Mix in a vial, cork tightly, and set aside until a solution is formed, shaking occasionallv. The am- monium carminate is made by dissohnni; carmine in ammonia water to saturation. Rouge Pidettes.— To prepare rooge ^ palettes rub up together: Carmine 0 parts French chalk 50 parts Almond oil 12 parts Add enough tragacanth mucilage to make the mass adhere and spread the whole evenly on the porcelain palettr. Liquid Rouge. — I. — Carmine 4 parts Stronger ammonia water 4 parts Essence of rose .... 10 parts Rose water to make. 500 parts Mix. A very delightful violet odor, if this is preferred, is obtained by u«inc ionone in place of rose es.4(ence. A cl»naprr preparation may be made as follows: Digitized by VjOOQ IC COSMETICS SSI II.— Eosinc 1 part Distilled water 20 parts Glycerine 5 parts Cologne water 75 parts Alcohol 100 parts Mix. Rub together with 10 parts of almond on and add sufficient mucilage of traga- ctoth to make the mass adnere to the porcelain palette. III.— Carmine 1 part Stronger ammonia water 1 part Attar of rose 4 parts Rose water 185 parts Mix. Any other color may be used in place of rose, violet (ionone), for in- «tsDce, or heliotrope. A cheaper prep- aration mav be made by substituting ff>^ine for tne carmine, as follows: IV. — Eosine 1 part Distilled water .... 20 parts Glycerine 5 parts Cologne water 75 parts Alcohol 100 parts Mix. Pfcach Tint.— 0.— Buffalo eosine .... 4 drachms Distilled water 16 fluid ounces Mix. fc.— Pure hydrochloric acid '. 2) drachms Distilled water 64 fluidounces Mix. Pour a into 6, shake, and set aside for a few hours; then pour off the clear por- tion and collect the precipitate on a filter. Wash with the same amount of 6 and immediately throw the precipitate into a glass measure, stirring in with a fj^Mi rod sufficient of h to measure 16 uunces in all. Pass through a hair sieve to ifet out any filtering paoer. To every 16 ounces add 8 ounces of glycerine. Theater Rouge. — Base : Cornstarch 4 drachms Powdered white tal- cum 6 drachms Mix. owder 60 grains Coumarin i grain Oil of bergamot 24 drops Oil of rose 6 drops Oil of bitter almonds .... 8 drops Tincture of am- bergris 5 drops Melt the spermaceti and wax, add the fweet almond oil, incorporate the water in which the borax has previously been dissolved, and finally add the oils of ber- gamot, rose, and bitter almond. XI. — Honey 2 av. ounces Castile soap, white powder 1 a v. ounce Oil sweet al- monds 26 fluidounces Oil bitter al- monds 1 fluid rachm Oil bergamot. . } fluidrachm Oil cloves .... 15 drops Peru balsam... 1 fluidrachm Liquor potassa. Solution carmine, of each suffi- cient. Mix the honey with the soap in a mor- tar, and add enough liquor potassa (about 1 fluidrachm) to produce a nice crvam. Mix the volatile oils and balsam with the sweet almond oil, mix this with the cream, and continue the^ trituration nntil thoroughly mixed. Finally add, if desired, enough carmine solution to impart a rose tint. XII. —White wax 800 parts Spermaceti 800 parts Sweet almond oO 5,600 parts Distilled water.. 2,800 parts Borax 50 parts Bergamot oil . . . 20 parts Attar of rose 5 parts Coumarin 0.1 part Add for each pound of the cream 5 drops of etheric oil of bitter almonds, aodS drops tincture of am bra. Proceed a« in making cold cream. The following also makes a fine cream: XIII. — Spermaceti 8 parts White wax 2 parts Oil of almonds, fresh 12 parts Rose water, double 1 part Glycerine, pure. . . 1 part Melt on a water bath the spermaceti and wax, add the oil (which should be fresh), and pour the whole into a slightly wanned mortar, under constant and nvely stirring, to prevent granulation. Con- tinue pie trituration until the mass has a white, creamy appearance, and is about the consistence of butter at ordi- narv temperature. Add, little by little, under constant stirring, the orange- flower water and glycerine mixed, and finally the perfume as before. ^ Con- tinue the stirring for 15 or 20 minutes, then immediately put into containers. Chappine Cream. — Quince seed 2 drachms Glycerine 1 ) ounces Water 1 J ounces Lead acetate 10 grains Flavoring, sufficient. Macerate the quince seed in water, strain, add the glycerine and lead ace- tate, previously dissolved in sufficient water; flavor with jockey club or orange essence. Cucumber Creams.— I. — White wax. 8 ounces Spermaceti 8 ounces Benzoinated lard .... 8 ounces Cucumbers 8 ounces Melt together the wax, si>erroaceti, and lard, and infuse in the liquid the cucum- bers previously grated. Allow to cool, stirring well; let stand a day, remelt, strain and again stir the "cream" until cold. II. — Benzoinated lard. ... 5 ounces Suet 3 ounces Cucumber juice 10 ounces Proceed as in making cold cream. Glycerine Creams. — I. — Oil of sweet al- monds 100 parts White wax 13 parts Glycerine, pure 25 parts Add a sufficient quantity of any suitable perfume. Melt, on the water bath, the oil, wax, and glycerine together, remove and as the mass cools down add the perfume in sufficient quantity to make a creamy ma.ss. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 288 COSMETICS II. — Quince seed 1 ounce Boric acid 16 grains Starch 1 ounce Glycerine 16 ounces Carbolic acid SO minims Alcohol 18 ounces Oil of lavender SO minims Oil of rose 10 drops Extract of white rose 1 ounce Water enough to make 64 ounces Dissolve the boric acid in a quart of water and in this solution macerate the auince seed for S hours; then strain. [eat together the starch and the glycer- ine until the starch granules are broken, and mix with this the carbolic acid. Dissolve the oils and the extract of rose in the alcohol, and add to the quince- seed mucilage; then mix all together, strain, and add water enough to make the product wei^ 64 ounces. III. — Glycerine 1 ounce Borax 2 drachms Boracic acid 1 drachm Oil rose geranium . . SO drops Oil bitter almond ... 15 drops Milk 1 gallon Heat the milk until it curdles and allow it to stand 12 hours. Strain it through cheese cloth and allow it to stand again for 12 hours. Mix in the salts and givcerine and triturate in a mortar, finally adding the odors and coloring if wanted. The curdled milk must be entirelv free from water to avoid separation. It the milk will not curdle fast enough the addition of 1 ounce of water ammonia to a gallon will hasten it. Take a gallon of milk, add 1 ounce am- monia water, heat (not boil), allow to stand 24 hours, and no trouble will be found in forming a good base for the cream» IV. — This is offered as a substitute for cucumber cream for toilet uses. Melt 15 parts, by weight, of gelatin in hot water contaimng 15 parts, by weight, of boracic acid as well as 150 parts, bv weight, of glycerine; the total amount of water used should not exceed SOO parts, by weight. It may be perfumed or not. lianoHn Creams. — I. — Anhydrous lanolin. 650 parts Peach-kernel oil . . . 200 parts Water 150 parU Perfume with about 15 drops of ionone or 20 drops of synthetic ylang- ylang. II.— Lanolin 40 parts Olive oil 15 parts Paraffine ointment. . 10 parts A^ua naphs 10 parts Distilled water 15 parts Glycerine 5 parts Boric acid 4 parts Borax 4 parts Geranium oil, sufficient. Extract, triple, of ylang-ylang, quantity sufficient. III. — An hydrous lanolin. 650 drachms Almond oil 200 drachms Water 150 drachms Oil of ylang-ylang. 5 drops Preparations which have been intro- duced years ago for the care of the skin and complexion are the glycerine gelee^. which have the advantage over lanolin that thev go further, but present the drawbacK of not bcins so quickly ab- sorbed bv the skin. These products are filled eitner into glasses or into tube«. The latter way is preferable and is more and more adopted, owing to the conven- ience of handling. A good recipe for such a gelee is the following: Moisten white tragacanth powder, SO parts, with glycerine, 200 parts, and spirit of wine, 100 parts, and shake with a suit- able amount of perfume; then quickU mix and shake with warm distilled water« 650 parts. A transparent slime will form imme-- diately which can be drawn off at once. Mucilage Creams. — I.— Starch SO parU Carrageen mucilage. 480 parts Boric acid 15 parts Givcerine 240 parts Cologne water 240 parU Boil the starch in the carrageen muci- lage, add the boric acid and the glycer- ine. Let cool, and add the c^olognr water. II. — Linseed mucilage. . . 240 parts Boric acid 2 parts Salicylic acid 1.S parts Givcerine 60 parts Cologne water 1 20 parts Rose water 120 parts Instead of the cologne water anv ex- tracts may be used. Lilac and ylang- ylang are recommended. Witch-Hazel Creams.— I. — Quince seed 00 grains Boric acid 8 grains Glycerine 4 fluidounces Alcohcil 6 fluidounces C^arbolic acid 0 drachma Cologne water .... 4 fluidounces Oil lavender flow- ers 40 drops Digitized by VjOOQ IC COSMETICS 239 Glycerite iitarch ... 4 ay. ounces Distilled witch-hazel extract enough to make 82 fluidounces Dissolve the boric acid in 16 ounces of the witch-hazel extract, macerate the quince seed in the solution for S hours, tirain, add the glycerine, carbolic acid, and dvcerite, and mix well. Mix the alcohol, cologne water, lavender oil, and mucilages, incoroorate with the previous mixture, and aad enough witch-hazel extract to bring to the measure of 32 fluidounces. II. — Quince seed 4 ounces Ilot water 16 ounces Glycerine 32 ounces Witch-hazel water . . 128 ounces Boric acid 6 ounces Rose extract 2 ounces Violet extract 1 ounce Macerate the quince seed in the hot water; add the glycerine and witch-hazel, in which the boric acid has been pre- rioualy dissolved; let the niixture stand for % days, stirring occasionally; strain sod add the perfume. Skin Cream for CoUapsible Tubes.— I. — White vaseline 6 ounces White wax 1 ounce Spermaceti 5 drachms Subchloride bismuth 6 drachms Attar of rose. 6 minims Oil of bitter almonds 1 minim Rectified spirit } ounce Melt the vaseline, wax. and sperma- ceti together, and while cooling incor- porate the subchloride of bismuth (in warm mortar). Dissolve the oils in the Alcohol, and add to the fatty mixture, •tirring all until uniform and cold. In rold weather the quantities of wax and ]>p«>rniaceti may be reduced. II. — Lanolin... 1 ounce Almond oil 1 ounce Oleate of zinc (pow- der) 8 drachms Extract of white rose 1 } drachms Glycerine 2 drachms Rose water 2 drachms Face Cmm Without Grease.— Quince seed 10 parts Boiling water 1,000 parU Borax 5 parts Boric acid 5 parts Glycerine 100 parts Alcohol. 04 per cent. 126 jaarts Attar of rose, quantity sufficient to perfume. Macerate the quince seed in half of the bodling water, with fre<{uent agita- tionsu for 2 hours and SO minutes, then strain off. In the residue of the boiling water dissolve the borax and boric acio, add the glycerine and the perfume, the latter dissolved in the alcohol. Now add, little by little, the colate of quince seed, under constant agitation, which should be kept up for 5 minutes after the last portion of the colate is added. TOILET MILKS: Cucumber Milk. — Simple cerate 2 pounds Powdered borax 11} ounces Powdered castile soap 10 ounces Glycerine 26 ounces Alcohol 24 ounces Cucumber juice 32 ounces Water to 5 gallons lonone 1 drachm Jasmine ) drachm Neroli } drachm Rhodinol 15 minims To the melted cerate in a hot water bath add the soap and stir well, keeping up the heat until perfectly mixed. Add 8 ounces of borax to 1 gallon of boiling water, and pour gradually into the hot melted soap and cerate; add the re- mainder of the borax and hot water, then the heated juice and glycerine, and lastly the alcohol. Shake well while cooling, set aside for 48 hours, and siphon off any water that may separate. Snake well, and repeat after standing again if necessary; then perfume. Cucumber Juice. — It is well to make a large quantitv, as it keeps indefinitely. . Washed unpeefed cucumbers are grated and pressed; the juice is heated, skimmed and boiled for 5 minutes, then cooled and filtered. Add 1 part of alcohol to 2 parts of juice, let stand for 12 hours or more, and filter until clear. Glycerine Milk.— Glycerine 1,150 parts Starch, powdered. . 160 parts Distilled water 400 parts Tincture of benzoin 20 parts Rub up 80 parts of the starch with the glycerine, then put the mixture on the steam bath and heat, under continuous stirring, until it forms a jellylike mass. Remove from the bath and stir in the remainder of the starch. Finally, add the water and tincture and stir till nomo- geneous. Lanolin Toilet Milk.— White castile soap, powdered 22 grains I^anolin 1 ounce Tincture benzoin .... 12 drachms Water, enough. Digitized by VjOOQ IC S40 COSMETICS Dissolve the soap in 2 fluidounces of warm water, also mix the lanolin with 2 fluidounces of warm water; then in- corporate the two with each other, finiUlj adding the tincture. The latter may be replaced by 90 grains of pow- dered borax. Jatmine Milk.— To 25 parts of water add gradually, with constant stirring, 1 part of zinc white, 2 quarts of grain spirit, and 0.15 to 0.25 part of glycerine; finally stir in 0.07 to 0.10 part of jasmine essence. Filter the mixture and fill into glass bottles. For use as a cosmetic, rub on the raspberry paste on retiring at nig^ht, and in the morning use the jas- mine milk to remove the paste from the skin. The two work together in their effect. SUNBURN AND FRECKLE REME- DIES. I. — Apply over the affected skin a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 in 500, or» if the patient can stand it, 1 in 300, morning and evening, and for the night apply emplastrum hydrargyri com- positum to the spots. In the morning remove the plaster and all remnants ot it by rubbing fresh butter or cold cream over the spots. For redness of the skin apply each other day^ sine oxide ointment or oint- ment of bismuth subnitrate. II. — Besnier recommends removal of the mercurial ointment with green soap, . and the use, at night, of an ointment composed of vaseline and Vigo*8 plaster (emplastrum hydrargyri compositum), in equal parts. In the morning wash off with soap and warm water, and apply the following: Vaseline, white 20 parts Bismuth carbonate. . . 5 parts Kaolin 5 parts Mix, and make an ointment. III. — Leioir has found the following of service. Clean the affected oart with green soap or with alcohol, and then ap- ply several coats of the following: Acid chrysophanic . . 15 parts Chloroform 100 parte Mix. Apply with a camel Vhair pencil. When the application dries thoroughly, ffo over it with a lajrer of traumaticine. This application will loosen iUelf in several clays, when the process should be repeated. IV.— When the skin is only slightlv discolored use a pomade of salicylic acid, or apply the following: Acid chrysophanic, from. . 1 to 4 parts Acid salicylic I to 2 parts Collodion 40 parts V. — When there is need for a more complicated treatment, the following is used: (a) Corrosive sublimate 1 part Orange- flower water 7,500 parts Acid, hydrochloric, dilute 500 parts (6) Bitter almonds. . . . 4,500 parts Glycerine 2,500 parts Oran ge-flower water 25,000 parts Rub up to an emulsion in a porcelain capsule. Filter and add, drop by drop, and under constant stirring, 5 grams of tincture of benzoin. Finally mix the two s^utions, adding the second to the first This preparation is applied with a sponge, on retiring, to the affected places, and allowed to dry on. VI. — According to Brocq the follow- ing should be penciled over the affecied spote: Fresh pure milk 50 parte Glycerine SO parte Acid, hydrochloric concentrated 5 parte Ammonium chlorate. 8 parte VII. — Other external remedies that may be used are lactic acid diluted with 3 volumes of water, applied with a gla» rod: dilute nitric acid, and, finally. per> oxide of hydrogen, which last is a t^tj powerful agent. ^ Should it cause t much inflammation, the latter may br assuaged by using an ointment of ainc oxide or bismuth subnitrate — or one may use the following: Kaolin 4 parte Vaseline 10 parte Glycerine 4 parts Magnesium carbonate 2 parte Zinc oxide 2 parte Freckle Remedies. — I. — Poppy oil 1 part Lead aceUte. 2 parte Tincture benzoin .... 1 part Tincture quillaia. ... 5 parte Spirit nitrous ether. . . I part Rose water 05 parte Saponify the oil with the lead acetatri add the rose water, and follow with th^ tinctures. II.— Chloral hydrate 2 drachms Carbolic acid 1 drachn Digitized by VjOOQ IC COSMETICS 241 Tincture iodine 60 drops Glycerine 1 ounce Mix and dissolve. Apply with a camel's-hair pencil at night. III.— Distilled vinegar.. . 660 parts Lemons, cut in small pieces 135 parts Alcohol, 85 per cent 88 parts Lavender oil 28 parts Water... 88 parte Citron oil 6 parte This mixture is allowed to sUnd for 3 or 4 days in the sun and filtered. Coat, bv means of a sponge before retiring, the plAceii of the skin where the freckles are and allow to dry. Freckles and Liver Spote. — Modern dermatological methods of treating frfckles and liver spote are based partly on remedies that cause desquamation and those that depigmenUte (or de- strov or neutralise pijg^menUtion). Both methods may be distinguished in respect id their effecte and mode of using into the following: The active ingrediente of the desquamative pastes are reductives vhich promote the formation of epithe- lium and hence expedite desquamation. There are many such methods, and fspeciallv to be mentioned is that of Lnna, who uses resorcin for the purpose. Ijasskt makes use of a paste of napnthol and aulphur. Snabom RemedieB. — L— Zinc sulphocarbo- late 1 part Glycerine 20 parte Rose water 70 parte Alcohol, 00 per cent 8 parte Cologne water. ... 1 part Spirit of camphor. 1 part U.— Borax 4 parte Potassium chlorate 2 parts Glycerine 10 parte Alcohol 4 parte Rose water to make 00 parte DL—Citric acid 2 drachms Ferrous sulphate (cryst) 18 grains Camphor 2 grains Elder-flower water 3 fluidounces IV.— Potassiom carbon- ate 3 parte Sodium chloride . . 2 parte Orange- flower water 15 parte Roae water 65 parte V. — Boroglycerine, 50 jper cent 1 part Ointment of rose water 0 parte VI. — Sodium bicarbon- ate 1 part Ointment of rose water 7 parte VII. — Bicarbonate of soda 2 drachms Powdered borax ... 1 drachm Compound tincture of lavender 1 } drachms Glycerine 1 ounce Rose water 4 ounces Dissolve the soda and borax in the g^lycerine and rose water, and add the tincture. Apply with a small piece of sponge 2 or 3 times a day. Then gently dry by dabbing with a soft towel. VIII. — Quince seeds 2 drachms Distilled water. ... 10 ounces Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol, 04 per cent 1 oimoe Rose water 2 ounces Boil the seeds in the water for 10 min- utes, then strain off the liquid, and when cold add to it the glycerine, alcohol, and rose water. IX.— White soft soap. . . 2} drachms Glycerine 1 } drachms Almond oil 11 drachms Well mix the glycerine and soap in a mortar, and very gradually add tne oil, stirring constantly until perfectly mixed. X. — Subnitrate of bis- muth 1 } drachms Powdered French chalk 30 srains Glycerine 2 drachms Rose water 1 } ounces Mix the powders, and rub down care- fully with the glycerine; then add the rose water. Shake the bottle before use. XI. — Glycerine cream . . 2 drachms Jordan almonds . . 4 drachms Rose water 5 ounces Essential oil of al- monds 3 drops Blanch the almonds, and then dry and beat them up into a perfectly smooth paste; then mix in the glycerine cream and essential oil. Gradually add the rose water, stirring well after each addi- tion; then strain tnrough muslin. Tan and Freckle Lotion.^ Solution A; Potassium iodide, iodine, glycerine, and infusion rose. Dissolve the potassium iodide in a Digitized by VjOOQ IC 242 COSMETICS small quantity of the infusion and a dradim of the glycerine; with this fluid moisten the iodine in a glass of water and rub it down, gradually adding more liquid, until complete solution has been obtained; then stir in the remainder of the ingredients, and bottle the mixture. Solution B: Sodium thiosulphate and rose water. With a small camel's-hair pencil or piece of fine sponge apply a little of solution A to the tanned or freckled surface, until a sliirht or tolerably uniform brownish yellow skin has been produced. At the expiration of 15 or 20 minutes moisten a piece of cambric, lint, or soft rag with fi and lay it upon the affected part, re- moving, squeezing away the liquid, soaking it afresh, and again applying until the iodine stain has disappeared. Repeat the process thrice daily, but diminish the frequency of application if tenderness be produced. A Cure for Tan. — Bichloride of mer- cury, in coarse powder, 10 grains; dis- tilled water, 1 pint. Agitate the two together until a complete solution is obtained. Add ) ounce of glycerine. Apply with a small sponge as often as agreeable. This is not strong enough to blister and skin the face in average cases. It may be increased or reduced in strength bv adding to or taking from the amount of bichloride of mercury. Do not for- get that this last ingredient is a powerful poison and should be kept out of the reach of children and ignorant persons. Improved Carron Oil. — Superior to the old and more suitable. A desirable preparation for burns, tan, freckle, sun- burn, scalds, abrasions, or lung affec- tions. Docs not oxidize so quickly or drv up so rapidly and less liable to ran- ciaity. Linseed oil 8 ounces Limewater 2 ounces Paraffine, liquid 1 ounce Mix the Unseed oil and water, and add the paraffine. Shake well before using. LIVER SPOTS. L —Corrosive s u b 1 i - mate 1 part White sugar 100 parts White of egg 34 parts Lemon juice S75 parts Water to make. . . . 2,500 parts Mix the sublimate, sugar, and albu- men intimately, then add the lemon juice and water. Dissolve, shake well, and after standing an hour, filter. Ap- ply in the morning after the usual ablu- tions, and let dry on the face. II. — Bichloride of mercury, in coarM* powder, 8 grains; witch-hazel, t ounces*; rose water, 2 ounces. Agitate until a solution is obtaincxi. Mop over the affected parts. Keep out of tne way of ignorant persons and chil- dren. TOILET POWDERS: Almond Powders for the Toilet.— I. — Almond meal .... 0,000 parts Bran meal 3.000 parts Soap powder 000 parts Bergamot oil 50 parts Lemon oil 15 parts Clove oil 15 parts Neroli oil 6 parts II.— Almond meal 7,000 parts Bran meal 2.000 parts Violet root 000 parts Borax S50 parts Bitter almond oil . IH parts Palmarosa oil.. .. SO parts Bergamot oil 10 parts III.— Almond meal .... 3,000 parts Bran meal 3,000 parts Wheat flour 3.000 parts Sand.... 100 parU Ijcmon oil 40 parts Bitter almond oil . 10 parts Bath Powder.— Borax 4 ounces Salicylic acid. 1 drachm Extract of cassia 1 drachm Extract of jasmine. . . 1 drachm Oil of lavender 20 minimsi Rub the oil and extracts with the hors\ and salicylic acid until the alcohol hn^ evaporated. Use a heaping teaspoonful to tne body bath. Brunette or Rjichelle. — Base 0 poand« Powdered Florentine orris. : 1 pound Perfume the same. Powdered yellow ocher (av.) 3 ounces 120 grains Carmine No. 40 60 grains Rub down the carmine and ocher with alcohol in a mortar, and spre«d on gla^» to dry; then mix and sift. Violet Poudre de Riz.— I. — Cornstarch 7 pounds Rice flour 1 pound Powdered talc I pound Powdered orris root . 1 pound Extract of cassia 8 ounces Extract of jasmine. . . 1 ounce Digitized by VjOOQ IC COSMETICS II.— Cheaper. Potato starch 8 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Powdered orris 1 pound Extract of cassia 3 ounces Barber's Powder. ~ Cornstarch 5 pounds Precipitated chalk. . . 3 pounds Powdered talc 2 pounds Oil of neroli 1 drachm Oil of cedrat 1 drachm Oil of orange 8 drachms Extract of jasmine ... 1 ounce Rote Pottdre de Riz. — 1. —Cornstarch 9 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil of rose 1 J drachms Extract of jasmine. . . 6 drachms II.— -Potato starch 9 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil of rose ) drachm Extract of jasmine. . . ) ounce Ideal Cosmetic Powder. — The follow- ing combines the best qualities that a powder for the skin should have: Zinc, white 50 parts Calcium carbonate, precipitated 300 parts Steatite, best white. . 50 parts Starch, wheat, or rice 100 parts Extract white rose, triple 3 parts Extract jasmine, tri- ple 3 parts Extract orange flow- er, triple 3 parts Extract of cassia, tri- ple 3 parts Tincture of myrrh.. 1 part Powder the solids and mix thoroughly ^»j repeated siftings. Flesh Face Powder.— Base 9 pounds Powdered Florentine orris 1 pound Carmine No. 40 250 grains Extract of jasmine . . 100 minims GO of neroli 20 minims Vanillin 5 grains Arti6cial musk 30 grains While beliotropin. . . SO grains Coumarin 1 grain Bob the carmine with a portion of the Wse and alcohol in a mortar, mixing the p^ume the same way in another large mortar, and adding the orris. Mix and 'i'( all until specks of carmine disappear ou nibbing. Wliite Face Powder.— Base 9 pounds Powdered Florentine orris 1 pound Perfume the same. Mix and sift. Talcum Powders. — Talc, when used as a toilet powder should be in a state of very fine division. Antiseptics are some- times added in small proportion, but these are presumably of uttle or no value in the ciuantity allowable, and mav prove irritating. For general use, at ail events, the talcum alone is the best and the safest. As a perfume, rose oil may be employed, but on account of its cost, rose geranium oil is probably more frequently used. A satisfactory propor- tion is i drachm of the oil to a pound of tbe powder. In order that the per- fume may be thoroughly disseminated throughout the powder, the oil should be triturated first with a small portion of it; this should then be further triturated with a larger portion, and, if the quan- tity operated on be large, the final mix- ing may be effected by sifting. Many odors besides that of rose would be suit- able for a toilet powder. Ylang-ylang would doubtless prove very attractive, but expensive. The following formulas for other va- rieties of the powder may prove useful : Violet Talc— 1. — Powdered talc 14 ounces Powdered orris root . 2 ounces Extract of cassia. ... } ounce Extract of jasmine . . } ounce Rose Talc. — II. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil of rose i drachm Extract of jasmine . 4 ounces Tea-Rose Talc— III. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil of rose 50 drops Oil of wintergreen . . 4 drops Extract of jasmine. . 2 ounces Borated Apple Blossom. — I v.— Powdered talc 22 pounds Magnesium carbon- ate 2} pounds Powdered boric acid 1 pound Mix. Carnation pink blos- som (Scnimmers) 2 ounces Extract of trefle .... 2 drachms To 12 drachms of this mixture add: Neroli 1 drachm Vanillin } drachm Alcohol to 3 ounces Sufficient for 25 pounds. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 244 COSMETICS V. — Talcum 8 ounces Starch..... 8 ounces Oilofneroli 10 drops Oil of ylang-ylang. 5 drops VI. — Talcum 14 ounces Starch 4 ounces Orris root 2 ounces Oilof bergamot.... 12 drops VIL— Talcum 14 ounces Starch 2 ounces Lanolin } ounce Oil of rose 10 drops Oilofneroli 6 drops TOILET VniEGARS: Pumillo Toilet Vinegar.— Alcohol, 80 per cent 1,600 parts Vinegar, 10 per cent 840 parts Oil of pinuspumillo 44 parts Oil of lavender 4 parts Oil of lemon« 2 parts Oil of bergamot 2 parts Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, add the vinegar, let stand for a week and filter. Vinaigre Rouge. — Acetic acid 24 parts Alum 3 parts Peru balsam 1 part Carmine, No. 40. . . 12 parts Ammonia water ... 6 parts Rose water, dis- tilled 576 parts Alcohol 1,250 parts Dissolve the balsam of Peru in the alcohol, and the alum in the rose water. Mix the two solutions, add the acetic acid, and let stand overnight. Dis- solve the carmine in the ammonia water and add to mixture. Shake thoroughly, let stand for a few minutes, then decant. TOILET WATERS: " Beauty Water."— Fresh egg albumen. . 500 parts Alcohol 125 parts Lemon oil 2 parts Lavender oil 2 parts Oil of thyme 2 parts Mix the ingredients well together. When first mixed the liquid becomes flocculent, but after standing for 2 or 3 days clears up — sometimes becomes perfectly clear, and may be decanted. It forms a light, amber-colored liquid that remains clear for months. At night, before retiring, pour about a teaspoon! ul of the water in the palm of the hand, and rub it over the face and neck, letting it drv on. In the morninff, about an hour before the bath, repeat tae oper^ ation, also letting the liquid dry on the skin. The regular use of this prepara- tion for 4 weeks will give the skin an extraordinary fineness, dearneas, and freshness. Rottmaxmer's Beauty^ Water. ^-K oiler says that this preparation consists of 1 part of camphor, 5 parts of milk of sul- phur, and 50 parts oi rose water. Birch Water*. — Birch water, which has many cosmetic applications, esp^r- cially as a hair wash, or an ingredient in hair washes, may be prepared as follows: I.— Alcohol, 06 per cent 8.500 parts Water 700 parts Potash soap 200 parts GIvcerine 150 parts Oil of birch buds. . . 50 parts Essence of spring flowers 100 parts Chlorophyll, quantity sumcicnt to color. Mix the water with 700 parts of the alcohol, and in the mixture dUsoIre the soap. ^ Add the essence of spring flower* and birch oil to the remainder of the alcohol, mix well, and to the mixturr add. little by little, and with constant arilation. the soap mixture. Finally, add tne fely<^ erine, mix thoroughlv, and set aside for 8 days, filter and color the filtrate with chlorophyll, to which is added a little tincture of saffron. To use, add an equal volume of water to produce a lather. II.— Alcohol, 06 per cent 2.000 parts Water 500 parts Tincture of can- tharides 25 parts Salicylic acid 25 parti GIvcerine 100 parts Oil of birch buds. 40 parts Bergamot oil SO parts Geranium oil 5 parts Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, adtl the acid and tincture of cantharidr!«; mix the water and glycerine and add. and, finally, color as before. III.— Alcohol 30,000 parU Birch juice 8,000 parts Glycerine 1,000 parts Bergamot oil 00 parts Vanillin 10 parts Geranium od 50 parts Water 14,000 parts I v.— Alcohol 40,000 parts Oil of birch 150 parts Bergamot oil. . . . 100 parts Lemon oil 50 parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC COTTON 245 Palnutrosa oil. . . 100 parts Glycerine 2,000 parts Borax 150 parts Water 20,000 parU Vblet Ammonia Water.— Most prep- arations of this character consist of fither coarselv powdered ammonium carbonate, with or without the addition of ammonia water, or of a coarsely pow- dered mixture, which slowly evolves the odor of ammonia, the whole beinff per- fumed by the addition of volatile oil, pomade essences, or handkerchief ex- tract. The following are typical for- mulas: I.— Moisten coarsely powdered am- monium carbonate, contained in a suit- able bottle, with a mixture of concen- trated tincture of orris root, 2) ounces; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 drachm; violet extract, 3 drachms. II. — Fill suitable bottles with coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate and add to the salt as much of the following solu- tion as it will absorb: Oil of orris, 5 minims; oil of lavender flowers, 10 minims; violet extract, SO minims; »tronger water of ammonia, 2 fluid- ounces. III.— The following is a formula for a liquid preparation: Extract violet, 8 flttidrachms; extract cassia, 8 fluidrachms; «pirit of rose, 4 fluidrachms; tincture of orris, 4 fluidrachms ; cologne spirit, 1 pint; spirit of ammonia, 1 ounce. Spirit of ionone may be used instead of extract of violet. Violet Witch-Hazel.— Spirit of ionone } drachm Rose water 6 ounces Distilled extract of witch-hazel enough to make 16 ounces Cotton BLBACHIIIG OF COTTON: , I —Bleaching by Steaming.— The tinged and washed cotton goods are ^s«cd through hydrochloric acid of 2® Be. Ijtsive them in heaps during 1 hour, wash, pass through sodium hypo- chlorite of id"" B4. diluted with 10 times the volume of water. Let the pieces lie m heaps for 1 hour, wash, pass through omstie soda lye of SS"" B^. diluted with 8 times its volume of water, steam, put Ajrain through sodium chloride, wash, a^'idulate slightly with hydrochloric acid, v»«h and dry. Should the whiteness Dot be sufficient, repeat the operations. II.— Bleaching with Calcium Sulphite. — ^The cotton goods are impregnated with 1 part, by weight, of water, 1 part of caustic lime, and } part of bisulphite of 40^ B^.; next steamed during 1-2 hours at a^ pressure of ) atmosphere, washed, aciciulated, washed and dried. The result is as white a fabric as by the old method with caustic lime, soda, and calcium chloride. The bisulphite mav also be replaced by calcium hydrosuf- phite, ana, instead of steaming, the fabric may be boiled for several hours with calcium sulphite. III.— Bleaching of Vegetable Fibers with Hydrogen Peroxide.— Pass the pieces through a solution containing caustic soda, soap, hydrogen peroxide, and burnt magnesia. The pieces are piled in heaps on carriages; the latter are shoved into the well-known apparatus of Mather & Piatt (kier), and toe liquid is pumped on for 6 hours, at a pressure of f atmos- phere. Next wash, acidulate, wash and dry. The bleaching may also be done on an ordinary reeling vat. For 5 pieces are needed about 1,000 parts, by weight, of water; 10 parts, by weight, of solid caustic soda; 1 part of burnt mag- nesia; 30 parts, by weight, of hydrojejen peroxide. After 8-4 hours' boiling, wash, acidulate, wash and dry. The bleaching may also^ be performed by passing tnrough barium peroxide, then througn sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, and next through soda lye. It is practicable also to commence with the latter and finallv give a treatment with hydrogen peroxide. The whiteness obtained by the above process is handsomer than that produced fey the old method with hypochlorites, and the fabric is weakened to a less ex- tent. TESTS FOR COTTON. I. — Cotton, when freed from extrane- ous matter by boiling with potash, and afterwards with hydrochloric acid, yields pure cellulose or absorbent cotton, which, according to the U. S. P., is soluble in copper ammonium sulphate solution. The B. P. is more specific and states that cotton is soluble m a concentrated solution of copper ammonium sulphate. The standard test solution (B. P.) is made by dissolving 10 parts of copper sulphate in 160 parts of distilled water, and cautiouslv adding solution of am- monia to the liquid until the precipitate first formed is nearly dissolved. The product is then filtered and the filtrate made up to 200 parts with distilled Digitized by VjOOQ IC 246 COTTON— COUGH MIXTURES water. The concentrated solution is prepared by using a smaller quantity of distilled water. II. — Schweitzer's reagent for textile fibers and cellulose b made by dissolving 10 parts of copper sulphate in 100 parts of water and aoding a solution of 5 parts of potassium hydrate in 50 parts of water; then wash the precipitate and dissolve in 20 per cent ammonia until saturated. This solution dissolves cotton, linen, and silk, but not wool. The reagent is said to be especially useful in microscopy, as it rapidly dissolves cellulose, but has no action on lignin. III.— Jandrier's Test for Cotton in Woolen Fabrics.— Wash the sample of fabric and treat with sulphuric acid (20 B^.) for half an hour on the water hath. To 100 to 200 parts of this solu- tion add 1 part resorcin, and overlav on concentrated sulphuric acid free from nitrous products. The heat developed is sufficient to give a color at the contact point of the liquids, but intensity of color may be increased hy slightly heating. If the product resulting from treating the cotton is made up 1 in 1,000, resorcin will give an orange color; alphanaphtol a purple; gallic acid a green gradually becoming violet down in the acid; hydro- quinone or pvrogallol a brown; morphine or codeine, a lavender; thvmol or menthol a pink. Cotton may be detected in colored goods, using boneblack to de- colorize the solution, if necessary. IV. — Overbeck's test for cotton in woolen consists in soaking the fabric in an aqueous solution of alloxantine (I in 10), and after drj^ing expose to ammonia vapor and rinse in water. Woolen ma- terial is colored crimson, cotton remains blue. v.— Liebermann's Test.— Dye the fab- ric for half an hour in fuchsine solution rendered light yellow by caustic soda solution and then washed with water — silk is colored dark red; wool, light red; flax, pink; and cotton remains colorless. To Distinguish Cotton from Linen.— Take a sample about an inch and a half square of tne cloth to be tested and plunge it into a tepid alcoholic solution of cvanine. After the coloring matter has been absorbed by the fiber, rinse it in water and then plunge into dilute sul- phuric acid. If it is of cotton the sam- ple will be almost completely bleached, while linen preserves tne blue color al- most unchanged. If the sample be then plunged in ammonia, the blue will be ' strongly reinforced. I Aromatic Cotton. — Aromatic cotton is produced as follows : Mix camphor, 3 rrts; pine-leaf oil, 5 parts; dove c»iU parts; spirit of wine (90 per cent), so parts; and distribute evenly on cotton. 600 parts, bv means of an atomizer. Th^^ cotton is left pressed together in a tight] v dosed tin vessel for a few days. Cotton DeffMsin^.— Cotton waste, in a greasy condition, is placed in an acid- proof apparatus, where it is simalta- neously freed from grease, etc., and prr- pared for bleaching by the following process, which is performed without thr waste being removed from the appara- tus: (1) treatment with a solvent, such as benzine; (2) steaming, for the purpose of vaporizing and expelling from tht* cotton waste the solvent still remaining in it after as much as possible of this ha* been recovered by draining: (3) treatment with a mineral acid; (4) boiling with an alkali lye; (5) washing with water. COTTONSEED HULLS AS STOCK FOOD. Cottonseed hulls or other material containing fiber difficult of digestion arr thoroughly mixed with about 5 per cent of their weight of hydrochloric acid (spe- cific gravity, 1.16), and heated in a closed vessel, provided with a stirrer, to a temperature of SIS'* to SOO"" F. Thr amount of acid to be added depends «in the material employed and on tne dura- tion of the heating. By heating for 30 minutes the above percentage of acid i« required, but the quantitv may be r<^ duced if the heating is prolonged. After heating, the substance is ground anti at the same time mixed with some ba^ic* substances such as sodium carbonatr, chalk, cottonseed kernel meal, etc.. tt» neutralize the acid. During the heating, the acid vapors coming from the mixture may be led into a second quantity «>f material contained in a separate ve^Mrl. air being drawn through both vejMeU to facilitate the removal of the acid vapiir* COTTONSEED OIL: See Oil. COTTOHSEED OIL IH FOOD. TESTS FOR: See Foods. COTTOHSEED OIL IN LARD, DETEC- TIOH OF: See Foods and Lard. COUGH CAHDY: See Confectionery. COUGH MIXTURES FOR CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. Digitized by VjOOQ IC COURT PLASTERS— CREAM 247 COUGH MIXTURES AND REMEDIES: See Cold and Cough Mixtures. COUFTER POLISHES: See Polishes. couirrERS, waterproofing: Sec Waterproofing. Court Plasters (See also Plasters.) Liquid Court Plaster.— I.— If soluble injncotton is dissolved in acetone in the proportion of about 1 part, by weight, of the former to 35 or 40 parts, by volume, of the latter, and half a part each of castor oil and glycerine be added, a colorless, elastic, and flexible film will form on the skin wherever it is applied. Tulike ordinary collodion it will not be likely to dry and peel off. If tinted very Alij^htly with alkanet and saffron it can lie niat wash off. If the ether evaporates, IrjiWng it too thick for use, have more rtlirr put in to liquefy it. It is a good thing to have in the house and in the tool clifst COW DISEASES AND THEIR REM- EDIES: See Veterinary Formulas. CRAYONS: See Pencils. CRAYONS FOR GRAINING AND MAR- BLING. Reat 4 parts of water and 1 part of vKxIe wax over a fire until the wax has completely dissolved. Stir in 1 part of purined potash. When an intimate combination has taken place, allow to cool and add a proportionate quantity of ^um arabic. With this mixture the desired colors are ground thick enough so that they can be conveniently rolled into a pencil with chalk. The desired shades must be composed on the grind- ing slab as they are wanted, and must not be simply left in their natural tone. Use, for instance, umber, Vandyke brown, and white lead for oak; umoer alone would be too dark for walnut use. All the earth colors can be conveniently worked up. It is best to prepare 2 or 3 crayons of each set, mixing the first a little lighter by the addition of white lead and leaving the others a little darker. The pencils should be kept in a dry place and are more suitable for graining and marbling than brushes, since they can be used witn either oil or water. CRAYONS FOR WRITING ON GLASS: See Etching, and Glass. Cream (See also Milk.) Whipped Cream.— There are man;r ways to whip cream. The following is very highly indorsed: Keep the cream on ice until ready to whip. ,Take 2 earthen vessels about 6 inches in diam- eter. Into 1 bowl put 1 pint of rich sweet cream, 2 teaspoonfuls powdered sugar, and 5 drops of best vanilla ex- tract. Add the white of 1 egg and beat with large egg beater or use whipping apparatus until 2 inches of frotn has formed; skim off the froth into the other vessel and so proceed whipping and skimming until all the cream in the first vessel has been exhausted. The whipped cream will stand up all da^ and should be let stand in the vessel on ice. Special machines have been constructed for whipping cream, but most dispensers prepare it with an ordinary egg neater. Genuine whipped cream is nothing other than pure cream into which air has been forcea by the action of the different ap- paratus manufactured for the purpose; care must, however, be exercised in order that butter is not produced in- stead of whipped cream. To avoid this the temperature of the cream must be kept at a low degree and the whipping must not be too^ violent or prolonged; hence the following rules must be ob- served in order to produce the desired result: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 248 CREAM— CRYSTAL CEMENTS 1. Secure pure cream and as fresh as possible. 2. Surround the bowl in which the cream is being whipped with cracked ice, and perform the operation in a cool place. 8. As rapidly as the whipped cream arises, skim it off amd place it in another bowl, likewise surrounded with ice. 4. Do not whip the cream too long or too violently. 5. The downward motion of the beater should be more forcible than the upward, as the first has a tendency to force the air into the cream, while the second, on the contraiy. tends to expel it. 6. A little powdered su^^ar should be added to the cream after it is whipped, in order to sweeten it. 7. Make whipped cream in small quantities and keep it on ice. I.— Cummixu's Whipped Cream.— Place 12 ounces of rich cream on the ice for about 1 hour; then with a whipper beat to a consistency that will withstand its own weight. II.— Eberle's Whipped Cream.— Take a pint of fresh, sweet cream, which has been chilled by ^ being placed on the ice, add to it a heaping taoiespoonful of pow- dered sugar and 2 ounces of a solution of gelatin (a spoonful dissolved in 8 ounces of water), whip slowly for a minute or two until a heavy froth gathers on top. Skim oif the dense froth, and put in container for counter use; con- tinue this until you have frothed all that is possible. III.— Foy»s Whipped Cream.— Use only pure creain; have it ice cold, and in a convenient dish for whipping with a wire whipper. A clear, easy, quick, and convenient wav is to use a beater. Fill about one- half full of cream, and heat vigorously for 2 or S minutes; a little pow- dered sugar may be added before oeat- ing. The cream may be left in the beater, and placed on ice. IV.— American Soda Fountain Com- pany's Whipped Cream.— Take 2 earthen Dowls and 2 tin pans, each 6 or 8 inches greater in diameter than the bowls; place a bowl in each pan, surround it with broken ice, put the cream to be whipped in 1 bowl, and whip it with a whipped cream churn. The cream shoula be pure and rich, and neither sugar nor gelatin should be added to it. As the whipped cream rises and fills the bowl, remove the churn, and skim off the whipped cream into the other bowl. The philosophy of the process is that the churn drives air into the cream* and blows an infinity of tiny bubbles, which forms the whipped cream; therefore, in churning, raise the dasher gently and slowly, and bring it down ouicklv and forcibly. When the second bowl is full of whipped cream, pour off the liquid cream, which has settled to the bottom* into the first bowl, and whip it again Keep the whipped cream on ice. Tne addition of an even teaspoonful of salt to 1 quart of sweet cream, beforr whipping, will make it whip up verv readily and stiff, and stand up mucK longer and better. CRESOL EMULSION. One of the best starting points for thr^ preparation is the "creosote** obtainrd from blast furnaces, which is rich ia cresols and contains comparativelv tittle phenols. The proportions used arr: Creosote, 80 parts; soft soap, 10 p«rt«: and solution of soda (10 per cent). SO parts. Boil the ingredients together fc»r an hour, then place aside to settle. The dark fluid is afterwards drained from mny oily portion floating upon the top. CREAM, COLD: See Cosmetics. CREAMS FOR THE FACE AHD SKIH : See Coametics. CREOLIHE SOAP: See Soap. CREOSOTE SOAP: See Soap. CROCKERY: See Ceramics. CROCKERY CEMERTS: See Adhesives. CROCUS. The substance known as "crocu.*." which is so exceedingly useful as a p«4- ishing medium for ^steel, etc., may (m> very generally obtained in the cindcr% produced from coal containing iron. It will be easily recognized by its rusty color, and should be collected mnd re> duced to a powder for future use. Steri burnishers may be brought to a hif fa state of polish with this substance by rubbing tnem upon a buff made of xtf- diers* belt or hard wood. After thi<* operation, the burnisher should l*e rubbed on a second buff charged with jewelers* rouge. CRYSTAL CEMEHTS FOR RSUHIT- IHG BROKEH PIECES: See Adhesives, under Cements. Digitized by VjOOQ IC CRYSTALLIZAllON— DAMASKEENING 249 CRYSTALLIZATION, ORNAMEHTAL: See Gardens, Chemical. CUCUMBER ESSEUCE: See Essences and Extracts. CUCUMBER JELLY, JUICE, AUD MILK: See Cosmetics. CURAOOA CORDIAL: See nines and Liquors. CURTAINS, COLORING OF: See Laundry Preparations. CURRT POWDER: See Condiments. CURRYING: See Leather. CUSTARD POWDER: Com flour 7 pounds Arrowroot 8 pounds Oil of almond 20 drops Oil of nutmegs 10 drops Tincture of saffron to color. Mix the tincture with a little of the mixed flours; then add the essential oils tnd make into a paste; drv this until it can be reduced to a powder, and then mix all the ingredients by sifting several times through a fine hair sieve. CUnCURA OINTMENT: See Ointments. CUTLERY CEMENTS: See Adhesives. CYLINDER OIL: See Lubricants. CYMBAL METAL: See Alloys. DAMASK CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- Damaskeening Damaskeening, practiced from most tncient times, consists in ornamentallv ialaving one metal with another, fol- lowed usually by polishing. Generally Hd or silver is employed for inlaying. The article to be decorated by da mas- tLeening is usually of iron (steel) or pftpper; in Oriental (especiallv Japan- ^r) work, also freouently of bronze, »hirh has been blackened, or, at least, sented by a leaf of platinum. After a certain time the hollows are complete! v filled with a deposit of silver or nickel, and it only remains to polish the plate, which has the appearance of a piece damaskeened by band. Damagkeening on Enamel Dials. — Dtp the dial into molten yellow wax, trace on the dial the designs desired, penetrating down to the enamel. Dip the dial in a fluorhydric acid a sufficient len^h of time that it may eat to the desired depth. Next, wash in several waters, remove the wax by means of turpentine, i. e., leave the piece covered with wax immersed in essence of turpen- tine. By filling up the hollows thus ob- tained with enamel very pretty effects are produced. DANDRUFF CURE: See Hair Preparations. DAlfTZIG BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors. DECALCOMANDL PROCESSES: See also Chromos, Copying Processes, and Transfer Processes. The decalcomania process of trans- ferrinir pictures requires that the print (usually in colors) be made on a spe- cially prepared paper. Prints made on decalcomania paper may be transferred in the reverse to china ware, wood, cellu- loid, metal, or anv hard smooth surface, and being varnished after transfer (or burnt in. in the case of pottery) acquire a fair degree uf permanence. The origi- nal print is destroyed by the transfer. Applying Decalcomania Pictures on Ceramic Products under a Glaze. — A biscuit-baked object is first coated with a mixture of alcohol, shellac, varnish, and liquid glue. Then the prepared picture print is transferred on to this adhesive layer in the customary manner. The glaze, however, does not adhere to this coating and would, therefore, not cover the picture when fused on. To attain this, the layer bearing the transfer picture, as well as the latter, are simul- taneously coated with a dextrin solution of about 10 per cent. When this dex- trin coating is dry, the picture is glazed. The mixing proportions of the two so- lutions emplovea, as well as of the ad- hesive ana tne dextrin solutions, vary somewhat according to the physical con- ditions of the porcelain, its porosity, etc. The following may serve for an example: Dissolve 5 parts of shellac or equivalent gum in 25 parts of spirit and emuUify this liquid with 20 parts of vamLsh and 8 parts of liquid glue. After drring. the glaze is put on and the ware thus pre- pared is placed in the grate fire. The process descnbed is especiallv adapted for film pictures, i. e., for sucfs as l>ear the picture on a cohering layer, usually consisting of collodion. It can- not be emplovea outright for gum pic- tures, i. e., for such pictures as are composed of different pressed surfacr«, consisting mainly of gum or similar ma- terial. U this process is to be adapted to these pictures as weH, the ware, which has been given the biscuit baking, i* first provided with a crude glaae not- ing, whereupon the details of the proc- ess are carried out as described atH>ve with the exception that there is another glaze coating between the adhesive r«i«t and the biscuit-baked ware. In this ca9« the article is also immediately placed in the grate fire. It is immaterial which of the two kinds of metachromatypr* (transfer pictures) is used, in every case the baking in the muffle, etc.. is dropped. The transfer pictures may also be pro- duced in all colors for the grate fiire. Decalcomania Paper.— ^Smooth un* sized paper, not too thick, is coated with the followinf^ solutions: I. — Gelatin, 10 parts, dissolved in SOO parts warm water. This solution i« applied with a sponge. The paper should be dried flat. II. — Starch, 50 parts; gum traga- canth, dissolved in 600 parts of water. (The gum trag^canth is soaked in SOO parts of water; in the other SOO parts the starch is boiled to a paste; the two anf then poured together and boiled.) The dried paper is brushed with this pa»te uniformly, a fairiy thick coat being ap- plied. The paper is then allowed to drv again. III. -^ One part bloc»d alhumen t< soaked in S parts water for ^4 hours. .V small quantity of sal ammoniac is added The paper, after having been coaled with these three solutions and dried, u run through the printing preas, tbe pic tures, however, being^ printed revrr^etl so that it may appear in its true poaitH»B when transferred. Any colorrd ink* bm> be used. Digitized by VjOOQ IC DECALCOMANIA PROCESSES— DENTIFRICES 851 IV. — A transfer paper, known as "de- caique rapide," invented by J. B. Dut- amy, conaista of a paper of the kind Eenerally used for making pottery trans- fen, but coated with a mixture of gum and arrowroot solutions in the propor- tion of 2} parts of the latter to 100 of the former. The coating is applied in the ordinary manner, but the paper is only Afmi-glazed. Furthermore, to decorate poUery ware by means of this new trans- ffr paper, there is no need to immerse the ware in a bath in order to get the paper to draw off, as it will come away when moistened with a damp sponge, aAer ha Ting been in position for less than 5 minutea, whereas the ordinary papers require a much longer time. Picture Transferrer. — A very weak volution of soft soap and pearlashes is used to transfer recent prints, such as illustrations from papers, magazines, etc., to unglased paper, on the decalco- mania principle. Such a solution is: I.— Soft soap } ounce Pearlasb S drachms Distilled water. . .. 16 fluidounces The print is laid upon a flat surface, »urh as a drawing board, and moistened with the liquid. ^ The j^per on which the reproduction is reqmred is laid over this, and then a sheet of thicker paper placed on the top, and the whole rubbed evenly and hard with a blunt instrument, «urb as the bowl of a spoon, until the desired depth of color in the transferrer ii obtaineo. Another and more artistic process U to cover the print with a trans- parent sheet of material coated with vax. to trace out the pictures with a point and to take rubbings of the same after powdering with plumbago. 11. — Ilard soap. 1 drachm Glycerine. SO iprains Alcohol 4 fluidrachms Water 1 fluidounce Dampen the printed matter with the •<«lution by sponging, and proceed as DEHORHERS: See Horn. DELTA METAL: See Alloys. DEHOR BOWLS OF FIRE: See Pjrrotechnica. DEXTAL CEMEHTS: See Cements. DEXTAl. WAX: See Wax. Dentifrices TOOTH POWDERS: A perfect tooth powder that will clean the teeth and mouth with thoroughness need contain but few ingredients and is easil V made. For the base there is noth- ing Detter than precipitated chalk; it possesses all the detergent and polishine properties necessary for the thorougn cleansing of the teeth, and it is too soft to do any injury to soft or to de- fective or thinlv enameled teeth. This cannot be said of pumice, cuttlebone, charcoal, kieselguhr, and similar abra- dants that are used in tooth powders. Their use is reprehensible in a tooth powder. The use of pumice or other active abradant is well enough occasion- ally, by persons afflicted with a growth of tartar on the teeth, but even then it is best applied by a competent dentist. Abrading powders have much to answer for in hastening the day of the toothless race. Next in value comes soap. Powdered white castilesoap is usually an ingredient of tooth powders. There is notnin^ so effective for removing sordes or thick- ened mucus from the gums or mouth. But used alone or in too large propor- tions, the taste is unpleasant. Orris possesses no cleansing properties, but is used for its flavor and oecause it is most effective for masking the taste of the soap. Sugar or saccharine may be used for sweetening, and for flavoring almost anything can be used. Flavors should, in the main, be used singly, though mixed flavors lack the clean taste of simple flavors. The most popular tooth powder sold is the white, saponaceous, wintergreen-flavored powder, and here is a formula for this type: I. — Precipitated chalk .. . 1 pound White Castile soap ... 1 ounce Florentine orris 2 ounces Sugar (or saccharine, 2 grains) 1 ounce Oil of wintergreen ... } ounce The first four ingredients should be in the finest possible powder and well dried. Triturate the oil oi wintergreen with part of the chalk, and mix this with the oal- ance of the chalk. Sift each ingredient separately through a sieve (No. 80 or finer), and mix well together, afterwards sifting the mixture 5 or 6 times. The finer the sieve and the more the mixture is sifted, the finer and lighter the powder will be. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 262 DENTIFRICES This powder will cost about 15 cents a pound. Pink, rose-flavored powder of the Caswell and Hazard, Hudnut, or McMahan type, once so popular in New York. It was made in two styles, with and without soap. II. — Precipitated chalk. . . 1 pound Florentine orris 2 ounces Sugar 1 } ounces White Castile soap. . . 1 ounce No. 40 carmine 15 grains Oil of rose 12 drops Oil of cloves 4 drops Dissolve the carmine in an ounce of water of ammonia and triturate this with part of the chalk until the chalk is uni- formly dyed. Then spread it in a thin layer on a sheet of paper and allow the ammonia to evaporate. When there is no ammoniacal odor left, mix this dyed chalk with the rest of the chalk and sift the whole several times until thor- oughly mixed. Then proceed to make up the powder as in the previous formula, first sifting each ingredient separately and then together, being careful thor- oughly to tnt urate the oils of rose and cloves with the orris after it is sifted and before it is added to the other powders. The oil of cloves is used to back up the oil of rose. It strengthens and accen- tuates the rose odor. Be careful not to get a drop too much, or it will predomi- nate over the rose. Violet Tooth Powder. — Precipitated chalk.. . . 1 pound Florentine orris 4 ounces Castile soap 1 ounce Sugar 1} ounces Extract of violet | ounce Evergreen coloring, R. & F., quan- tity sufficient. Proceed as in the second formula, dye- ing the chalk with the evergreen coloring to the desired shade before mixing. HI. — Precipitated chalk . 16 pounds Powdered orris. ... 4 pounds Powdered cuttlefish bone 2 pounds Ultramarine 0} ounces Geranium lake.. . . S40 grains Jasmine 110 minims Oil of neruli 110 minims Oil of bitter al- monds S5 minims Vanillin 50 grains Artificial musk (Ijautier*s) 60 grains Saccharine 140 grains Rub up the perfumes with 2 ounces of alcohol, dissolve the saccharine in warm water, add all to the orris, and set asie made by leaving out the oil of winter- green in the first formula and adding 1 ) ounces of powdered camphor. Carbolated tooth powder may like* wise be poiade with the first formula by substituting 2 drachms of liquefied car- bolic acid for the oil of winteixrerr . But the tooth powder gradually loses tk< odor and taste of the acid. It is not «if much utilitv anywav, as the castile soap In the powder is of far greater antiaeptir power than the small amount of GarlK»ltr acid that can safely be combined in a tooth powder. Soap is one of the be«t antiseptics. Alkaline salts, borax, sodium bicar- bonate, etc., are superfluous in a powd«*r already containing soap. The only use- ful purpose they might serve is to corrrct acidity of the mouth, and that end can l*e reached much better by rinsing the mouth with a solution of sodium birmr* bonate. Acids have no place in tcMith powders, the French Codex to tiie d»n- trary notwithstanding. Peppermint as a Flavor. — In Pranrr and all over Europe peppermint i% th^* popular flavor, as wintergreen is in thi<« country. English apothecaries use su|^r of mtlk and heavy calcined magnesia in many «>f their tooth powders. Neither has any particular virtue as a tooth deanser. hut both are harmless. Cane sugar is prrf- erable to milk sugar as a sweetener, and saccharine is more efficient, though t»hw. jected to by some; it should be u«r«l in the proportion of 2 to 5 grain* to the pound of powder, and gmit carr taken to have it thoroughly diatributr«l throughout. An antisefitic tooth powder, containioir the antiseptic ingredients of lislerior. i% popular in some localities. I V. — PrecipiUted chalk . . 1 Dound Castile soap 5 orarhm« Borax 8 draebiu* Thymol 80 grains Menthol <0 grains Eucalyptol 80 grains Oil of wintergreen . . 80 grains Alcohol ) ounce Dissolve the thymol and oils in the alcohol, and triturate with the chalk, an«i proceed as in the first formula. Digitized by VjOOQ IC DENTIFRICES 253 One fault with this powder is the dis- •greeable taste of the thymol. This may be omitted and the oil of winter- fntn increased to the improvement of the Uste, but with some loss of antisep- tic power. Antiseptic Powder. — v.— Boric acid.^ 50 parts Salicylic acid 50 parts Dragon's blood. . . 20 parts Calcium carbon- ate 1,000 parts Essence spearmint. 12 parts Reduce the dragon's blood and cal- num carbonate to the finest powder, tod mix the ingredients thoroughly. The powder should be used twice a day, or even oftener, in bad cases. It is es- pecially recommended in cases where the enamel has become eroded from the effects of iron. Menthol Tooth Powder. — Menthol leaves a cool and pleasant sensation in the mouth, and is excellent for fetid hresth. It may be added to most for- mulas by taking an equal (^uantitv of oil uf wintergreen and dissolving in alcohol. Menthol 1 part Salol 8 parts Soap, grated fine 20 parts Calcium carbonate. . 20 parts Magnesia carbonate 60 parts Essential oil of mint. 2 parts . Powder finely and mix. If there is much tartar on the teeth it will be well to add to this formula from 10 to 20 parts of pumice, powdered very finely. Tooth Powden and Pastes.— Although the direct object of these is to keep the teeth dean and white, they also prevent decay, if it is only by force of mere clean- lineu, and in this way (and also by re- moving decomposing particles of food) trod to keep the breath sweet and whole- some. The necessary properties of a tmitb powder are cleansing power un- icrompanied by any abrading or chemi- fiA action on the teeth themselves, a cer- tain amount of antiseptic power to enable it to deal with particles of stale food, and a complete absence of any disagreeable ta. pentine; the latter has the fragrance of the red cedar wood. For a cleansing wash, a solution of soap is to be recommended. It may be made after the following formula: X. — White castile soap. 1 ounce Alcohol 6 ounce:! Glycerine 4 ounces Hot water 6 ounce* Oil of peppermint . 15 minim* Oil of wintergreen 20 minim* Oil of cloves 5 minima Extract of vanilla . } ounce Dissolve the soap in the hot water and add the glvcerine and extract of vanOla. Dissolve tne oils in the alcohol, mix the solutions, and after 24 bouni filter through paper. Digitized by VjOOQ IC DENTIFRICES 257 It is customary to color such prepara- tions. An agreeable brown-yeUow tint may be given by the addition of a small qiuntity of caramel. A red color mav be given by cochineal. The color wifl fade, but will be found reasonably per- mtnent when kept from strong lignt. TOOTH SOAPS AUD PASTES: Tooth Soaps.— I— White castile soap . . 225 parts Precipitated chalk . . 225 parts Orris root 225 parts Oil of peppermint. . 7 parts Oil of cloves . . ^ 4 parts Water, a sufficient quantity. 11.— Castile soap 100 drachms Precipitatra chalk. . 100 drachms Powdered orris root. 100 drachms White sugar 50 drachms Rose water 50 drachms on of cloves 100 drops Oil of peppermint. . . 3 drachms Dissolve the soap in water, add the n>se water, then ruD up with the sugar with which the oils have been previously tritormted, the orris root ana the pre- cipitated chalk. UL— Potassium chlorate, 20 drachms; powdered white soap, 10 drachms; pre- npitated chalk, 20 drachms; peppermint oil, 15 drops; clove oil, 5 drops; glycer- inr, sufficient to mass. Use with a soft brush. Saponaceous Tooth Pastes.— I.— Precipitated car- bonate of lime . . 90 parts Soap powder 30 parts Ossa sepia, pow- dered 15 parts Tincture of cocaine 45 parts Oil of peppermint . 6 parts Oilof ^lang-ylang. 0.3 parts Glycerine 30 parts Rose water to cause liquefac- tion. Carmine solution to color. II.— Precipitated car- bonate of lime . . 150 parts Soap powder 45 parts Arrowroot 45 parts Oil of eucalyptus . 2 parts Oil of peppermint. 1 part Oil of geranium . . 1 part Oil of cloves 0.25 parts Oil of aniseed. . . . 0.25 parts Glvcerinc 45 parts Chloroform water to cause lique- faction. Carmine solution to color. Cherry Tooth Paste.— III. — Clarified honev . . 100 drachms Precipitated chalk 100 drachms Powdered orris root 100 drachms Powdered rose leaves 60 drops Oil of cloves 55 drops Oil of mace 55 drops Oil of geranium. . 55 drops Chinese Tooth Paste.— IV. — Powdered pumice 100 drachms Starch 20 drachms Oil of peppermint 40 drops Carmine \ drachm Eucalyptus Paste. — Forty drachms precipitated chalk, 11 drachms soap riwder, 11 drachms wheaten starch, drachm carmine, 30 drops oil of pep- permint, 30 drops oil of geranium, 60 drops eucalyptus oil, 2 drops oil of cloves, 12 drops oil of anise mixed to- gether and incorporated to a paste, with a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and spirit. Myrrh Tooth Paste.— Precipitated chalk 8 ounces Orris 8 ounces Whit^ castile soap . 2 ounces Borax 2 ounces Myrrh 1 ounce Glycerine, quantity sufficient. Color and perfume to suit. A thousand grams of levigated pow- dered oyster shells are rubbed up with 12 dracnms .of cochineal to a homogene- ous powder. To this is added 1 drachm of potassium permanganate and 1 drachm boric acid and rubbea well up. Foam up 200 drachms castile soap and 5 drachms chemicall^r pure glycerine and mix it with the foregoing mass, adding by teaspoon- ful 150 grams of boiling strained honev. The whole mass is again thoroughly rubbed up, adding while doing so 200 drops honey. Finally the mass should be put into a mortar and pounded for an hour and then kneaded with the hands for 2 hours. Tooth Paste to be put in Collapsible Tubes.— Calcium carbonate, levigated 100 parts Cuttlefish bone, in fine powder 25 parts Castile soap, old white, powdered 25 parts Tincture of carmine, ammoniated 4 parts Simple syrup 25 parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC 258 DENTIFRICES Menthol « parU Alcohol 5 parts Attar of rose or other perfume, quan- tity sufficient. Rose water sufficient to make a paste. Beat the soap with a little rose water, then warm until softened, add syrup and tincture of carmine. Dissolve the perfume and menthol in the alcohol and add to soap mixture. Add the solids and incorporate thoroughly. Finally, work to a proper consistency for fiUinff into collapsible tubes, adding water, if necessary. MOUTH WASHES. I.— Quillaia bark 125 parU Glycerine 95 parts Alcohol 155 parts Macerate for 4 days and add: Acid, carbol. cryst 4 parts Ol. geranii 0.6 parts Ol. caryophyll . . 0.6 parts Ol. rosse 0.6 parts Ol. cinnam 0.6 parts Tinct. ratanhe. . 45 parts AquarosK 000 parts Macerate again for 4 days and filter. Thymol 2Q parts Peppermint oil.. 10 parts Clove oil 5 parts Sage oil 5 parts Marjoram oil.. . S parts Sassafras oil 3 parts Wintergreen oil. 0.5 parts Coumarin 0.5 parts Alcohol, dil 1 .000 parts A teaspoonful in a glass of water. II. — Tincture orris (1 in 4) I J parts lavender water. . . } part Tinct. cinnamon (linS) 1 part Tinct. yellow cinch bark 1 part Eau dc cologne < parts Orris and Row.— III.— Orris root 80 drachms Rose leaves 8 drachms Soap bark 8 drachms Cochineal 3 J drachms Diluted alcohol. . 475 drachms Oil rose SO drops Oil neroli 40 drops Mjrrh Astringent— IV. — Tincture myrrh, . 1«5 drachms Tincture lie nzoin. 50 drachms Tincture cinchona 8 drachms Alcohol <<5 drachms Oil of rose SO drops Boro tonic— V. — Acid boric 40 parts Oil wintergreen . 10 parts Glycerine 1 10 parts Alcohol 150 parU Distilled water enough to make 600 parts Sweet SalicyL — VI. — Acid salicylic. . . 4 parts Saccharine. . ... 1 part Sodium bicar- bonate 1 part Alcohol 200 parU Foaming Orange.— VII.— Castile soap «9 drachm.^ Oil orange 10 drops Oil cinnamon. . . 5 drop* Distilled water. . SO drachma Alcohol 90 drachms Australian Mint— VIII.— Th;rmol . . 0.<5 parU Acid benzoic. . . 3 parts Tincture eucalyp- tus 15 parts Alcohol 100 partt Oil peppermint. 0.75 parts Fragrant Dentine. — IX.— Soap bark 125 parU Glycerine 05 part« Alcohol 155 partA Rose water 450 parts Macerate for 4 days and add: Carbolic acid, cryst 4 parts Oil geranium. . . 0.6 paK« Oil cloves 0.6 parts Oil rose 0.6 parU Oil cinnamon.. . 0.6 parts Tincture rhataiiy 45 part« Rose water 450 part* Allow to stand 4 days; then filter. Aroma ntiseptic. — X.— Thymol «0 parU Oil peppermint. 10 parts Oil cloves 5 parts Oil sage 5 parts Oil marjoram.. . 3 parts Oil sassafras. ... 3 part« Oil wintergreen. 0.5 parts Coumarin 0.5 part* Dil uted alcohol . 1 ,000 parts The products of the foregoing fnrmuU^ are used in the proportion of 1 teasptHin* ful in a half glassful of water. Foaming.— XI. —Soap bark, powder i ounce* Cocnineal powder. 60 grains Glycerine 3 ounces Digitized by VjOOQ IC DENTIFRICES— DEPILATORIES S59 Alcohol 10 ounces Water sufficient to make $i ounces Mix the soap, cochineal, glycerine, alcohol, and water together; let macerate for several days; filter and flavor; if Mme produces turbidity, shake up the mixture with magnesium carbonate, and filter through paper. Odonter.— XIL — Soap bark, powder 2 ounces CuG bear, powder. 4 drachms Glycerine 4 ounces Alcohol 14 ounces Water sufficient to make 32 ounces Mix, and let macerate with frequent aptetion, for several days; filter; add flavor: if necessary filter again through magnesium carbonate or paper pulp. Sweet Anise. — XUI. — Soap bark 2 ounces Aniseed 4 drachms Cloves 4 drachms Cinnamon 4 drachms Cochineal 60 grains Vanilla 60 grains Oil of peppermint. 1 drachm Alcohol 16 ounces Water sufficient to make 32 ounces Reduce the drugs to coarse powder, dissolve the oil oi peppermint in the alcohol, add e^ual parts of water, and macerate therein the powders for 5 to 6 days, with frequent agitation; place in percolator and percolate until 32 fluid- ounces liave been obtained. Let stand for a week and filter through paper; if neces- sary to make it i>errectly bright and clear, shake up with some magnesia, and again filter. Saponaceous. — XIV. — White castile soap 2 ounces Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol 8 ounces Water 4 ounces Oil peppermint. . . 20 drops Oil wintcrgreen. . . 30 drops Solution of carmine N. F. sufli- cient to color. Dissolve the soap in the alcohol and water, add the other ingredients, and filter. XV.— Crystallized car- bolic acid 4 parts Eucalyptol 1 part Salol.. 2 parU Menthol 0.25 parts Thymol 0.1 part xVlcohol 100 parts Dye with cochineal (1} per cent). Jackson's Mouth Wash. — Fresh lemon peel, 10 parts; fresh sweet orange peel, 10 parts; angelica root, 10 parts; ffuaia- cum wood, 30 parts; balsam of Tdu, 12 parts; benzoin, 12 parts; Peruvian bal- sam, 4 parts; myrrh, 3 parts; alcohol (00 per cent), 500 parts. Tablets for Antiseptic Mouth Wash.— Heliotropine, 0.01 part; saccharine, 0.01 part; salicylic add, 0.01 part; men- thol, 1 part; milk sugar, 5 parts. These tablets may be dyed green, red, or blue, with chlorophyll, eosine, and indigo car- mine, respectively. Depilatories Depilatory Cream. — The depilatory cream largely used in New York hospi- tals for the removal of hair from the skin previous to operations: I. — Barium sulphide 3 parts Starch 1 part Water, sufficient quantity. The mixed powders are to be made into a paste with water, and applied in a moderately thick layer to the parts to be denuded of hair, the excess oi the latter having been previously trimmed off with a pair of scissors. From time to time a small part of the surface should be ex- amined, and when it is seen that the hair can be removed, the^ mass should be washed off. The barium sulphide should be quite fresh.^ It can be pre- pared by making barium sulphate and its own weight of charcoal into a paste with linseed oil, rolling the paste into the shape of a sausage, and placing it upon a bright fire to incinerate. When it has ceased to burn, and is a white hot mass, remove from the fire, cool, and powder. The formula is given with some re- serve, for preparations of this kind are usually unsafe unless used with great care. It should be removed promptly when the skin begins to burn. II. — Barium sulphide 25 parts Soap 5 parts Talc 35 parts Starch 35 parts Benzaldehyde s u f - ficient to make.. . 120 parts Powder the solids and mix. To use, to a part of this mixture add 3 parts of water, at the time of its application, and with a camers-hair pencil paint the mix- ture evenly over the spot to be freed of hair. Let remain in contact with the Digitized by VjOOQ IC 260 DEPILATORIES— DIAMOND TES're skin for 5 minutes, then wash off with a sponge, and in the course of 5 minutes longer the hair will come off on slight friction with the sponge. Strontium sulphide is an efficient de- pilatory. A convenient form of applying it is as follows: III. — Strontium sulphide . 2 parts Zinc oxide 3 parts Powdered starch ... 8 parts Mix well and keep in the dry state un- til wanted for use, taking then a sufficient quantity, forming into a paste with warm water and applying to the surface to be deprived of hair. Allow to remain from 1 to 5 minutes, according to the nature of the hair and skin: it is not advisable to continue the ap|)lication longer than the last named period. Remove in all cases at once when any caustic action is felt. After the removal of the paste, scrape the skin gently but firmly with a blunt-edged blade (a paper knife, for in- stance) until the loosened hair is re- moved. Then immediately wash the denuded surface well with warm water, and apply cold cream or some similar emollient as a dressing. By weight IV.— Alcohol 1« parts Collodion 35 parts Iodine 0.75 parts Essence of turpen- tine . 1.5 parts Castor oil 2 parts Apply with a brush on the affected parts for 3 or 4 days in thick coats. fV'hen the collodion plaster thus formed is pulled off, the hairs adhere to its inner surface. v.— Rosin sticks are intended for the removal of hairs and are made from colo- phonv with an admixture of 10 per cent , of yellow wax. The sticks are heated \ like a stick of sealing wax until soft or semi-liquid (Ui"* F.), and lightl^r applied on the place from which the hair is to be removetl, and the mass is allowed to cool. ' These msin sticks are said to give good satisfaction. DEPTHTNGS, VERIFICATION OF: See Watchmakers* Formulas. DESILVERING: See Plating. DESSERT, SALAMAHDRIHE: See Pyrotechnics. DETERGEirrS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. DEVELOPERS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES: See Photography. DEXTRIN PASTES AND ICUCI- LAGES: See Adhesives. DIAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers' Ce- ments. DIAL CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. DIAL REPAIRING: See Watchmakers* Formulas. DIAMALT: See Milk. DIAMOND TESTS: See also Gems and Jeweler*' For- mulas. To Distinguish Genuine Diamonds.— If characters or marks of an^ kind are drawn with an aluminum pencil on ^Uv<. |>orcelain, or any substance containing silex, the marks cannot be erased by rubbing, however energetic the fricbon. and even acids will not cause them to di^ appear entirely, unless the surface Ls en- tirely freed from greasy matter, which can be accomplished by rubbing with whiting and passing a moistened clulh over the surface at the time of writ inc. So, in order to distinguish the true dia- mond from the false, it is ne(*e.vsary only to wipe the stone carefully and trace a line on it with an aluminum pencnl. and then rub it briskly with a moi^trnod cloth. If the line continues visible* the »tone i» surely false. If» on the contrarv. the s»ti»nc is a true diamond, the line wilf di^^appear without leaving a trace, and without in- jury to the stone. The common test for recogniaing ibr diamond is the file, which d«ws not cut it. though it readily attacks imitatt4»nv There are other stones not affecietl l»« the file, but they have cbararteristir» n'f color and other effects by which they are readily distinguished. This test should Ik* confirmnl by others. From the following the reader can select the most convenient: A piece of glass on which the edge €*§ a diamond is drawn, will be cut without much pressure; a slight blow i% »ufli- cient to separate the glass. An imita- tion may scratch the f^tLSA^ but thU will not be cut as with the diamond. Digitized by VjOOQ IC DIAMOND TESTS— DIGESTIVE POWDERS 261 If a small drop of water is placed upon thr face of a diamond and moved about by mfans of the point of a pin, it will prrserve its globular form, provided the »tuDe is clean and dry. If tne attempt is made on glass, the drop will spread. A diamond immersed in a glass of water will be distinctly visible, and will shine clearly through the liquid. The imitation stone will be confounded with the water and will be nearly invisible. By looking through a diamond with a f^Ias-s at a black point on a sheet of white ^per, a single distinct point will be seen, bfveral points, or a foggy point will ap- pear if tne stone is spurious. Hydrofluoric acid dissolves all imita- tions, but has no effect on true diamonds. This acid is kept in gutta-percha bot- Um. For an eye practiced in comparisons it is not difRruIt to discern that the facets io the cut of a true diamond are not as rtgiHar as are those of the imitation; for in catting and polishing the real stone an etTort is made to preserve the original as much as possible, preferring some slight irrej^ularities in the planes and edges to the loss in the weignt, for we all know that diamonds are sold by weight. In an imitation, however, whether of paste or another less valuable stone, there is al- ways an abundance of cheap material vhich may be cut away and thereby form a penect-appearing stone. Take a piece of a fabric, striped red and white, and draw the stone to be tested over the colors. If it is an imi- tation, the colors will be seen through it, while a diamond will not allow them to be seen. A genuine diamond, rubbed on wood or metal, after having been previously exposed to the light of the electric arc, Ijecomes phosphorescent in darkness, which does not occur with imitations. Heat the stone to be tested, after ffiving it a coating of borax, and let it faU into cxM water. A diamond will undergo the test without the slightest damage; the ^ass will be broken in pieces. Finally, try with the fingers to crush an imitation and a genuine diamond be- tween two coins, and you will soon see the difference. DIAMOND CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Jewelers' Ce- ments. DIARRHEA IN BIRDS: Sec Veterinary Formulas. DIARRHEA REMED^S: See Cholera Remedies. Die Ventiiig. — Man^ pressmen have spent hours and days m the endeavor to produce sharp and full impressions on ngured patterns. If all the aeep recesses in deep-figured dies are vented to allow the air to escape when the blow is struck, it will do much to obtain perfect impressions, and requires only half the force that is necessary in unvented dies. This is not known in naany shops and consequently this little air costs much in power and worry. DIGESTIVE POWDERS AND TAB- LETS. I. — Sodium bicarbonate. 93 parts Sodium chlorate. ... 4 parts Calcium carbonate. . 3 parts Pepsin 5 parts Ammonium carbon- ate 1 part II. — Sodium bicarbonate. 120 parts Sodium chlorate 5 parts Sal physiologic (see below) 4 parts Magnesium carbon- ate 10 parts III. — Pepsin, saccharated (U.S. P.) 10 drachms Pancreatin 10 drachms Diastase 50 drachms Acid, lactic 40 drops Sugar of milk 40 drachms IV. — Pancreatin 3 parts Sodium bicarbonate. 15 parts Milk sugar 2 parts Sal Physiologicum. — The formula for this ingredient the so-called nutritive salt (Isahrsalz), is as follows: Calcium phosphate. 40 parts Potassium sulphate. 2 parts Sodium phosphate. . 20 parts Sulphuric, precipita- ted 5 parts Sodium chlorate. ... 60 parts Magnesium phos- 5 hate 5 parts sbad salts, arti- ficial 60 parts Silicic acid 10 parts Calcium fluoride 2} parts Digestive Tablets.— Powdered double re- fined sugar 300 parts Subnitrfite bismuth 60 parts Saccharated pepsin 45 parts Pancreatin 45 parts Mucilage 35 parts Ginger 30 parts Mix and divide into suitable sizes. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 262 DIOGEN DEVELOPER— DISINFECl^ANTS DIOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography. DIP FOR BRASS: See Plating and Brass. DIPS: See MeUls. DIPS FOR CATTLE: See Disinfectants and Veterinaiy For- mulas. DISH WASHING: See Household Formulas Disinfectants Distnfectmg Fluids.— I. — Creosote 40 gallons Rosin, powdered.. . 56 pounds Caustic soda lye^SS"* Tw 9 gallons Boiling water . ■ . . . 12 gallons Methylated spirit. . 1 gallon Black treacle 14 pounds Melt the rosin and add the creosote; run in the lyes; then add the matter and methylated spirit mixed together, and add the treacle; boil all till dissolved and mix well together. II. — Hot water 120 pounds Caustic soda lye, 38® B 120 pounds Ro.sin 300 pounds Creosote 450 pounds Boil together the water, lye, and rosin, till disjiolved; turn off steam and stir in the creosote; keep on steam to nearly boiling all the time, but so as not to boil over, until thoroughly incorporated. III. — Fresh - made soap (hard yellow) .... 7 pounds Gas tar 21 pounds Water, with 2 pounds soda 21 pounds Dissolve soap (cut in fine shavings) in the gas tar; then add slowly the soda and water which has been di.^solved. I V. —Rosin 1 cwt. Caustic soda lye, 18** B 16 gallons Black tar oil \ gallon Nitro- naphthalene di.ssolved in boil- ing water (about i gallon) 2 pounds Melt the n>sin, add the caustic lye; then stir in the tar oil and add the nitro- naphthalene. V. — Camphor 1 ounce Carbolic acid (75 per cent) 12 ounces Aqua ammonia 10 drachms Soft salt water 8 drachms To be diluted when required for u.se. VI. — Heavy tar oil 10 gallons Caustic soda dis- solved in 5 gallons water 600** F 30 pounds Mix the soda lyes with the oil, and heat the mixture gently with constant stir- ring; add, wnen iust on the boil, 20 pounds of refuse fat or tallow and 20 pounds of soft soap; continue the heat until thoroughly saponi6ed, and add water gradually to make up 40 gallons. Let it settle; then decant the clear liquid. Disinfecting Fluids or Weed-Killen. - I. — Cold water, 20 gallons; powdered rusin, 56 pounds; creosote oil, 40 gallons; sulphuric acid, } gallon; caustic soda lve« SO"" B., 9 gallons. Heat water and dissolve the losin: then add creosote and boil to a brt>«n mass and shut off steam; next run tu sulphuric acid and then the lyes. II.— Water 40 gallons Powdered black rusin 56 pounds Sulphuric acid 2} gallons Creosote 10 gallons Melted pitch. ...... 24 pounds Pearlash boiled in 10 gallons water. . 56 pounds Boil water and dissolve rosin and acid; then add creo.sote and boil well again: add pitch and run in pearlash solution (boiling); then shut off steam. III. (White).— Water, 40 gallon^: turpentine, 2 gallons; ammonia, ) gal< Ion; carbolic crystals, 14 pounds: caustic lyes, 2 gallons; white sugar, 60 pounds, di.ssolved in 40 pounds water. Heat water to boiling, and add fir«t turpentine, next ammonia, and then car- bolic crystals. Stir well until thorouglih dissolved, and add lyes and sugar solu- tion. DISIKFECnilG POWDERS. I. — Sulphate of iron. . 100 parts Sulphate of xinc . . 50 parts Oaic bark, powder. 40 parts Tar 5 parts Oil 5 parts 1 1. -Mix together chloride of lime and burnt umber, add water, and set on platen. Digitized by VjOOQ IC DISINFECTANl^ 263 Blue Sanituy Powder.— Powdered alum 2 pounds Oil of eucalyptus .. . 12 ounces Rectified spirits of tar (J ounces Rectified spirit of turpentine 2 ounces Ultramarine blue (common) } ounces Common salt 14 pounds Mix alum with about S pounds of salt in a large mortar, ^adually add oil of eucalyptus and spirits, then put in the altnmarine blue, and lastly remaining lalt, mixing all well, and passing through a lieve. Carbolic Powder. (Strong).— Slaked iimf in fine powder, 1 cwt.; carbolic acid, 75 per cent, 2 gallons. Color with aniline dve and then pass through a moderately fine sieve and put into tins or casks ancl keep air-tight. Pink Carbolized Sanitary Powder.— Powdered alum 6 ounces Powdered green cop- peras 5 pounds Powdered red lead . . 5 pounds Calvert's No. 5 car- bolic acid.. ...... 12i pounds Spirit of turpentine. 1} pounds Cfalais sand 10 pounds Slaked lime 60 pounds Mix carbolic acid with turpentine and «and. then add the other ingredients, la«tly the slaked lime and, after mixing, pttM through a sieve. It is advisable to U4f iime that has been slaked some time. Cuspidor Powder.— Peat rubble is ground to a powder, and 100 parts put into a mixing machine, which can be brrmetically sealed. Then 15 parts of hiue vitriol are added either very finely fiulverized or in a saturated aqueous so- ution. Next are added 2 parts of forma- i)t>. and lastly 1 part of ground cloves, aper in closed envelopes, are complete- y disinfected only in 12 hours, books in 24 hours at a temperature of 122** F. when 70 cubic centimeters of formo- chloral — 17.5 g. of gas — per cubic meter of space are used. Books must be stood up in such a manner that the gas can enter from the sides. Bacilli of typhoid preserve their vitalitv longer upon un- sized paper and on filtering paper than on other varieties. There is much difference of opinion as to the disinfecting and deodorizing power of formaldehyde when used to di.sinfect wooden tierces. While some have found it to answer well, others have got variable results, or failed of success. The explanation seems to be that those who have obtained poor re- sults have not allowed time for the dis- infectant to penetrate the pores of the wood, the method of application being wrong. The solution is thrown into the tierce, which is then steamed out at once, wherebv the aldehyde is volatilized be- fore it has had time to do its work. If the formal and the steam, instead of being used in succession, were used to- gether, the steam would carry the dis- infectant into the pores of the wood. But a still better plan is to give the alde- hyde more time. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 264 DISLN'FECTANTS Another point to be remembered in all cases of disinfection by formaldehyde is that a mechanical cleansing must pre- cede the action of the antiseptic. If there are thick deposits of organic mat- ter which can be easily dislodged with a scrubbing brush, they can only be dis- infected by the use of large quantities «>f formaldehyde used during a long period «>f time. Gcnenl DisinfectantB. — I. — Alum 10 ounces Sodium carbonate . . 10 ounces Ammonium chloride 2 ounces Zinc chloride 1 ounce Sodium chloride 2 ounces Hydrochloric acid» quantity suffi- cient. Water to make 1 gallon. Dissolve the alum in one half gallon «>f boiling water, and add the sodium carbonate: then add hydrochloric acid until the precipitate formed is dissolved. Dissolve the other salt in water and add to the previous solution. Finally add enough water to make the whole measure 1 gallon, and filter. In use, this is diluted with 7 parts of water. II.— For the Sick Room.— In using this ventilate frequentlv: Guaiac, 10 parts; eucalyptol, 8 parU; phenol, 6 parts; men- thol. 4 parts: thymol, 2 parts; oil of cloTes, 1 part; alcohol of 90 per cent, 170 parts. Atomizer Liquid for Sick Rooms.— HI.— Eucalyptol 10 Thyme oil 5 Part* I^mon oil 5 ► by Lavender oil 5 ••«*»•• Spirit, 90 per cent. ..110^ To a pint of water a teaspoonful for CTaporation. Kon-Foieoiioiis Sheep Dips.- Pnste,— I. — Creosote (containing 15 per cent to 20 per cent of car- bolic acid ) 2 parts Strarine or Y*ork»hire grea^ I P*rt C au<»tic soda l^res, *p«H-ific gravity, 1540 1 part BUrk rusin, 5 per cent to 10 per c^-nt. H#^* •K*> rr»*in and add grea*e and ^mla :;«-«, a'.'i then add creosote cold. II r re«P*^,u 1 part i r .'!*• hard n>«n oil 1 paK P-it r>^*unds. Boil l\ hours, adding cham- rr lye, 5 pints. Let the fabric remain in ail night, and wash out in clean water. Bismarck Brown.— Mix together 1 pound Bismarck, 5 gallons water, and i pound sulphuric acid. This paste diHsolves easily in hot water and may be U4ed directly for dyeing. A liquid dye may be prepared by making the bulk of the above mixture to S eallons with alco- hol. To dye, sour with sulphuric acid; idd a Quantity of sulphate of soda, im- merse toe wool, and add the color by >mall portions, keeping the temperature under <12* F. Very interesting shades mar be developed by combining the color « itl indigo paste or picric acio. Cbestnnt Brown for Straw Bonnets.— For 25 hats, use ground sanders, 1} pound*); ground curcuma, 2 pounds; powdered gall nuts or sumac, }" pound; rapped logwood, iS) pound. Boil to- jrrtner with the hats in a large kettle (so u not to crowd), for 2 hours, then with- draw the hats, rinse, and let them re- main overnight in a bath of nitrate of 4^ B^., when they are washed. A darker brown may be obtained by increasing the f^'iantity of sanders. To give the nats I r.r desired luster, they are brushed with a brush of couchgrass, when dry. Cinnamon or Brown for Cotton and SQk.— Give the goods as much color, fmm a solution of blue vitriol, 2 ounces, to water. 1 gallon, as ihcv will take up in dippins 15 minutes; tnen turn them throu^n nmewater. This will make a tK^autiful sky blue of much durability. Tlie fabric sKould next be run through a solution of prussiate of potash, 1 ounce, to water, 1 gallon. Brown Dye for Cotton or Linen. —Give the pieces a mixed mordant of acetate of alttmtita and acetate of iron, and then dye them in a bath of madder, or madder and fustic. When the acetate of alu- mina predominates, the dye has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon tint is ob- tained by first giving a mordant of alum, next a madder oath, then a bath of fustic, to which a little green copperas has been added. Brown for Silk.— Dissolve annatto, 1 pound; pearlash, 4 pounds, in boiling water, and pass the silk through it for 2 hours; then take it out, squeeze well, and dry. Next give it a mordant of alum, and pass through a bath of bra- zil wood, and afterwards through a bath of logwood, to which a little g[reen cop- peras has been added; wring it out and dry; afterwards rinse well. Brown Dye for Wool. — ^This may be induced by a decoction of oak bark, with variety of shade according to the quan- tity employed. If the goods be first passed through a mordant of alum the color will be brightened. Brown for Cotton. — Catechu or terra japonica gives cotton a brown color; blue vitriol turns it to the bronze; green copperas darkens it, when applied as a mordant and the stuff is boiled in the bath. Acetate of alumina as a mordant brightens it. The French color Car- melite is given with catechu, 1 pound; verdigris, 4 ounces; and sal ammoniac, 5 ounces. Dark Snuff Brown for Wool.— For 50 pounds of goods, take camwood, 10 pounds, boil for 20 minutes, then dip the goods for } of an hour; take them out, and add to the dye, fustic, 25 pounds, boil 12 minutes, and dip the goods } of an hour; then add blue vitriol, 10 ounces, copf)eras, 2 pounds, 8 ounces; dip again 40 minutes. Add more copperas if the shade is required darker. Brown for Wool and Silk. — Infusion or decoction of walnut peels dyes wool and silk a brown color, which is bright- ened by alum. Horse-chestnut peels also impart a brown color; a mordant of muriate of tin turns it on the bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish brown. Alkali Blue and Nicholson's Blue.— Dissolve 1 pound of the dye in 10 gallons boiling water, and add this by small por- tions to the dye bath, which should be rendered alkaline by borax. The fabric should be well worked about between each addition of the color. The tem- perature must be kept under 212° F. To develop the color, wash with water Digitized by VjOOQ IC 268 DYES and pass through a bath containing sulphuric acid. Aniline Blue.—To 100 pounds of fabric, dissolve 1} pounds aniline blue in 3 quarts hot alcohol, strain through a filter, and add it to a bath of ISO"" F.; also 10 pounds Glauber's salts, and 5 pounds acetic acid. Immerse the goods and handle them well for iO minutes. Next heat slowly to %W F.; then add 5 pounds sulphuric acid diluted with water. Let the whole boil 20 minutes longer; then rinse and dry. If the aniline be added in 2 or 8 proportions during the process of coloring, it wiU facilitate the evenness of the color. Blue on Cotton.— For 40 pounds of goods, use copperas, 2 pounds; boil and dip 20 minutes; dip in soapsuds, and return to the dye 3 or 4 times; then make a new bath with prussiate of pot- ash, \ pound; oil of vitriol, 1} pints; boil i nour, rinse out and dry. Sky Blue on Cotton. — For 60 pounds of goods, blue vitriol, 5 pounds. Boil a short time, then enter tne goods, dip 3 hours, and transfer to a bath of strong lime water. A fine brown color will be imparted to the goods if they are then put through a solution of prussiate of potash. Blue Ihre for Hosiery. — One hundred pounds of wool are colored with 4 pounds Guatemala or 3 pounds Bengal indigo, in the soda or wood vat. Then boil in a kettle a few minutes, 5 pounds of cud- bear or 8 pounds of archil paste; add 1 pound of soda, or, better, 1 pail of urine; then cool the dye to about 170° F. and enter the wool. Handle well for about 20 minutes, then take it out, cool, rinse, and dry. It makes no^ difference whether the cudbear is put in before or after the indigo. Three ounces of ani> line purple dissolved in alcohol, } pint, can DC used instead of the cudbear. Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and is much used by dyers for the purpose of dissolving aniline colors. It produces a very pretty shade, but should never be used on mixed goods which have to be bleached. Dark-Blue Dye.— This dye is suitable for thibets and lastings. Boil 100 poundf of the fabric for 1 i hours in a solution of alum, 25 pounds; tartar, 4 pounds; mor- dant, 0 pounds; extract of indigo, 6 pounds; cool as usual. Boil in fresh water from 8 to 10 pounds of logwood, in a bag or otherwise, then cool tne dye to 170* F. Reel the fabric quickly at first, then let it boil strongly for 1 hour. This is a very good imitation of indigYx blue. Saxon Blue. — For 100 pounds tbibri or comb yarn, use alum, 20 pound*^; cream of tartar, 3 pounds; mordant, ^ pounds; extract of indigo, 3 pounds; «>r carmine, 1^ pound, makes a better cultvr. When all is dissolved, cool the kettle to 180° F.; enter and handle ouickly at first, then let the fabric boil } hour, or until even. Ixing boiling dims the c<»lor. Zephvr worsted yarn ought to be pn-- pared, first, by Soiling it in a solutii«ri of alum and sulphuric acid; the indigu is added afterwards. Logwood and Indifo Blue.— For ion pounds of doth. ^ Color the cloth first by one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue, and rinse it well, and then boil it in a solution of 20 pounds of alum, 2 pound « of half -refined tartar, and 5 pounds of mordant, for 2 hours; finallv take it out and cool. In fresh water boil 10 pounds til good logwoodl for half an hour in a bag or otherwise; cool off to 170* F. In-forr entering. Handle well over a reel, let it boil for half an hour; then take it out. cool and rinse. This is a very firm blue. Blue Purple for Silk.— For 40 pounds of goods, take bichromate of pota.«h. x ounces; alum, 1 pound; dissolve all and bring the water to a boil, and put in the Soods; boil I hour. Then empty the ye, and make a new dye with logwiK>d. 8 pounds, or extract of logwood, 1 pound 4 ounces, and boil in this 1 hour Umecr. Grade the color by using more or les^ logwood, as dark or light color is wanted. Blue Purple for Wool.— One hundred Eounds of wool are first dipped in the lue vat to a light shade, then boiled in a solution of 15 pounds of alum and 3 pounds of half- refined tartar, fttr 11 hours, the wool taken out, cimted, and let stand 24 hours. Then boil in fre^h water 8 pounds of powdered c(K*htneal for a few minutes, cool the kettle to 17«* F. Handle the prepared wool in Ihf^ for 1 hour, when it is ready to cwjI. riM*e and dry. By coloring first with corhi- neal, as aforesaid, and finishing in the blue vat, the fast purple or dahlia, ^ much admired in German broadcloths will be produced. Tin acids mu&t n4»t be used in this color. To Make Extract of Indigo Bhie. - Take of vitriol, 2 pounds, and stir into it finely pulverized indigo, 8 ounces, stir- ring briskly for the first half hour; then Digitized by VjOOQ IC DYES 269 (orer up, and stir 4 or 5 times daily for a few dajs. Add a little pulverized rhalk, stirring it up, and keep adding it a» loDg as it foams; it will neutralize the add. Keep it closely corked. Licfat Stiver Drab.— For 50 pounds of ^oo£, use logwood, } pound; alum, about thme clean lime water has been added. Buil for S hours in a large vessel, using for a bath a decoction of the follow- ing: Alum. 4 pounds; tartaric acid, | pound; some ^ ammoniacal cochineal, ami carmine of indigo. A little sulphuric •••id may be necessary in order to neu- tralize the alkali of the cochineal dye. If the last-mentioned ingredients are used, Irt the hats remain for an hour longer in th«* boiling bath, then rinse in slightly a cidulated water. Dark Steel.— Mix black and white «€x») together in the proportion of 50 p«itinds of black wool to 7 A pounds of white. For large or small quantities, k'^fi the same proportion, mixing care- fully and thoroughly. GIUEEN DYES: Anilme Green for Silk. — Iodine green f»r night green dissolves easily in warm M ater. For a liquid dye 1 pound ma^ be dissolved in 1 gallon alcohol, and mixed with 2 gallons water, containing 1 ounce sulphuric acid. Aniline Green for Wool. — Prepare two baths, one containing the dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate of soda or borax. In this the wool is placed, and the temperature raised to 212° F. A grayish green is produced, which must e brightened and fixed in a second bath of water 100° F., to which some acetic acid has been added. Cotton requires preparation by sumac. Green for Cotton. — For 40 pounds of goods, use fustic, 10 pounds; blue vitriol, 10 ounces; soft soap, 2} quarts; and log- wood chips, 1 pound 4 ounces. Soak the logwood overnight in a brass vessel, and put it on the fire in the morning, adding the other ingredients. When quite not it is ready for dyeing; enter the goods at once, and handle well. Differ- ent shades may be obtained by letting part of the goods remain longer in the dye. Green for Silk. — ^Boil green ebony in water, and let it settle. Take the clear liquor as hot as the hands can bear, and handle the goods in it until of a bright yellow. Take water and put in a little sulphate of indigo; handle goods in this till of the shade desired. The ebony may previously be boiled in a bag to prevent it from sticking to the silk. Green for Wool and Silk.— Take equal quantities of yellow oak and hickory bark, make a strong yellow bath by boiling, and shade to the desired tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo. Green Fustic Dye.— For 50 pounds of goods, use 50 pounds of fustic with alum, 11 pounds. Soak in water until the strength is extracted, put in the goods until of a good yellow color, remove the chips, and add extract of indigo in small quantities at a time, until tCe color is satisfactory. PURPLE AND VIOLET DYES: Aniline Violet and Purple. — Acidulate the bath by sulphuric acid, or use sul- phate of soda; both these substances render the shade bluish. Dye at 212° F. To give a fair middle shade to 10 pounds of wool, a quantity of solution equal to } to } ounces of the solid dye will be re- ()uired. The color of the dyed fabric is improved by washing in soap and water, and then passine through a bath soured by sulphuric acid. Purple. — For 40 pounds of goods, use Digitized by VjOOQ IC 870 DYES alum, 8 pounds; muriate of tin, 4 tea- cups; pulverized cochineal, 1 pound; cream of tartar, 2 pounds. Boil the alum, tin, and cream of tartar, for 20 minutes, add the cochineal and boil 5 minutes; immerse the^oods 2 hours; re- move and enter them in a new dye com- posed of brazil wood, 3 pounds; log- wood, 7 pounds; alum, 4 pounds, and muriate of tin, 8 cupfuls, adding a little extract of indigo. Puxple for Cotton. — Get up a tub of hot logwood liquor, enter S pieces, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Enter them in a clean alum tub, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Get up another tub of logwood liquor, enter, give them 6 ends, and hed^e out; renew the alum tub, give 5 ends m that, and finish. Puxple for Silk. — For 10 pounds of goods, enter the goods in a blue dye bath, and secure a light- blue color, dry, and dip in a warm solution containing alum, ^i pounds. Should a deeper color be required, add a little extract of indigo. Solferino and Magenta for Woolen, Silk, or Cotton. — For 1 pound of woolen goods, magenta shade, 96 grains, apothe- caries* weight, of aniline red, will be re- quired. Dissolve in a little warm alco- hol, using, say, 6 fluidounces, or about 6 gills alcohol per ounce of aniline. Many dvers use wood spirits because of its cheapness. For a solferino shade, use 64 grains aniline red, and dissolve in 4 ounces alcohol, to each 1 pound of goods. Cold water, 1 quart, will dissolve these small quantities of aniline red, but the cleanest and quickest way will be found by using the alcohol, or wood spirits. Clean the cloth and goods by steeping at a gentle heat in weak soapsuds, rinse in several masses of dean water and lay aside moist. The alcoholic solution of aniline is to be added from time to time to the warm or hot dye bath, till the color on the goods is of the desired shade. The goods are to be removed from the dve bath before each addition^ of the afcoholic solution, and the bath is to be well stirred before the goods are re- turned. The alcoholic solution should l)e first dropped into a little water, and well mixed, and the mixture should then be strained into the dye bath. If the color is not dark enough after working from 40 to 30 minutes, repeat the re- moval of the goods from the bath, and the addition of the solution, and the re- immersion of the gvMvls from 15 to 30 minutes more, or until suited, then re- move from the bath and rinse in several masses of clean water, and dry in the shade. Use about 4 gallons water for dye bath for 1 pound oi goods; less water for larger quantities. Violet for Silk or Wool.— A good riolrt dye may be given by passing the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through a decoction of logwood, and lastly through alum water. A fast rUAri may be given b^ dyeing the gil, allowing the hats to remain in the boiling solution i hours; then add enou^ dec« na- tion of logwood, carmine, and indigo ti» induce the desired shade, and rinse final I y in water in which some alum has been div- solved. Wine Color. — For 50 pounds of gfXNN, use camwood. 10 pounds, and boil 'iO minutes; dip the goods I hour. boQ again, and dip 40 minuten; then darken with blue vitriol, 15 ounces, and 5 pounds of copperas. Lilac for Silk.— For 5 pounds of silk, use archil, 7} pounds, and mix wt-U with the liquor. Make it boil \ hour, and dip the silk quickly; then let it chmiI. and wash in river water. A fine half violet, or lilac, more or less full, will l>e obtained. RED, CRIMSON, AKD PINK DYES: Aniline Red.— Inclose the aniline in a small muslin bag. Have a kettle (tin or brass) filled with moderately hot water and rub the sub.stance out. Then immerse the goocLs to be colored* and in a short time tney are done. It im proves the color to wring the goods out of strong soapsuds before putting them in the dye. This is a permanent color on wool or silk. Red Madder. —To 100 pounds c/ fabric, use 20 pounds of alum. 5 pounds of tar- tar« and 5 pounds of muriate of tin. When these are dissolved, enter the goods and let them boil for < hours, then take out, let cmmiI. and lay oremighl. Into fresh water, stir 75 pounds of g^id Digitized by VjOOQ IC DYES 271 m«ddfr, and enter the fabric at 120^ F. iRc work oef ore applying the red. IV. — Blue. — Use logwood, 7 ouotr*: blue vitriol, 1 ounce; water, ti ountr*: boU. V. — ^Purple. — Use logwood. 11 onncf*: alum, 6 ounces; water, 49 ounces. VI. [. — Green.— Use strong vinegar. Ij pints; best verdigris, S ounces, frottmi ••P 8 get her and i nne; sap green, ~} ounce; mix all to- IlioU, Digitized by VjOOQ IC DYES 278 DYES FOR HATS. The hats should be at first strongly g&lifd by boilinff a long time in a decoc- tion of galls with a little logwood so that the dye may penetrate into their sub- jitance; after wnich a proper quantity of Titriol and decoction of logwood, with a h'ttJe verdif^ris, are added, and the bats kept in this mixture for a considerable time. They are afterwards put into a fresh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, tod verdigris, and, when the bats are costly, or of a hair which with difficulty takes the dye, the same process is re- peated a third time. For obtaining the most perfect color, the hair or wool is dyed blue before it is formed into hats. The ordinary bath for dveing hats, em- ployed by London manufacturers, con- "tists for 12 dozen, of 144 pounds of h^wood; 12 pounds of green sulphate of iroD or copperas; 7} pounds verdigris. The logwood having been introduced into the copper and digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added in successive quantities, and in the above proportions, along with every Mtrreiisive 2 or 8 dozen of hats sus- pended upon the dripping machine. Rirh set Of hats, after being exposed to the bath with occasional airings during 40 minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid (Mit upon the ground to be more com- plf'tdy blackened bv the peroxydize- mrot of the iron witn the atmospheric 'aygen. In 8 or 4 hours the dyeinff is ciiopleted. When fully dyed, the Eats are well washed in running water. Straw hats or bonnets may be dyed hiark by boiling them 3 or 4 nours in a »Triioi( liquor oMogwood, adding a little r^pprras occasionally. Let the Donnets rt'toatn in the liquor all night; then take out to dry in the air. If the black is not i«n.itened in fine oil; then block. I.— Red Dye. — Boil ground brazil vimkI in a lye of potash, and boil your *>traw hats in it. II.— Blue Dye.— Take a sufficient t.»ntity of potash lye, 1 pound of litmus or larmus, ground; make a decoction 4{id then put in the straw, and boil it. TO DTE, STIFFEN, AND BLEACH FELT HATS. Felt hats are dyed by repeated im- mersion, drawing and dipping in a hot watery solution of logwood, 38 parts; iXT*tn vitriol, 3 parts; verdigris, 2 parts; ?^j»eat the immersions and drawing with cxpusure to tbe air 13 or 14 times, or until the color suits, each step in the process lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. Aniline colors may be advantageously used instead of the above. For a stiffen- ing, dissolve borax, 10 parts; carbonate of potash, 3 parts, in bot water; then add shdiac, 50 parts, and boil until all is dis- solved; apply witb a sponge or a brush, or by immersing the hat wnen it is cold, and dip at once in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali and fix the shellac. Felt hats can be bleached by tbe use of sulphuric acid gas. LIQUID DYE COLORS. These colors, thickened with a little gum, may be used as inks in writing, or as colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, etc., or to paint on velvet: I. — ^Blue. — Dilute Saxon blue or sul- phate of indigo with water. If required for delicate work, neutralize with chalk. II. — ^Purple. — Add a little alum to a strained decoction of logwood. III. — Green. — Dissolve sap green in water and add a little alum. IV.~Yellow. — Dissolve annatto in a weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or potash. v.— Golden Color. —Steep French berries in hot water, strain, and add a little gum and alum. VI. — Red. — Dissolve carmine in am- monia, or in weak carbonate of potash water, or infuse powdered cochineal in water, strain, and add a little gum in water. UNCLASSIFIED DYERS' RECIPES: To Cleanse Wool. — Make a hot bath composed of water, 4 parts; and urine, 1 part; enter the wool, teasing and opening it out to admit the full action of the liquid. After 20 minutes' immersion, remove from the liquid and allow it to drain; then rinse in clean running water, and spread out to dry. The liquid is good for subsequent^ operations, only keep up the proportions, and use no soap. To Extract Oil Spots from Finished Goods. — Saturate the spot with benzine; then place two pieces of very soft blotting paper under and two upon it, press well with a hot iron, and the grease will be absorbed. New Mordant for Aniline Colors. — Im- merse the goods for some hours in a bath of cold water in which chloride or acetate of zinc has been dissolved until the solu- tion shows 2® Be. For the wool the Digitized by VjOOQ IC 874 DYES mordanting bath should be at a boilins heat, and the goods should also be placed in a warm bath of tannin, 00^ F., for half an hour. In dveing, a hot solution of the color must oe used to which should be added, in the case of the cotton, some chloride of zinc, and, in the case of the wool, a certain amount of tannin solu- tion. To Render Aniline Colors Soluble in Water. — A solution of jg;elatin in acetic acid of almost the consistence of svrups is first made, and the aniline in fine is gradually added, stirring all the time so as to make a homogeneous paste. The mixture is then to be heated over a water bath to the temperature of boiling water and kept at that heat for some time. limewater for Dyers' Use.— Put some lime, 1 pound, and strong limewater, 1} pounds, into a pail of water; rummage well for 7 or 8 minutes. Then let it rest until the lime is precipitated and the water clear; add this quantity to a tubful of dear water. To Renew Old Silks. —Unravel and put them in a tub, cover with cold water, and let them remain 1 hour. Dip them up and down, but do not wring; hang up to drain, and iron while very chtmp. Fuller's Purifier for Cloths.— Dry, pulverize, and sift the following ingredi- ents: Fuller's earth, 6 pounds; French chalk, 4 ounces; pipe clay. I pound. Make into a paste with rectified oil of turpentine, 1 ounce; alcohol, 2 ounces; melted oil soap, 1 i pounds. Compound the mixture into cakes of any desired size, keeping them in water, or small wooden boxes. To Fix Byes.— Dissolve 20 ounces of Eelatin in water, and add^ S ounces of ichromate of potash. This is done in a dark room. The coloring matter is then added and the goods submitted thereto, after which they are exposed to the action of light. The pigment thus becomes in- soluble in water and the color is fast. DYES AHB DYESTUFFS. Prominent among natural dyestuffs is the coloring matter obtained from log- wood and known as **hcmatein." The color-forming substance (or chromogen), lueniatoxylin, exists in the logwood partly free and partly as a glucoside. nhen pure, hsematoxylin forms nearly colorless crystals, b«l on oxidation, es- pecially in the presence of an alkali, it IS converted into the coloring matter lurmatein. which forms colored lakes with metallic bases, yielding violets. blues, and blacks with Tariout mordaoU. Logwood comes into commerce in the form of logs, chips, and extracts. Tb<- chips are moistened with water and ex- posed in heaps so as to induce fermenU- tion, alkalies and ox]dizing[ agents beii^c added to promote the **cunng * or oxida- tion. When complete and the chins baTc assumed a deep reddbh-brown color, the decoction is made which is employed in dyeing. The^ extract offers convesieniY in transportation, storage, and U!ie. it is now usually made from logwood chipai that have not been cured. The chips are treated in an extractor, pressure oftt dyestufTs. It is obtained from the pUnt by a process of fermentation and o^iiU- tion. Indigo appears in commeri'r in dark-blue cubical^ cakes, varying xrr* much in composition as they often ci»ii- tain indii^o red and indigo brown, l«^ sides moisture, mineral matter«. an«J glutinous substances. Coosequrtitly t(< color varies. Powdered in«liffo di9.M.4 ^ t^ in concentrated fuming sulphuric a^id. forming monosulphonic and disulphonic acids. On neutralizing these solution* with sodium carbonate and precipitatinit the indigo carmine ,with common m^ii there is obtained the indigo extract, solu- ble indigo« and indigo carmine of com- merce. True indigo carmine is the »o> dium salt of the disulphonic and. and when sold dry it la callnl *SndigobBe." One of the most important oT tiie rvc^itf Digitized by VjOOQ IC DYES 275 trhietrernents of chemistry ia the S3mthetic pmduction of indigo on a commercial Artificial dyestuffs assumed preponder- •tiM importance with the discovery of the lilac color mauve by Perkin in 1856, &&(] fuchsine or magenta by Verguin in 1H95, for with each succeeding year other colon have been discovered, until at the prrjient time there are several thousand artificial organic dyes or colors on the mtrkrt. Since the first of these were prrpared from aniline or its derivatives t|j<* (t>lors were known as "aniline dyes." liut OS a large number are now prepared frtirn other constituents of coal tar than »niline they are better called "coal-tar (iTe^uffs/* There are many schemes of I'lassifioation. Benedikt-Knecht divides tbrm into I, aniline or amine dyes; II, phenol dyes; III, azo dyes; IV, quino- line and acridine derivatives; V, anthra- rene dves; and YI, artificial indigo. Of toe anthracene dyes, the alizarine is the most imi>ortant, since this is the culorin^ principle of the madder. The synthesis of alizarine from anthracene «a« effected b^ Gii&be and Liebermann ib 1868. This discovery produced a 'ooQplete revolution in calico printing, turkey-red dyeing, and in the manu- f Mi ure of madder preparations . M adder i\n*U to-day only a very limited applica- titm in the dyeing of wool. In textile dyemff and printing, sub- Htaoces called mordants are largely used, nther to fix or to develop the color on the fiber. Substances of mineral origin, «uch as salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, copper, antimony, and tin, prin- ''ipally, and man^ others to a less extent and of organic origin, like acetic, oxalic, nine, tartaric, ana lactic acid, sulpho- lutrd oils, and tannins are employed as mordants. Iron liquor,^ khown as black liquor or ^rolifjrnite of iron, is made by dissolvinj^; >«'rap iron in pyroligneous acid. It is 'i^fvj Hi a mordant in dyeing silks and n»iion and in calico printing. Ked liquor is a solution of aluminum K^tate in acetic acid, and is produced ^« Hcting on calcium or lead acetate solu- ^> *ni with aluminum sulphate or the •lotible alums, Ihe supernatant liquid f*irmiog the red liquor. The red liquor nf the trade b often the sulpho-acetate of tJumioa resulting when the quantity of ^akium or lead acetate is insufficient to •^.•lupletely decompose the aluminum ^It- Ordinarily the solutions have a fUrk- brown color and a strong pyro- liiriirouji odor. It is called red liquor U-cause it was first used in dyeing reds. It is employed as a mordant by the cotton dyer and largely by the printer. Non-Poisonous Textile and Egg Dyes for Household Use.— The preparation of non-poisonous colors for dyeing fabrics and eggs at home constitutes a separate department in the manufacture of dye- stuffs. Certain classes of aniline dyes may be properly said to form the materials. The essence of this color preparation consists chiefly in diluting or weakening the coal- tar dyes, made m the aniline factories, and bringing them down to a certain desired shade bv the addition of certain chemicals suitea to their varying charac- teristics, which, though weakening the color, act at the same time as the so-called mordants. The anilines are divided TK^th refer- ence to their characteristic reactions into groups of basic, acid, moderately acid, as well as dyes that are insoluble in water. In cases where combinations of one or more colors are needed, only dyes of similar reaction can be combined, that is, basic with basic, and acid with acid. For tbc purpose of reducing the original intensitv of the colors, and also as mordants, dextrin, Glauber's salt, alum, or aluminum sulphate is pressed into service. Where Glauber's salt is used, the neutral salt is exclusively em- ployed, which can be had cheaply and in immense quantities in the chemical industry. Since it is customary to pack the color mixtures in two paper boxes, one stuck into the other, and moreover since certain coal-tar dves are only used in large crystals, it is only reasonable that the mordants should be calcined and not put up in the shape of crystallized salts, particularly since these latter are prone to absorb the moisture from the air, and when thus wet likely to form a compact mass very difficult to dissolve. This in- convenience often occurs with the large crystals of fuchsine and methyl violet. Because these two colors are mostly used in combination with dextrin to color eggs, and since dextrin is also very hy{i|roscopic, it is better in these in- dividual cases to employ calcined Glau- ber's salt. In the manufacture of egg colors the alkaline coloring coal-tar dyes are mostly used, and they are to be found in a great variety of shades. Oithe non- poisonous egg dyes, there are some ten or a dozen numbers, new red, carmine, scarlet, pink, violet, blue, yellow, orange, green, brown, black, neliotrope, etc., wnich when mixed will Digitized by VjOOQ IC 276 DYES enable the operator to form shades almost without number. The manufacture of the egg dyes as carried on in the factorjf consists in a mechanical mixing of basic coal-tar dye- stuffs, also some direct coloring benzi- dine dyestuffs, with dextrin in tne ratio of about 1 part of aniline dye to 8 parts of dextrin; under certain circumstances, according to the concentrated state of the dyes, the reducing quantity of the dextrin may be greatly increased. As reducing agents for these colors insoluble sul^ stances may also be employed. A part also of the egg dyes are treated with the neutral sulphate; for instance,^ light brilliant green, because of its rubbing off, is made with dextrin and Glauber's salt in the proportion of 1:8:8. For the dyeing of eggs such color mix- tures are''i>referaDly employed as contain along witn the dve proper a fixing agent (dextrin) as well as a medium for the superficial mordanting of the ep^gshell. The colors will then be very brilliant. Here are some recipes: Parte Color ]>yMUiff by Weicbi Blue . . . Marine blue B. N.. . 3.5 Brown.. VemiYinS 30.0 Green . . Brilliant creenO.. .13.5 Orante. Orange If. 9.0 Red . . . Diamond fuchaine I. 3.5 Pink . . . hjoain A 4.5 Violet. . Methyl riolet 6 B. . 3.6 Yellow .Naphthol yellowS.13.5 Very little of these mixtures suffices for dyeing five eggs. The coloring matter is dissolved in 600 parts by weight of boil- in|^ water, while the eggs to be dyed are boiled hard, whereupon they are placed in the dye solution until thcv seem suffi- ciently colored. The dyes should be put up in waxed paper. Fast Stamping Color. — Rub up sepa- rately, 90 parts of cupric sulphate and ^0 partn of anilic hydrochlorate, then mix carefully together, after adding 10 parts of dextrin. The mixture is next ground with 5 parts of glycerine and sufficient water until a thick, uniform, paste-like mass results, adapted for use by means of stenoil and bristle-brush. Aniline bUck is formed thereby in and upon the fil>er. which is not destroyed by ooiling. New Mordanting Proccw.— The or- dinarT method of mordanting wool with a bicnromate and a reducing agent al- ways makes the fiber more or less tender, j am) .Vmend proponed to substitute the use of a solution of chromic acid contain- \ ing I to 4 per rent of the weight of the wool, at a temperature not exceeding | Cii. Dex- Aeid trin 35.0 00.0 37.5 30.0 18.0 07.5 18.0 75.0 18.0 75.0 90.0 18.0 75.0 36.0 67.5 148" F., and to treat it afterwards with a solution of sodium bisulphite. Accord- ing to a recent French patent, better results are obtained with neutral or al^t- ly basic chromium tulphocyanide. Thi« salt, if neutral or only slightly baaic, will mordant wool at liS"" P. The double sulphocyanide of chromium and smiiio- nium, got by dissolving chromic oxide io ammonium sulphocyanide, can also b«- used. Nevertheless, in order to precipe- tate chromium chromate on tlie 6 her, it is advisable to have a soluble ckromAte and a nitrate present, as well as a aoluKr copper salt and a free acid. One e\- ample of the process is as follows: Makr the oath with 2 to S per cent of ammonia*- chromium sulphocyanide, one-balf ul I per cent sodium bichromate, one-third u-f 1 per cent sodium nitrite, one-third ol I per cent sulphate of copper, and 1.5 prr cent sulphuric acid — percentages ha.'M-d on the weight of the wool. Enter coStl and slowlv beat to about 140'* to 150^ F. Then work for half an hour, lift and rin^. The bath does not exhaust and can t»e reinforced and used again. Procees for Dyeing in Khaki Colors. — Bichromate of potash or of soda, chloridr of manganese, and a solution of acetatr of soda or formiate of soda (15* Be.) mrr dissolved successively in equal quan- tities. The solution thus composed of the^^ three salts is afterwards diluted at m ill. according to the color desired, c«>d- stituting a range from a dark brown to a light ouve green ahade. The prt»p«ir- tions of the three salts may be incrra>«>«l or diminished, in order to obtain shadr« more or less bister. Cotton freed from its impurities by tbr usual methods, then fulled as ordinartl>. is immersed in the bath. After a pertiMl. varying according to the results de«irrd. the cotton, threads, or fabrics of cotton, are washed thoroughly and plunged, still wet, into an alkahne solution, off which the concentration ought never Io be le^« than 14* Be. This degree of concentra- tion is necessary to take hold off the 6l>rr when the cotton comes in contact with the alkaline bath, and by the con tract ii>o which takes place the oxides of chrom«> and of manganese remain fixed in the fibers. This second operation is followed hx washing in plenty of water, and then the cotton IS dried in the open air. Iff the color is judged to hr too pale, the thread* or fabncs are immersed again in tbe initial bath, left the necessary tim«» f«ir obtaining the desired shade, and then Digitized by VjOOQ IC DYES 277 Wished, but without passing them through an alkaline bath. This process furnishes a series of khaki colors, solid to light, to fulling and to chlorine. LAKES: Scirtet Lake.— In a vat holding 120 F&llnos provided with good agitating ap- paratus, dissolve 8 pounds potash alum ifl 10 gallons hot water and add 50 Kaflons cold water. Prepare a solution of i pounds ammonia soda and add slowly tc» the alum solution, stirring all the time. In a second vessel dissolve 5 pounds of Itnlliant scarlet aniline, by first making it ioto a paste with cold water and after- «arfU pouring boiling water over it; now Irt out steam into the vat until a temper- ature of 150* to 165* P. is obtained. NVtt dissolve 10 pounds barium chloride in 10 gallons^ hot water in a separate vi-M^l, add this very slowly, stir at least 3 hours, keeping up temperature to the «aaif figures. Pill up vat with cold water and leave the preparation for the night. N>xt morning the liquor (which should heottL bright red color) is drawn off, and (Mid water again added. Wash by de- r-autation S times, filter, press gently, and make into pulp. It i% very imoortant to precipitate the aluminum cold, and heat up before adding the dyestuff. The chemicals ('-<*d for precipitating must be added 'try slowly ana while constantly stirring. I'be quantity used for the three wasn- irifH is required each time to be double lu< quantity originally used. I.— Madder Lakes. — Prepare from thr root 1 pound best madder, alum water (1 pound alum with l\ gallons of vatrr), saturated solution or carbonate '*f potash (} pound carbonate of potash ' ■ A gallon Of water}. The madder root is inclosed in a linen hag of fine texture, and bruised with a («*'4tle in a large mortar with 2 gallons of »aler (free from lime) added in small •luantities at a time, until all the coloring .natter is extracted. Make this liquor boil, and gradually pour into the bouing %iter solution. Add the carbonate of ;«itajih solution gradually, stirring all the 'icne. Let the mixture stand for 12 hours and drop and dry as required. II.--Garanciiie Process. -^This is the iikftbod usually employed in preference f.' 'bat from the root. Garancine is pre- :«irc4 by steeping madder root in sul- phate of soda ana washing. Garancine 2 pounds Alum (dissolved in a little water) 2 pounds Chloride of tin i ounce SufiBcient carbonate of potash or soda to precipitate the alum. Boil the garancine in 4 gallons of pure water; add the alum, and continue boiling froni 1 to 2 hours. Allow the product to partially settle and filter through flannel before cooling. Add to the filtrate the chloride of tin, and sufiBcient of the pot- ash or soda solution to precipitate the alum; filter through flannel and wash well. The first filtrate ma^ be used for lake of an inferior quality,' and the Krancine originally employed ma^ also treated as above, when a lake slightly inferior to the first may be obtained. Maroon Lake. — Take of a mixture made of: Soda crystals 42 parts Alum 56 parts Extract the color from the woods as for rose pink, and next boil the soda and alum together and add to the woods solution cold. This must be washed clean before adding to the wood liquor. Carnation Lake.— Water 42 gallons Cochineal 12 pounds Salts of tartar 1 } pounds Potash alum ........ f pound Nitrous acid,^ nitro- muriate of tin 44 pounds Muriatic acid, nitro- muriate of tin 60 pounds Pure block tin, nitro- muriate of tin 22 pounds Should give specific gravity I.SIO. Boil the water with close steam, taking care that no iron touches it; add the cochineal and boil for not more than ^ve minutes; then turn off the steam and add salts of tartar and afterwards carefully add the alum.^ If it should not rise, put on steam until it does, pass through a 120-me8h sieve into a settling vat, and let it stand for 48 hours (not ^r precipita- tion). Add gradually nitromuriate of tin until the test on blotting paper (given below) shows that the separation is complete. Draw off clear water after it has settled, and filter. To test, rub a little of the paste on blotting paper, then dry on steam chest or on the hand, and if on bending it cracks, too much tin has been used. To Test the Color to See if it is Pre- cipitating.— Put a drop of color on white blotting paper, and if the color spreads, it is not precipitating. If there is a color- Digitized by VjOOQ IC «78 DYES less rine around the spot of color it shows that precipitation is taking place; if the white ring is too strong, too much has been used. BLACK LAKES FOR WALL-PAPER MANUFACTURE: Bluish-BUck Lake. —Boil well 220 parts of Domingo logwood in 1,000 parts of water to which 2 parts of am- monia soda have been addea; to the boil- ing logwood add next 25 parts of green vitriol and then S.5 parts of sodium bi- chromate. The precipitated logwood lake is washed out well twice and then filtered. Black Lake Ai.— Logwood extract, Sanford, 120 parts; green vitriol, 80 parts; acetic acid, 7® B^., 10 parts; sodium bichromate, 16 parts; powdered alum, 20 parts. The logwood extract is first dissolved in boiling water and brought to 25° Be. by the addition of cold water. Then the remaining ingredients are added in rotation, the salts in substance, finely powdered, with constant stirring. After the precipitation, wash twice and filter. Aniline Black Lake. — In the precipi- Uting vat filled with 200 parts of cold water enter with constant stirring in the order mentioned the following solutions kept in readiness: Forty parts of alum dis- solved in 800 parts of water; 10 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 100 parts of water; 30 parts of azo black dissolved in 1,500 parts of water; 0.6 parts of "brilliant green* dissolved in 100 parts of water; 0.24 parts of new fuchsine dissolved in 60 parts of water; 65^ parts of barium chloride dissolved in 1,250 parts of water. Allow to settle for 24 hours, wash the lake three times and filter it. Carmine Lake for Wall. Paper and Colored Papers. —Ammonia soda (98 per rent), 57.5 parts by weight; spirits (96 per cent), 40 parts by weight; corallin (dark), 10 parts by weignt; corallin (pale), 5 parts by weight; spirit of sal anunoniac (16** Be.), 8 parts by weight; so- dium phosphate, 30 parts by weight; stan- nic chloriue, 5 parts by weight; barium chloride, 75 parts by weight. Dissolve the corallin in the spirit, and filter the solution carefully into eight bottles, each containing 1 part of the above quantitv f>f spirit of sal ammoniac, and let stand. The soda should meanwhile be dissolved 111 hot water and^ the solution run into the stirrine vat, in which there is cold water to the height of 17 inches. Add the sodium phosphate, which has been dissolved in a copper vessel, then the corallin solution, and next the stannic chloride diluted with 3 pailfuls of mbi water. Lastly the barium chloride m>Iu- tion is added. The day previous barium chloride is dissolved in a cask in as little boiling water as possible, and the recep- tacle IS filled entirely with cold watrr. On the day following, allow the %amr to run in slowly durinf^ a period of thn-^ fourths of an'hour, stir tin evening. allo« to settle for 2 days, draw off and filter. English Pink.— Quercitron bark. . . . 200 part* Lime 10 part^ Alum 10 part* Terra alba 300 part^ Whiting 200 part* Sugar of lead 7 part» Put the bark into a tub, slake lime in another tub, and add the clear limewAl< r to wash the bark; repeat this 3 timr». letting the bark stand in each watrr t $ hours. Run liquor into the tub Fm-Io* and add the terra alba and whttin);. wash well in the top tub and run into liquor below through a hair sieve, stirnt.t: wcU. Dissolve the sugar of lead in warm water and pour gently into the tub, stir- ring all the time; then dissolve the alum and run in while stirring: press slight] .«. drop, and dry as required. Dutch Pink.— I, — Quercitron bark.. . 200 partii Lime 20 part» Alum 20 part5b Whiting 100 part^ Terra alba 200 partii W^hite sugar of lead 10 parts II. — Quercitron bark. . . SOO part.« Lime 10 part« Alum 10 parl^f Terra alba 400 partji Whiting 100 part* Sugar of lead 7 part« Put the bark into a tub with < M water, slake 28 pounds of lime, and .>•:-. the limewater to the bark. (This drA<«. ^ all the color out of the wood.) DU.arL liquor. The alum solution must lie iict warm. Dissolve sugar of lead and a<1«i t to above, and afterwards add the trrrj alba and whiting. The pro« the boiling Doint while working the goods in the dye bath. DYEING SILK OR COTTOH FABRICS WITH ANILIHE DTES: Aniline Blue on Cotton.— Prepare a dye bath by dissolving 1 pound of ani- line blue (soluble in spirit) in 10 gallons of water, and set it aside to settle Meanwhile prepare a mordant whtlr boiling S5 ounces of sumac (or .>4 ounces tannic acid in SO gallons of water ) and then dissolve therein 17 ounces «»f curd soap. Boil up and filter. Put the cotton goods in the hot liquid and Irt them remain therein for H hours. Then wring them out and make up a dve hath of 2f» Tw. with red liquor. A'dd dyr color according to the shade de«irre weU stirred up and thoroughly mixed with the exhausted bath. Brown Shades. — Bismarck brown will irive good results, particularly if the dyed goods are afterwards steeped or pajsea through a weak solution (pale straw color) of bichromate of potash. This will give a substantial look to the color. Any of the aniline colors suitable for cotton or wool, or those suited for mixed cotton and wool goods may be used. Blue. — Use either China blue, dense ferry blue, or serge blue, first making the material acid before dyeing. Green. — Use brilliant green and have the material neutral, i. e., neither acid nor alkali; or else steep in a bath of sumac before dyeing. Plum Color. — Use maroon (neutral or acid) and work in an acid bath or else sumac. Black. — Use ne^rosin in an acid bath, or else mordant in two salts and dye slightly acid. Soluble Blue, Ball Blue, etc.— A solu- ble blue has for many years been readily obtainable in commerce which is similar in appearance to Prussian blue, but, un- like tne latter, is freely soluble in water. This blue is said to be potassium ferri- ferrocyanide. To prepare instead of buving it ready made, gradually add to a boinng solu- tion of potassium ferricyanide (red prus- siate of potash) an equivalent quantitv of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boil- ing for 2 hours and washine the precip- itate on a filter until the wasnings assume a dark-blue color. The moist precipitate can at once be dissolved by tne further addition of a sufficient cfuantitjjr of water. About 64 parts of the iron salt is neces- sary to convert 100 parts of the potassium salt into the blue compound. If the blue is to be sent out in the liquid form, it is desirable that the solu- tion should be a perfect one. To attain that end the water employed should be free from mineral substances, and it is best to filter the solution through several thicknesses of fine cotton cloth before bottling; or if made in large ouantities this method may be modified bv allow- ing it to stand some days to settle, when the top portion can be siphoned off for use, the Dottom only requiring filtration. The ball blue sold tor laundry use consists of ultramarine. Balls or tablets of this substance are formed by mixing it with glucose or glucose and dextrin, and pressing into shape. When glucose alone is used, the product has a tendency to become soft on keeping, which tend- ency may be counteracted by a proper proportion of dextrin. Bicarbonate of sodium is added as a filler to cheapen the product, the Quantity used and the quality of the ultramarine employed being both regulated by the price at whicn the product is to sell. New Production of Indigo.— Forty parts of a freshly prepared ammonium sulphide solution containing 10 per cent Digitized by VjOOQ IC 282 DYEING— EGGS of hvdrogen sulphide are made to flow quickly and witn constant stirring into a heated solution of 20 parts of isatine anilide in 60 parts of alcohol. With spontaneous heating and temporary green and blue coloration, an immediate separation of indigo in small crystalline needles of a faint cop|>er luster takes place. Boil for a short time, whereupon the indigo is filtered off, re washed with alcohol, and dried. To Dye Feathers. — A prerequisite to the dyeing of feathers appears to be soft- ening them, which is sometimes accom- plished by soaking thena in warm water, and sometimes an alkali, such as ammo- nium or sodium carbonate, is added. This latter method would apparently be preferable on account of the removal of any greasy matter that may be present. When so prepared the feathers may be dyed by immersion in any^ dye liquor. An old-time recipe for black is immersion in a bath of ferric nitrate suitably diluted with water, and then in an infusion of equal parts of logwood and quercitron. Doubtless an aniline dye would prove equally efficient and would be leas trou- blesome to use. After dyeing, feathers are dipped in an emulsion formed by agitating any bland fixed oil with water containing a little potassium carbonate, and are then dried Dv gently swinging them in warm air. This operation gives the gloss. Curling where required is effected by slightly warming the feathers before a fire, and then stroking with a blunt me- tallic edge, as the back of a knife. A certain amount of manual dexterity is necesnary to carry the whole procens to a siiccesjiful ending. DTES FOR FOOD: See Foods. DTES FOR LEATHER: See Leather. DYE STAINS, THEIR FROM THE SKIN: REMOVAL See Cleaning Preparations aud Meth- ods. DYNAMITE: See Explosives, EARTHENWARE: See Ceramics. EAU DE QUININE: iir Preparations. See Hair . EAU DE VIE ALLEMANDE: See Wines and Liquors. EAU ROYALE: See Wines and Liquors. EBONY: See Wood. EBONY LACQUER: See Lacquers. ECZEMA DUSTING POWDER FOR CHILDREN. Starch, French chalk. lyeopi»dium. of each, 40 parts; bismuth subnitratr. i parts; salicvlic acid, 9 parts; menth**!. I part. Apply freely to tne affected part«. Eggs The age of e^gs may be approxiroatrlc judged bv taking advantaj^e of the f«i*l that as tney grow old their densit> «Ar- creases through evaporation of moi«turr. According to Siebel. a new-laid rgg placed in a vessel of brine made in thr proportion of ^ ounces of salt to 1 pint «>f water, will at once sink to the bottom. An egg 1 day old will sink below tbr surface, but not to the bottom, while onr S days old will swim just immersed in the liquid. If more than 3 days old thr egg will float on the surface, the amount of shell exposed increasing with age; and if 2 weeks old, only a little of the shell will dip in the liquid. The New York State Experiment St* tion studied the changes in the spei-ihr gravity of the eggs on keeping and fount I that on an average fresh eggs had a specific gravity of 1.090; after they mrtf 10 days old, of 1.072; after 20 day«. «»r 1.053; and after 30 days, of 1.033. Tbr XvHt was not continued further. Tbr changes in specific gravity correspond t<» the changes in water content. When eggs arc kept thev continually lose watc-r by evaporation through the pores in tbr Shell. After 10 days the average !«>%• was found to be 1.60 per cent uf thr total water present in the egg when prr> fectly fresh; after 20 days. S. 16 per ci-nt; and after 30 days, 5 per cenU The a« rr- age temperature of the room where thr eggs were kept was 63.H' F. The emp- oration was found to increase somewhat with increased temperature. None «! the eggs used in the 30-dav test spoile«i. Pri'Mh efff^s are preserved in a nttnilirr of ways wnirh may, for convenience, lie ffrouped under two general classes: ' 1 1 Use of low temperature, i. e.. cold stor- age; and (2) excliidin|( the air by coating. covering, or immersing the egg«, stioir material or solution being u«ed whirh may or may not be a germic*ide. Thr two methods are often combined. Thr Digitized by VjOOQ IC EGGS 288 hrst method owes its value to the fact that microorganisms, like larger forms of plsnt life, will not grow below a cer- tain temperature, the necessary degree of cold vsrying with the species. So far as nperiment shows, it is impossible to kill \\\fse minute plants, popularly called "bacteria" or "germs," by any aegree of f^*U; and so, very low temperature is uiinect'ssary for preserving eggs, even if >t were not undesirable for other reasons, *(irh as injury by freezing and in- nrascM-4. Water glass is coinmonly sold in tAu forms, a syrup-thick liquid of about the consistency of molasses, and a pow- «i«T. The thick syrup, the form perhaps nii»»i usually seen, is sometimes sold wholesale as low as If cents per pound in rarlioy lots. The retail price varies, 'bough 10 cents per pound, according to tbe North Dakota Experiment Station, *^ems to be the price commonly asked. Art ording to the results obtained at this •tation a solution of the desired strength for ^)rrserving eggs may be made by Sis- Milv)D|( 1 part of the syrup-thick water cia«H in 10 parts, by measure, of water, if the water-glass powder is used, less is rf«{uirrd for a given quantity of water, ^lurb of the water glass offered for sale t« lery alkaline. Such material should not )»e used, as the eggs preserved in it «»ll not keep well. Only pure water '«ti*»uld be used in making the solution, :-imJ it is best to boil it and cool it before tilling with the water glass. The solution should be carefully [••ured over the eggs packed in a suit- ntilr vessel, which must be clean and «vprl. and if wooden ke^s or barrels are •urd they should be thoroughly scalded l«'(««re packing the eggs in them. The p«cke effectually that at the end of three anr perfectly fresh. In most packed eggs tbr yolk settles to one side, and the egg i<* then inferior in qualitv. In eggs prr- served in water glass tne yolk reiatnnJ its normal position in the eg|p, and io taste they were not to be dtstinguisbni from fresli, unpacked store egga. Of twenty methods tested in Geman>. the three which proved most effertiie were coating the eggs with vaseline. prr> serving them in lime water, and preserrtQC them in water glass. The conclusion was reached that the last is preferable, he- cause varnishinff the egga with va^ri'tnt takes consaderable time, and treatiait them with limewater is likdj to give tbe eggs a limy flavor. Digitized by VjOOQ IC EGGS— EKTOGAN 286 Other methods follow: I.-— Eggs can be preserved for winter iiftc bj coating them, when perfectly fifjih, with paraffine. As the spores of fungi get into eggs almost as soon as thfj arc laid, it is necessary to rub every ffX with chloroform or wrap it a few minutes in a chloroform soaked rag be-* fore dipping it into the melted paraffine. If only a trace of the chloroform enters the »hd! the development of such germs as (oay have gained access to freshly laid ^xv:^ 18 prevented. The paraffine coating f\cludes all future contamination from pprm-laden air, and with no fungi grow- ini? within, they retain their freshness and QAtural taste. IL— Preserrmg with Lime. — Dissolve in each gallon of water 12 ounces of 3uicklime, 6 ounces of common salt, 1 nchm of soda, } drachm saltoeter, } drmchm tartar, ana 1 i drachms oi borax. The fluid is brought into a barrel and sufficient quicklime to cover the bottom i« then poured in. Upon this is placed a layer or eggs, quicklime is again thrown iu and so on until the barrel is filled so that the liquor stands about 10 inches fjrep over the last layer of eggs. The Urrel is then covered with a cloth, upon which is scattered some lime. III. — Melt 4 ounces of clear beeswax Ifl t porcelain dish over a gentle fire, and «>tir m 8 ounces of olive oil. Let the dilution of wax in oil cool somewhat, then (lip the fresh eggs one by one into it so as to coat every part of the shell. A iuiltiig, etc. :^ome object to this on the ground that »iilxihuric acid is a dangerous poison. that might, on occasion, penetrate the shell. V. — Take about half a dozen eggs and place them in a netting (not so many as would chill the water Delow the boiling point, even for an instant), into a boiling solution of boric acid, withdraw imme- diately, and pack. Or put up, in oil, carrying ft per cent or 8 per cent of sali- cylic acid. Eggs treated in this way are said to taste, after six months, absolutely as fresh as they were when first put up. The eggs should be as fresh as possible, and should be thoroughly clean before dipping. The philosophy of the process is that the dipping in Doiling boric acid solution not only kills all bacteria exist- ing on, or in, the shell and membrane, but reinforces these latter by a very thin layer of coagulated albumen; while the packing in salicylated oil prevents the admission of fresh germs irom the at- mosphere. Salicylic acid is objected to on tne same grounds as sulphuric acid. VI. — Dissolve sodium silicate in boil- ing water, to about the consistency of a syrup (or about Ipart of the silicate to 8 parts water). Tne eggs should be as fresh as possible, and must be thoroughly clean. They should be immersed in the solution in such manner that every part of each egg is covered with the liquid, tnen removed and let dry. If the solution is kept at or near the boiling temperature, the preservative effect is said to dc much more certain and to last longer. EGG ALBUMEN, PREPARATION OF, FROM ALBUMEN -CONTAINING SUBSTANCES: See Albumen. EGG CHOCOLATE: See Beverages. EGG DYES: See Dyes. EGG. LEMONADE: See Beverages, under Lemonade. EGG PHOSPHATE: See Beverages. EGG-STAIN REMOVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. EGGS, TESTS FOR: See Foods. EIKONOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography. EKTOGAN: See Antiseptics. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 286 ELECTROPLATING AND ELECn'ROTVTING ELAINE SUBSTITUTE. A substitute for elaine for woolen yarns is obtained by boiling 4 pounds carrageen moss in 25 gallons water for 8 hours. The soda is then put in and the boiling continued for another Iialf hour; 2 pounds fleabane seeds are gradually added, and a little water iio make up for the evaporation. After a further 1^ hours boiling, the extract is passed through a fine sieve and well mixed with 25 pounds cottonseed oil, 12) pounds sweet oil, and 12} pounds ammonia solution of 0.96 specific gravity. Next day stir in 25 pounds saponified elaine and 13 pounds of odorless petroleum of 0.885 specific gravity. The resulting emulsion keeps well, dissolves perfectly in lukewarm water, and answers its pur- pose excellently. ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES: See Plating. ELECTRpLTSIS IN BOaERS: See Boiler Compounds. Electroplating and Electro- typing (See also Plating.) PROCESS OF ELECTROPLATING. First, clean the articles to be plated. To remove grease, warm the pieces be- fore a slow fire of charcoal or coke, or in a dull red stove. Delicate or soldered articles should be boiled in a solution of caustic potash, the latter being dissolved in 10 times its weight of water. The scouring bath is composed of 100 parts of water to from 5 to 20 parts of sulphuric acid. The articles may be »ut in hot and should be left in the )ath till the surface turns to an ocher red tint. The articles, after having been cleansed of grease by the potash solution, must be washed in water and rinsed before being scoured. Copper or glass tongs must then be used for moving the articles, as they must not afterwards be handled. For small^ pieces, suitable earthenware or porcelain strainers may be used. The next stage is the spent nitric acid bath. This consists of nitric acid weak- ened by previous use. The articles are left in until the red color disappears, so that after rinsing they show a uniform metallic tint. The rinsing should be thoroughly carried out. Having been well shaken and drained, the articles arc next subjected to the t stronff nitric acid bath, which is made up as follows: Nitric acid of 36^ Be. . 100 volumes Chloride of sodium (common salt) 1 volume Calcined soot (lamp- black) 1 volutne The articles must be immersed in thi<» bath for only a few seconds. Avoid ci^ rr- heating or using too cold a l>ath. Tlir> are next rinsed Uioroughly with cold «at-r and are again subjected to a strong nit^w acid bath to give them a bright or il*.i\ appearance as required. To produce a bright finish, pluiic>' them for a few seconds (moving th«-nt about rapidlv at the same time) in a ld wat the brightening bath and rinsing quick 1 1 . The pieces are next treated with tl.r nitrate of mercury bath for a few sec«>oiiv Plain water 10,000 part* Nitrate of mercury 10 part« Sulphuric acid 20 part* It is necessarv to stir this l>ath befor*' using it. For large articles the pmpair tion of mercury should be greater. .\n article badly cleaned will ct»me out lo various shades and lacking its mrtalli< brightness. It is better to throw a sprnt bath away than attempt to strengthen it The various pieces, after having pa.««<«1 through these several processes, are th«-E. ready for the plating bath. A few words on the subject of fildtni: may not be amiss. Small articles are giUbii hot, large ones cold. The cold cyan it.'* of gold and potassium bath is compu*M-«j as follows: Distilled water 10,000 parU Pure cvanide of po- tassium 200 parts Pure gold 100 part% The gold, trannformed into rhloh^in^ kept continually in motion. With excess of current the pieces be- come grav, and blacken. In the cold bath anodes of platinum or silver should br employed. Old baths are, in this CAM*, preferable to new. They may, if ret|uired, be artificially aged by the addi- tion of 1 or 2 parts in 1,000 of liquid am- monia. If the anode blackens, the bath is too weak. If it becomes white, there is too much current, and the deposit, being too rapid, does not adhere. The deposit may li** taken as normal and regular when the anode becomes gray during the passage <»r the current and white again when it r (*A aration of the molci. The substance originally used for the construction of this was plaster of Paris. This sub- stance is, nowever, porous and must be rendered impermeaole. The materials most commonly used of later years are stearine, wax, marine glue, gelatin, India rubber, and fusible alloys. With hollow molds it is a good plan to arrange an internal skeleton of platinum, for ultimate connection with tne anodes, in order to secure a good electrical contact with all parts of the mold. When cov- ering several pieces at once, it is as well to connect each of them with the negative Sole by an iron or lead wire of suitable imensions. Having prepared the molds in the usual way — by obtaining an impression in the material when soft, and allowing it to set — they should be given a metallic coating on their active surfaces of pure powdered plumbago applied witn a polishing brush. For delicate and intricate objects, the wet process is most suitable. It consists in painting the object with two or more coats of nitrate of silver and ultimately reducing it by a solution of phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon. The plating baths are prepared as follows: A quantity of water is put in a jar and to it IS added from 8 to 10 parts in 100 of sulphuric acid, in small quantities, stirring continually in order to disMipate the heat generated by the admixture of acid and water. Sulphate of copper (bluestone) is then uiasolvcd in the acidulated water at the normal tempera- ture until it will take up no more. The solution is always nsed cold and must be maintained in a saturated condition hy the addition of copper sulphate crystals or suitable anodes. For use it should be poured into vessels of clay, porcelain, glass, hard brown earthenware, or india rubber. For large baths wood ma^' l>e u.sed, lined on the interior with an impervious coating of acid-proof cement, india rubber, marine glue, or even varnished lead sheets. If the solution be too weak and the current on the other hand be too strong, the resulting deposit will l>e of a black color. If too concentrated a solution and too weak a current be emplovcd, a crystalline deposit is obtained, i'o in- sure a perfect result, a happy medium in all things is necessary. During the process of deposition, the pieces should be moved about in the bath as much as possible in order to preserve the homogeneity of the liquid. If thi« be not attended to, stratification and circulation of the liquid is produced bv the decomposition of the anode, and is rendered visible by the appearance of long, vertical lines on the cathode. For amateurs and others performing small and occasional experiments, the following simple apparatus will be jner- viceable. Place the solution of sulphate of copper in an earthenware or porcelain jar, in the center of which is a porous pot containing amalgamated zinc and a solu- tion of sulphuric acid and water, about 2 or 3 parts in 100. At the top of the zinc a brass rod is fixed, supporting a circle of the same metal, the diaroHer of which is between that of the containing vessel and the porous pot. From thi% metallic circle the pieces are suspendrti in such a manner that the parts to l>e covered are turned toward the por<>u» pot. Two small horsehair bags fillrda in 1 40 parts of water by the aid of hcmt. When the solution is cold, drop carbolic acid into it until it becomes opalescent, and finally add water until tbf finished product measures 700 parts. III. — Salicylic acid. ... 4 drachms Boric acid 5 drachms Potassium c a r - bonate 1 drachm Oil of cinnamon. 3 drachms Oil of cloves 3 drachms Glycerine 5 ounces Alcohol 12 ounces Hot water 12 ounces Dissolve the first 3 ingredients in the water and glycerine, tne oils in the alcohol, and mix the solutions. I v.— Thymol 15 grains Alcohol i ounce Glycerine 10 ounces Water 5 ounces v.— Cooking salt 500 parts .\lum _. . . . 750 parts Arsenious acid. . . 350 parts Zinc chloride. . . . 120 parts Mercury chloride 90 parts Formaldehyde solution, 40 per cent 6,000 parts Water, up to 24,000 parts \l. — Arsenious acid ... . 860 grains Mercuric chloride . 1 \ ounces Alcohol 9 ounces Sol. ac. carbolic, 5 percent 120 ounces From 10 to 12 pints are injected into th^ carotid artery — at first slowly and af trrwards at intervals of from 15 to 30 minutes. EXBROIDERT, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- E3CERALD (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial. E3CERT: Emefj Grinder. — Shellac, melted to- father with emery and fixed to a short melal rod. forms the grinder used for opening the boles in enameled watch dials and similar work. The grinder is gen- erally rotated with the thumb and K>re- finger, and water is used to lubricate its cutting part, which soon wears away. The grinder is reshaped by heating the shellac and molding the mass while it is in a plastic condition. Preparing Emery for Lapping. — To prepare emery for lapping screw-gages, plugs, etc., fill a half-pint bottle with machine oil and flour emery, 7 parts oil to 1 part emery, by bulk. Mix thoroughly and let stand for 20 minutes to settle. Take the bottle and pour off one-half the contents without disturbing the settlings. The portion poured off contains only the finest emery and will never scratch the work. For surface lapping put some flour emery in a linen bag and tie up closely with a string. Dust out the emery by striking the bag against the surface plate; use turpentine for rough lapping and the dry surface plate for finishing. Removing Glaze from Emery Wheels. —If the wheel is not altogether too hard, it can sometimes be remedied by reduc- ing the face of the wheel to about | inch, or by reducing the speed, or bv both. Emery wheels should be turnea off so that thev will run true before using. A wheel that glazes immediately aner it has been turned off, can sometimes be corrected by loosening the nut, and al- lowing the wheel to assume a slightly different position, when it is again tight- ened. Emery Substitute. — For making arti- ficial emery, 1,634 parts of the following substances may be employed: Seven hun- dred and fifty-nine parts of bauxite, 700 parts of coke, and 96 parts of a flux, which may be a carbonate of lime, of potash, or of soda, preferably carbonate of lime on account of its low price. These ma- terials are arranged m alternate layers and fused in an oven having a good draught. They are said to yield an arti- ficial emery similar to the natural emery of Smyrna and Naxos, and at low cost. EMULSIFIERS: Rosin Soao as an Emulsifier. — The soap should be made by boiling gently for 2 hours, in an evaporating dish, a mixture of 1,800 grains rosin and 300 caustic soda with 20 fluidounces water. Upon cooling, the soap separates as a yellow mass, which is drained from the Uquid, squeezed, then heated on a water bath until it is dry and friable. Fixed oils may be emulsified by adding 1 ounce Digitized by VjOOQ IC 290 EMULSIFIERS— ENAMELING to a solution of 10 grains soap in 1 ounce water. Volatile oils require 10 grains rosin soap, 2} ounces water, and 2' drachms oil. Creosote requires double this amount of soap. Thymol may be rendered miscible with water by dis- solving 18 srains together with 20 grains soap in 3 nuidounces alcohol, then add- ing enough water to make 6 fluidounces. Of course many other substances may be emulsified with the same emulsifier. Yolk of Egg as an Emulsifier.— The domestic ointment of Unona, consisting of a mixture of oil and yolk of egg, is mis- cible in all proportions with water. It is |>roposed to utilize this fact by substitu- ting a diluted ointment for the gum emulsions in general use, the following being given as a general formula: Yolk of egg 10 parts Balsam Peru 1 to 2 parts Zinc oxide 5 to 10 parts Distilled water 100 parts If desired, 83 parts of vinegar may be substituted for the same amount of water, while oil of cade, oil of birch, lianthral or storax may be substituted for the balsam Peru, and an equal quantity of talc, mag- nesium carbonate, sulphur of bismuth subcarbonate, may be introduced in place of the oxide of zinc. A further variation in the character of the liquid may be introduced by the use of medi- cated or perfumed waters instead of the plain distilled water. Where so diluted, as in the above formula, the ^olk of egg separates out after long standing, but the mixture auickly reemulsifics upon shaking. Tar and balsams can be emulsified by mixing with double their quantity of yolk o^ ^KK* then diluting by the addition of small quantities of water or milk. Emulgen. — This emulsifying agent has the following c ulated that their capacities of expansion and contraction are approximately thr same, inferior work will be prod'uc«-«i. Oxide of iron on the surface of the plalr-^. inferior chemicals, incorrect nii\in^%. insufficient or overheating in the pro«-v-«>-« of fusing, prevent that cheroicaJ coinl»i- nation which is essential to suc^^smful enameling. The coatings will l»e laid on and not combined, with the result that there will be inequalities in expanHi«»n and contraction which will cause the enamel to chip off immediately if »ul»- mitted to anything approaching n«uirh usage, and in a very short time if »«jl». mitted to chemical or ordinary atmo^- pheric conditions. The manufacture of si|p tablets i« the simplest form to which this important art is adapted. Sign-tablet rnamelinK i«. however, kept as great a secret a« ati% other type. This branch of the induatrV Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 291 h divided up as follows: (I) Setting the piateif; (i) scaling and pickling the plates; 1 3) mixing the enamel constituents; (4) torltiog the enamel constituents; (5) grind- iDj^the enamel constituents; (6) applying the enamel; (7) drying the enamel coat- loffs; (S) fusing the enamel on the ar- tide«: (9) lettering — ^including alphabet- ical and other drawing, spacing, and artistic art in arrangement; (10) stencil rutting on paper and^ stencij metal; • U ) brushing ; ( 1 2) refusing. Distinctive branches of this work have distinctive 'xpcrts, the arrangement being generally ;i!i follows: Nos. 1 and 2 may or may not he combined; Nos. 3 and 5 may or may Dot t>c combined; Nos. 4, 7, 8, and 12 Ifcnrrally combined; No. 6 generally tlie *«»rk of girls; Nus. 9 and 10 generally com- bine!; No. 11 generally the work of girls antj boys. The twelve processes, there- fore, require six classes of trained work- pruplc, and incompetence or carelessness 4t any section can only result in impcr- irvi plates or "wasters.** A brief description of these processes will enable the reader to understand the more detailed and technical description to !'• Jlow, and is, therefore, not out of place. Ordinary iron sheets will do for the man- ufacture of sign tablets; but a specially prepHred charcoal plate can be had at a •ii;jhtly increased price. The latter type i^ the best, for in many cases the scaling And pickling may, to a certain extent, be •'i-peiised with. To make this article, rj<»«ever, as complete as possible, we ^H.dl begin from tne lowest rung of the manufacturing ladder — i. e., from the tir'^t steps in the working of suitable iron. I.— Setting. — The plates may be re- I'f'i^pd in sheets, and cut to the required *ixe at the enameling factory, or, wnat is more general, received in sizes according to specification. The former are more iuble to have buckled slightly or become «i«*nted, and have to be restored to a ♦nicKith and uniform surface by ham- tn»*ring on a flat plate. The operation *• •»ms simple, but an inexperienced oper- ator may entirely fail to produce the de- *iTt^ result, and, if he docs succeed, it is « ith the expenditure of a great amount of lime. An expert setter with compara- tively few and well-directed strokes brings art imperfect plate into truth and in readi- Dc-s.« for the next operation. II.— Scaling and Pickling.— The an- n«»nling of the sheets in special furnaces lMo«4'n8 the scale, which can then be r^iMly removed, after which immersion Inr ioine time in diluted sulphuric or ttiuriatic acid thoroughly cleans the plate. Firing to a red heat follows, and then a generous course of scrubbing, and the last traces of acid are removed by dip- ping in boiling soda solution. Scouring with sand and washing in clean water may follow, and the metal has then a per- fect and chemically clean surface. III. — ^Mixing the Enamel Constitu- ents.— Ground, foundation, or gray. — All articles, whether hollow ware or plates, are operated upon in a very similar manner. Both require the foun- dation coating generally called "gray." The gray constituents vary considerably in different manufactures; but as regards the use of lead, it is universally con- ceded that while it mav in many in- stances be used with advantag[e in the enameling of sign tablets, etc., it should under no circumstances be introduced into the coating of articles for culinary purposes, or in which acids are to be used. The first successful commercial composition of this covering was: Cullet (broKen glass), carbonate of soda, and boracic acid. This composition re- mained constant for manv years, but ultimately gave place to the following: Cullet, red lead, borax, niter. The borax and red lead form the fluxes, while the niter is to "purify** the mass. Some of the later mixings consist of the follow- ing: Silica powder, crvstallized or cal- cium borax, white leaa, fused together. This would be called a frit, and with it should be pulverized powdered silica, clay, magnesia. This recipe is one re- quiring a very high temperature for fusing: Silica powder, borax, fused and ground with silica, clay, magnesia. This reauires a slightly low:er temperature: Frit of silica powder, borax, feldspar, fused together, and then ground with clay, feldspar, and magnesia. The approximate quantities of each constituent will be given later, but it must always be remembered^ that no hard-and-fast line can be laid down. Chemicals vary in purity, the furnaces vary in temperature, the pounding, grind- ing, and mixing are not always done alike, and each of these exerts a certain influence on the character of the "melt.** These compositions may be applied to the metal either in the form of a powder or of a liquid. Some few years ago the powder coating was in general use, but at the present time the liquid form is in favor, as it is considered^ easier of ap- plication, capable of giving a coating more uniform in thickness and less costly. In using the powder coating the plate is rubbed with a cloth dipped in a gum Digitized by VjOOQ IC 292 ENAMELING solution, and the |>owder then carefully dusted throu|;h a sieve over the surface. In this condition the plate is submitted to the fusing process. In using the lic][uid material the plate surface is cTipped into or has the liquid mixing caref uUv poured over it, any surplus being drained off, and any parts which are not to be coated being wiped clean by a cloth. The coating is then dried in suitable stoves, after which it is ready for fusing on to the iron. The gray coating should be fairly uniform and smooth, free from holes or blisters, and thoroughly covering every part of the iron which IS to be subjected to any outside influence. Cooling slowly is important. Rapid cooling frequently causes cnipping of the coating, and in any case it will greatly reduce the tenacity of the con- nection existing between the glaze and the metal. Generally the next surface is a white one, and it depends upon the class of article, the character of the enamels, and the efliciency of application, whether one coat or two will be required. Rough- ly speaking, the coating is composed of a glass to which is added oxide of tin, oxide of lead, or .some other suitable opaque white chemical. The mixture must be so constituted as to fuse at a lower temperature than the foundation covering. If its temperature of fusion were the same the result would be that the gray would melt on the iron and become incorporated with the white, thus loosening the attachment of the mass to the iron and also destroying the purity of the white itself. Bone ash is sometimes used, as it becomes uniformly distributed throughout the melt, and re- mains in suspension instead of settling. Bone ash and oxide of lead are, however, in much less demand than oxide of tin. The lead is especially falling into dis- favor, for the fojiowing reasons: Firstly, it requires special^ and laborious treat- ment; secondly, it (^ives a yellowish- white color; thirdly, it cannot resist the action of acids. The following is a recipe which was in very general use for some years: Glass (cullet), powdered flint, lead, soda (crystals), niter, arsenic. Another consists of the following: Borax, glass, silica powder, oxide of tin, niter, soda, magnesia, clay. These are fused tof^ether, and when being ground a mixture of Nos. 1, 8, 7, and boracic acid is added. Enamel mixings containing glass or china are now generally in use, although for several years the experience of man- ufacturers using glass was not satisfac- tory Improved compositions and work- ing now make this constituent a most useful, and, in fact, an almost essential element. The glass should be white broken glass, and as uniform in char- acter as possible, .as colored glass wouUI impart a tinge of its own color to the mixing. The following are two di-stinct glazes which do not contain glass or porcelain: Feldspar, oxide of tin, niter, soda. This is free from any poisonous boilv and re- quires no additions: Silica powder. o\iMsis. Borax has also the property of thorough- ly di.stributing oxide colors in the enamels. Claj. — Only a fairly pure clay can be used in enamel mixings, and the varieties of clay available are therefore limited. The two best are pipe^-or white — clay and china clay— kaolin. The latter 1% purer than the former, and in addition tu acting as a flux, it is used to increase the viscosity of mixings and therefore the opacity. It is used in much the same way as oxide of tin. Cryolite.— Ground cryolite is a white mineral, easily fusible, and sometimes used in enamel mixings. It is elosiely associated with aluminum. Cullct.— -This is the general material used as a basis. Clear glass only should be introduced; and as the compositions of glass vary greatly, small experimental frits should always be made to arrive at the correct quantity to be added. Feldspar.— The introduction of feld- spar into an enamel frit increasri^ ntn- sistcncy. The common white variety 1% Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 293 l^neraUy used, and its preliminary treat- ment by pounding is similar to that adopted with quartz. Fluor'-Spar. — In this mineral we have Another flux, which fuses at a red heat. Fluxes. — These are for the purpose of regulating the temperature of fusion of a mixing— frit — some being better adapted for this purpose than others. This, how- ever, is not the only consideration, for the character of the flux depends upon the composition or chemical changes to which the ingredients are to be subjected. The fluxes are borax, clays, cuUet, porcelain, feldspar, gypsum, and fluor- spar. Glass. — Glass is composed of lime, si- lirio acid, and soda or potash. The use of the glass is to form the hard, crystal-like foundation. Gvpsum. — This mineral is sometimes used in conjunction with baryta and fluor-spar. Lead. — Crystallized carbonate of lead, or **lead white,'* is frequently used in enamels when a low temperature for fusion is required. It should never be used on articles to be submitted to chem- iral action, or for culinary^ use. Minium is a specially prepared oxide of lead, and suitable for enameling purposes, but is expensive. Lime. — Lime is in the form of carbon- ate of calcium when used. Magnesium Carbonate is used only in small c|uantities in enamel mixings. It necessitates a higher temperature for fusion, but does not affect the color to the slightest extent if pure. Manganese. — As a decolorant, this minrral is very powerful, and therefore onl3r small quantities must be used. Purity of the mineral is essential — i. e., it should contain from 95 to 08 per cent of binoxide of manganese. Hiter. — At a certain temperature niter xhuwa a chemical change, which, when affected by some of the other constitu- ents, assists in the formation of the vitre- ous baae. Porcelain.— Broken uncolored porce- lain ia sometimes used in enamel man- ufacture. Its composition: Quartz, china day, and feldspar. It increases viM-ofiity. Red Lead. — This decolorant is some- times called purifier. It will, however, interfere witn certain coloring media, and when this is the case its use should at on<*e be discontinued. SOicic Add. — Quartz, sand, rock crys- tal, and flint stone are all forms of this acid in crystallized form. By itself it is practically infusible, but it can be incor- porated with other materials to form mixings requiring varying temperatures for fusion. Soda. — The soda in general use is car- bonate of soda — 58 per cent — or enamel- ing soda. The latter is specially pre- pared, so as to free it almost entirely from iron, and admit of the production of a pure white enamel when such is re- quired. Tin Ozide.-^AU enamels must contain white ingredients to produce opacity, and the most generally used is oxide of tin. By itself it cannot be fused, but with proper manipulation it becomes diffused throughout the enamel mass. On the quantity added depends the denseness or degree of opacity imparted to the enamel. It will be understood that the enamel constituents are divided into four dis- tinct groups : I. Fundamental media. II. Flux niedia. III. Decolorant media. IV. Coloring media. We have briefly considered the three first named, and we will now proceed to No. I V. The color- ing material used is in every case a metallic oxide, so that, so far as this goes, the coloring of an enamel frit is easy enough. Great care is, however, neces- sary, and at times many difficulties present themselves, which can only be overcome by experience. Coloring ox- ides are verv frequently adulterated, and certain kinds of the adulterants are in- jurious to the frit and to the finish of the color. Comparison of Hollow Ware and Sign- Tablet JBnameling.— The enameling for sign tablets is much the same as for hollow ware; the mixings are practically alike, but, as a general rule, the mixing is applied in a much more liauid form on the latter. It is easy to unaerstand that hollow ware in everyday use receives rougher usage than tablets. By handling, it is submitted to compression, expansion, and more or less violence due to falls, knocks, etc., and unless, therefore, the enamel coating follows the changes of the metal due to these causes, the con- nection between the two will become loosened and chipping will take place. The enamel, tnerefore, thougn much alike for both purposes, should be so prepared for honow ware that it will be capable of withstanding the changes to which we have referred. In all cases it must be remembered that the thinner the coat of the enamel the better it will be Digitized by VjOOQ IC 294 ENAMELING distributed over the iron, and the greater will be its adherence to the iron. Any article heavily enameled is alwavs liable to chip, especially if submitted to the slightest bending action, and therefore any excess of material added to a plate means that it will always be readily liable to separate from tne plate. In hollow-ware enameling the preparation of each frit generally receives somewhat more attention than for olate enameling. The grinding is more enectively carried out, in order to remove almost every possibility of roughness on any part of the surface, especially the inside surface. The iron used in tablet and hollow- ware manufacture is rolled sheet iron. It is supplied in a variety of qualities. Charcoal iron is purer than ordinary plate iron, more ductile, and therefore capable of being driven out to various forms and depths by stamping presses. The surface of the charcoal iron is not so liable to become oxidized, and therefore can be more readily made chemically clean for the reception of the enamels. Some manufacturers use charcoal plates for tablet work, but these are expensive; the ordinarv plates, carefully pickled and rieanea, adapt themselves to the work satisfactorily. The sheet irons generally used for the enameling purposes referred to vary in gauge. The finer the iron the greater must be the care used in coating it with enamel. Thin iron will rapidly become hot or cool, the temperatures changing much more quickly than that of the mix- ing. Unless care, therefore, is used, the result of fusing will be that the enamel mass will not have become thoroughlv liquid, and its adherence to the iron will be imperfect. If, however, the temperature is gradu- ally raised to the maximum, and sym- pathetic combination takes place, the clangers of rapid coulinf^ are avoided. Again, the iron, in losing 4ts temperature more rapidly than the enamel, will con- tric't, thus loosening its contact with the glaze, and the latter will either then, or after a short period of usage, chip off. We then arrive at the following hard-and- fast rules: (1) In all classes of enameling, but particularly where thin iron .sheets are used, the temperature of the plate and its covering must be raised verv gradually and very uniformly. «) In all cases a plate which has had a glaze fused on its surface munt l>e cooled very gradu- ally and very uniformly. The i mportance of these rules cannot be over-estimated, and will, therefore, be referred to in a more practical way later. In enameling factories no causes are more prolific in the production of waste than Uiese, and in many cases the de- fects produced are erroneously attributed to something else. Cast iron is much easier to enamel than wrought iron. This ih due to the granujar chanurter of its composition. It retains the enamels in its small microscopic recesses, and greater uniformity can oe arrived at with greater ease. Cast-iron enameled sign tablets and hollow ware were at one time made, but their great weight made it impossible for them ever to come into general use. Wrought-iron plates, if examined mi- croscopically, will show that they are of a fibrous structure, the fibers running in the direction in which they have bern rolled. The enamels, therefore, will be more liable to flow longitudinally than transversely, and this tendency will be more accentuated at some places than at others. This, however, is prevented by givinff the iron sheets what might be described as a cast-iron finish. The sheets to be enameled should betlioroutgli- ly scoured in all directions by quartz or flint sand, no part of the surface being neglected. This thorough scrubbing wiO roughen the surface sufliciently ti> make it uniformly retentive of enamrl mixture, and in no cases should it l«e omitted or carelessly carried out. Copper Enameling. -^On a clean cop- per surface the enameling process is ea\v. The foundation glaze is not es<»entiaU and when required the most beautiful re- sults of blended colors can be obtaine«tl by very little additional experience to or- dinary enameling. When the vase or other article ha* been hammered out to the requirelace, slow and steady cooling is abso- utely essential. Special muffles are fre(]|uently built for this purpose, and their use is the means of preventing a large number of wasters. Before put- ting on the glaze, care must be taken to remove the gray from any part which is not to be coated. The temperature of fusion should be about 1,800® F.,* and the time taken is about 5 minutes. Stage VI. — The stencil must be cut with perfect exactitude. The letters .should be as clear as possible, propor- tioned, and spaced to obtain tne best effects as regards boldness and appear- ance. Stencus may be cut either from paper or from specially prepared soft metal, called stencil metal. The former are satisfactory^ enough when only a few plates are required from one stencil, but when large quantities are required, say, 60 upward, metal stencils should be used. The paper should be thick, tough, and strong, and is prepared in the following manner:^ Shellac is dissolved in methy- lated spirits to the ordinary liquid ^um form, and this is spread over both sides of the paper with a brush. When thor- ough Iv dry a second protective coating is adaccl, and the paper is then ready for stencil work. Tne stencil cutter's outfit couHiMts of suitable knives, steel rule, sciiles of various fractions to an inch, a large sheet of glass on which the cutting is done, and alphabets and numerals of various characters and types. For or- dinary lettering one stencil is enough, but for more intricate dcsif^ns 2, S, and evi*n 4 stencils mav be reouired. In the prr|ianttion of the plates referred to in the paragraph preceding Stage I, only 1 * MHltnc a |iiM« o( hruMi wiU rrf>r0aeiit thui t«ni- prrtttur^. stencil would be necessarr. The paper before preparation would be measured out to the exact size of the plate, and the letters would be drawn in. The cutting would then be done, and the reauU shown at Fig. 1 would be obtained, the Fig. 1 Fig.2 black parts being cut out. The lines or corners of each letter or fiffure should be perfectly clear and dean, for anv flaw in the stencil will be reproduced on the plate. SiMft Vn.—The next stage is the ap- plication of the blue enamel. The opera- tion is almost identical with that of the white, but when the coatinjj; has l»r«^n applied and dried, the lettering muM >*e brushed^ out before it is fuMd. The coating is generally applied by a badgrr brush after a little gum water has br^n added; the effect oi this is to make the blue more compact. Sta^ VIII.— The next operation is brushing; the stencil is carefull;^ placed over the plate, and held in position, and with a small hand brush with hard bristles the stencil is brushed over. Thi« brush inff removes all the blue coating, which snows the lettering and leaves the rest of the white intact. When this has been done, the stencil is removed and the connecting ribs of the lettering — some of which are marked X in Fig. t — are then removed by hand, the instrument gro^ erally being a pointed stick of box or other similar wood. Stage IX. — Fusing follows as in the case of the white glaze, and the plate i« complete. One coat of blue should Im* sufficient, but if any defects are apparent a second layer is necessary. The white and blue glazes are applied only on the front side of the plate« the back side being left coated with ^my only. Fft>m the Sheet to the RoHow Ware . — In hollow- ware enameling* the imn i« received in squares, circles, or oblone^. of the size required for the ware to Ik turned out. It is soft and ductile* an«i by means of suitable punches and die^ it is driven in a stamping press to the i»er«*«- sary shape. For shallow articles onN one operation is necessary, but for deeper articles from 2 to 6 operations m^y t»e Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 297 required, annealing in a specially con- structed furnace taking place between ftrh. Following the "drawing" opera- tions comes that of trimming; this may he done in a press or spinning lathe, the object being to trim the edges and re- more all roughness. ^ The articles are DOW ready for enameling. For explana- tion, let us suppose they are tumblers, to be white inside, and blue outside. The Rray is first laid on, then the white, and (antly the blue — that is, after the pickling and cleaning operations have been per- formed. The line of demarcation be- tween the blue and white must be clear, otherwise the appearance of the article will not be satisfactory. The process of enameling is exactly the same as for si^-plate enameling, but more care must be exercised in order to obtain a nnoother surface. While the liquid enamels are being applied, circular articles should be steadily rotated in order to let the coatinff flow uniformly and prevent thick and thin places. The enameling of "whole drawn" ironware presents no difficulty to the ordinary enameler, but with articles which are seamed or riveted, special care and ex- perience is necessary. Seamed or riveted jMirts are, of course, thicker than the ordmaiy plate, will ex- pand and contract differently, will take lonf^er to heat and longer to cool, and the conclusion, therefore, that must be ar* rived at is that the thickness should be reduced as much as possible, and the iniots be made as smooth as possible. Vnless special precautions^ are taken, cracks will be seen on articles of this kind running in straight lines from the riveii or seams. To avoid these, the enamel liquid must be reduced to the rktest stage of liquidity, the heat must raised slowly, and in cooling the articles should pass through, say, 2 or 8 muffles, each one having a lower temper- ature than the preceding one. It is now fppnerally conceded that the slower and more uniform the cooling process, the f^reater will be the ^ durability of the enamel. Feldspar is an almost abso- lutely necessary addition to the gray in surreasful hollow-ware enameling, and the compositions of both gray and white should be such as to demand a high temperature for fusion. The utensils vith the gray coating should first be raised to almost a red heat in a muffle, and then placed in a furnace raised to a white beat. The white should be treated fimilariy, and in this way the time taken for complete fusion at the last stage will be about 4 minates. The outside enamel on utensils Is less viscous than the inside enamel, and should also be applied as thinly as pos- sible. Stoves and Furnaces. — Fritting and Fusing. — ^The best results are obtained in enameling when the thoroughly ground and mixed constituents are fused to- gether, reground, and then applied to the metal surface. In cheap enamels the gray is sometimes applied without being previously melted, but it lacks the dura- bility which is obtained by thorough fusion and regrindinff. In smelting en- amel one of two kinds of furnaces may be used, viz., tank or crucible. The former is better adapted to the melting of considerable quantities of ordinary enamel, while the .latter is more suitable for smaller quantities or for finer enamels as the mixture is protected from the direct action of the flames by covers on the crucibles. The number of tanks and crucibles in connection with each furnace depends upon the heating capacity of the furnace and upon the out-turn re- quired. They are so arranged that all or any of them can be used or put out of use readily by means of valves and dampers. Generally, they are arranged in groups of from 6 to 12, placed in a straight or circular line, but the object aimed at is complete combustion of the fuel, and the utilisation of the heat to the fullest ex- tent. One arrangement is to have the flame pass along the bottom and sides of the tank and then over the top to the chimney. The general system in use is, however, the crucible system. The crucibles are made from tne best fire clay, and the most satisfactory are sold under the name of "Hessian crucibles." The chief ob- jection to the use of the crucibles is that of cost. They are expensive, and in many factories the life of the crucible is very short, in some cases not extending beyond one period of fusion. When this, however, is the rule rather than the ex- ception, the results are due to care- lessness. Sudden heating or cooling of the crucible will cause it to crack or fall to pieces, but for this there is no excuse. Running the molten material ciuickl^r out of the crucible and replacing it hurriedly with a fresh cold mixing is liable — in fact, almost certain — to pro- duce fracture, not only causing the de- struction of the crucible, but also the loss of the mixing. New crucibles should be thoroughly dried in a gentle heat for some days and then gradually raised to the requisite temperature which they Digitized by VjOOQ IC 298 ENAMELING must sustain for the purposes of fusion. Sometimes ung]azed porcelain crucibles specially prepared with a larse propor- tion of china cla;^ are used. These are, however, expensive and require special attention during the first melt. The life of all crucibles can be lengthened by: (1) Gradually heating them before put- ting them into the fire; (2) never replac- ing a frit with a cold mass for the suc- ceeding one; it should first be heated in a stove and then introduced into the cru- cible; (8) carefullv protecting the hot crucibles from cold draughts or rapid cooling. Melting and Meltine Furnaces. — The arrangement of the melting furnace must be such as to protect the whole of the crucible from chills. The usual pit furnaces, with slight modifications, are suitable for this purpose. The crucible shown at 6 in Fig. 3 is of the type already Fig. 3 described; at the top it is fitted with a lid, a, hinged at the middle, and at the bottom it IS pierced by a ^-inch conical hole.* The nole, while melting is going on, is plugged up with a specially pre- pared stopper. The crucible stands on •Two inches for Kray. one inch for glase; the bole fhould be wider at the top. a tubular fireproof support, r, which allows the molten mass to be easily run off into a tub of water, which is placed in the chamber, d. The fuel is tnrown in from the top, and the supplv must be kept uniform. From 4 to 6 of these fur- naces are connected with the same chim- ney; but before passing to the chimney the hot gases are in some cases used for heating purposes in connection with thr drving stove. The plug used may be eitner a permanent iron one coated with a very hard enamel or made from a composition of quartz powder and water. An uncovered iron plug would be un- suitable owing to the action of the iron on the ingredients of the mixing. In some cases only a very small hole is made in the crucible and no stopper uned, the fusion of the mixing automatically closing up the hole. In some other far- tories no bole is made in the crucible, and when fusion is complete the crucible is removed and the mixmg poured out. The two latter systems are bad; in the fir^t there is always some waste of material through leakage, and in the latter the operation of removing the crucible is clumsy and diflScult, while the expoiture to the colder atmosphere frequently cau. Before and after melting; (2) aftrr crushing. The time required for melting rmji^n greatlv, but from 6 to 0 hours may l>r considered as the extreme limits, (ta.^ is much used for raising the necesMU-y heat for melting. The generator may bir Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 299 placed ID any convenient position, but « very f^ood system is to have it in the center of a battery of muffles, any or all of which can be brought into use. When (quartz stoppers are used there is con- siderable trouble in their preparation, and as each new batch of material re- quires a fresh stopper, wrought-iron stoppers have been introduced in many factories. These are coated with an rnamel re€]uiring a much hieher tempera- ture of fusion than the funoamental sub- iitance, and this coating prevents the iron having any injurious action on the frit. Fusing. — For fusing the enamel muffle furnaces are used ; these furnaces are simple in construction, being designed specially for: (1) Minimum consumption of fuel; (i) maximum heat in the muffle; (3) protection of the inside of the muffle from dust, draughts, etc. The muffle furnaces may be of an^ 817.6, but in order to economize fuel, it is obvious that they should be no larger than is necessary for the class and c^tiantity of work being turned out. For Sign-plate enameling the interior of the muffle may be as much as 10 feet by 5 feet wide by 3 feet in height, but a furnace of this kind would be absolutely ruinous for a concern where only about a dozen small hollow- ware articles were enameled at a time. The best system is to have i or 3 muffle furnaces of different dimen- sions, as in this way all or any one of them can be brought into use as the character and number of the articles may require. The temperature through- out the muffle is not uniform, the end next to the furnace being hotter than that next to the door. In plate enamel- ing it is therefore necessary that the fJates should be turned so that uniform usion of the enamel may take place. In the working of hollow ware the articles sfaouJd be first placed at the front of the muffle and then moved toward the back. The front of the furnace is closed in bv a vertically sliding door or lid, and in this an aperture is cut, through which the process of fusion can be inspected. All openings to the muffle should be used as little as possible; otherwise cold air is admitted, and the inside temperature rapidly lowered. I ! =;? •CCT10N ON A. •• Fig. 4 Fig. 4 shows a simple arrangement of a muffle furnace; a is the furnace itself, with an opening, «, through which the fuel is fed; 6 is the muffle; c shows the firebars, and d the cinder box; / is a rest or plate on which is placed the articles to be enameled. The plate or petits on which the articles rest while being put into the muffle should be almost red hot, as the whole heat of the muffle in this way begins to act immediately on the enamel coating. The articles inside the muffles can be moved about when neces- sary, either by a hook or a pair of tongs, but care must be taken that every part of the vessel or plate is submitted to the same amount oi heat. In Figs. 5, 6, and 7 are given drawings of an arrangement of furnaces, etc., connected with an enameling factory at Fi<. 6 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 300 ENAMELING present working. The stoves shown in Fig. 5 are drying stoves fired from the end by charcoal, and having a tempera- ture of about 160® F. Fig. 6 shows the arrangement of the flues for the passage of the gases round the fusing oven. The section through the line AB, Fig. 5, as shown in Fig. 7, and the section tnrough SECTION THROUGH FUSING OVEN Fig. 6 SECTION ON A. B. Fi«. 7 ~^^^U, OMUOKT SECTION THROUGH FRIT KILNS Fi«. 8 as shown in Fig. 8, are The frit kilns the frit kilns, sufficiently explanatory, and the fusing oven flues both lead to the brick chimney, but the stoves are con- nected to a wrought-iron chimney shown in Fig. 6. Anotner arrangement would have been to so arrange the stoves that the gajies from the frit kilns could have been utilized for heating purposes. Fuel. — The consumption of fuel in an enameling factory is the most serious item of the expenditure. Ill-constructed or badly proportioned stoves may rep- resent any loss of coal from a quarter to one ton per day, and as great and uniform temperatures must be maintained, fuel of low quality and price is not desirable. In the melting stoves either arranged a.^t tank or crucible furnaces, the character of the coal must not be neglected, a« li^ht dust, iron oxide, or injurious ga.se^ will enter into the crucibles through any opening, especially if the draught m nut very great. Almost any of the various kinds of fuel may be used, provided that the system of combustion is specially arranged for in the construction of the furnaces. Charcoal is one of the best fuels available, its calorific value l>eirig so great; but its cost is in some plarc:* almost prohibitive. Wood burns t«>m time to time. A cheap, common coal will never give good results, and a gixnl expensive coal will make the coni of manufacture so great that the prices of the enameled articles will render them unsalable. Any ordinary small factors- will use from 2 to 4 tons per day of coaf. and it will thus be seen that the finanrial success of a concern lies to a very grr«* extent at the mouth of the furnacr. C«>kr is a good medium for obtaining thr necessary heat required in enameling if it can be got at a reasonable price. \\ ith a good draught a uniform temperature can be easily kept up, and the u«e of this by-product is, therefore, to be rec- ommenaed. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 301 With good coal and a furnace con- structed to utilize the heat given off to tbf fullest extent, there may still be un- necessary waste. The arrangement of the bars should only be made by those who fully understand the character of the coal and the objects in view. The fireman in charee should be thoroughly experienced and reliable, as much waste is frequently traced to imperfect feeding of the fuel. Each charge of articles should be as large as possible, as fusing will take place equally as well on many articles as on few. The charges should follow one another as rapidly as can be conveniently carried out; and where this is not done there is a lack of organization which should be immediately remedied. Mills. — Any hard substances must first l>e broken up and pounded in a pounding or stamping mill, or in anv other suitable DiAnner, thus reducing the lumps to a ffraoular condition. When this has been ilone, the coarse is separated from the finr parts and the former again operated on. The next process is roller grinding for reducing the hard fritted granular particles to a fine powder. These mills vary in construction, but a satisfactory type is shown in Fig. 9. Motion is con- < QRINOtNQ MILL Fig. 9 ytjtd by a belt to the driving pulley, and this is transmitted from the pinion to the lar^e bevel, which is connected bv a ^taft to the ground plate. As this revolves the material causes the mill wheels to revolve, and in this way the material is reduced to a powder. The rollers are of r<^^u^ed diameter on the inner side to prevent slippage, and when all the parts are made of iron, the metal must be Ho*e grained and of very hard structure, *> M to reduce the amount removed by ^f*r to a minimum. When the mate- riali are ground wet, the powder should ^ carefully protected from dust and thoroughly dried before passing to the next operation. The glazing or enamel mills are shown in Fig. 10. These mills consist of a |b jbTi' a a l^jpi QUkZINQ MILL Fie. 10 strong iron frame securely bolted to a stone foundation. In the sketch shown the framing carries 2 mills, but S or 4 can be arranged for. A common ar- rangement for small factories consists of 2 large mills, and 1 smaller mill, driven from the same shaft. One of the mills is used for foundation or gray mixings, the second for white, and the smallest one for colored mixings. In these mills it is essential that the construction is such as ' to prevent any iron fitting coming into contact with the mixing, for, as has already been explained, the iron will cause discoloration. The ground plate is composed of quartz and is immovable. It is surrounded by a wooden casing— as shown at a — and bound together by iron hoops. The millstones are heavv, rec- tangular blocks of quartz, called ** French burr stone," and into the center the spin- dle, 6, is led. The powdered material mixed with about three times its bulk of water is poured into the vats, a, and the grinding stones are then set in motion. When a condition readj^ for enameling has been reached the mixture is run on through the valves, c. Each mill can be thrown out of gear when required, by means of a clutch box, without inter- fering with the working of the others. The grinding stones wear rapidly and require to be refaced from time to time. To avoid stoppage of the work, therefore, it is advisable to always have a spare set in readiness to replace those removed for refacing. The composition of the stones should not be neglected, for, in many cases, faults in the enamel have been traced to the wearing away of stones containing earthy or metallic matter. Digitized by VjOOQ IC S02 ENAMEUNG Eiuunel Miziiig. — All constituents of which an enamel glase is composed must be intimately mixed to|;ether. This can only be done by reducing each to a fine powder and thoroughly stirring them up together. This part of the work is often carried out in a very superficial manner, one material showing much larger lumps than another. Under circumstances such t^s these it is absurd to imagine that in fusion equal distribution will take place. What really happens is that some parts of the mass are insufiiciently supolied with certain properties while others nave too miich. A mixture of this class can produce only unsatbfactor^ results in every respect, for the variations referred to will produce variations in the com- pleteness of fusion in the viscous charac- ter of the mass, and in the color. The mixing can be done by thoroughly stirring the various ingredients togetner, and a much better ana cheaper system is mixing in rotating barrels or churns. These are mounted on axles which rest in bearings, one axle being lon^ enough to carry a pulley. From the driving shaft a belt is led to the cask, which then rotates at a speed of from 40 to 60 revolutions per minute, and in about a quarter of an hour the operation is complete. The cask should not exceed the 5-gallon size, and should at no time be more than two- thirds full. Two casks of this kind ^ive better results than one twice the size. The materials are shot into the cask in their correct proportions through a large bung hole, which is then closed over by a close-fitting lid. MJTinga. — For gray or fundamental coatings: I. — Almost any kind of glass 49 per cent Oxide of lead 47 per cent Fused borax 4 per cent II. — Glass (any kind).. 61 percent Red lead «« per cent Borax 16 per cent Niter 1 percent III.— Quartz 67.5 per cent Borax 49.5 per cent Soda (enameling) . 3 per cent The above is specially adapted for iron pipes. IV. — Frit of silica pow- der 60 per cent Borax S3 per cent While lead 7 per cent Fused and then ground with — ^ Three-tenths woight of Hilica frit. (May, three-tenths weight of silica frit. Magnesia, one-Mxth weight of white lead. V. — Silica 65 per cent Borax 14 per cent Oxide of lead 4 percent Clay 15 per cent Magnesia 2 per cent No. V gives a fair average of several mixings wnich are in use, but it can be varied slightly to suit different conditiuns of work. Defects in the Gray or Ground Coat* inff. — Chipping is the most disastrous. This may be prevented by the addition of some bitter salt, sav from 3 to 4 per cent of the weight of tne frit. The addition of magnesia when it ha« been omitted from the frit mav also act as a preventive, but it should only l»e added in very small quantities, not ex- ceeding 2.5 per cent, otherwise the temperature required for fusion will l>e very great. Coating and Fusion.— Difficulties of either ma^ generally be done away with by reducing the magnesia used in the frit to a minimum. A soft surface is always the outcome of a mixing which can be fused at a low temperature. It is due to too much lead or an insufficiency of clay or sili<-a powder. A hard surface is due to the quant it v of lead in the mixing being too small. Increase the quantity and introduce potash, say about 2.5 per cent. The gray or fundamental mixing should m^ kept together in a condition only just sufficienUy liquid to allow tif bein^ poured out. When required to !»*► applied to the plate, the water necr^^r% to lower it to the consistency of \hu\ cream can then be added gradually, energetic stirring of the mass iakint; place simultaneously in order to obtain uniform di.stribution. The time required for fusion may vary from 15 minutes to i5 minnte%. tmt should never exceed the latter. If it does, it shows that the mixinjs is Um viscous, and the remedy would Iw thr addition and thorough intermixtuir ff calcined borax or boracic acid. ShouM this fail, then remelting or a new frit m necessary. A highly glazed surface nn lea%'ing the muffle shows that the coropctsition is I«n« fluid and requires the addition of cla,>. glass, silica powder or other substaut*^ to increase the viscositv. As has l>een alreaciy explaine«l, the glaze is much more important than the fundamental coating. UiMtiloratioo *ir slight flaws which could l>e tolerated in the latter would be fatal to the former. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 303 In glazes, oxide of lead need not be used. It should never be used in a coat- ing for vessels which are to contain acids or be used as cooking utensils. It may be used in sign-tablet production. For pipes the following glaze gives good results: I-—Peldspar 88 percent Borax 22.5 per cent Quartz 16.5 per cent Oxide of tin - . . . 15 per cent Soda 8 per cent . Fluorspar 8.75 per cent Saltpeter 2.25 per cent For siffn tablets the foUowinff gives fair results, although some of the suc- ceeding ones are in more general use: II.— Cullet 20 per cent Powdered flint. . 15 percent Lead 52 per cent Soda 4.5 per cent Arsenic 4.5 per cent Niter 4 per cent III.— Frit of silica powder 80 per cent Oxide of tin. .. . 18 percent Borax 17 percent Soda 8.6 per cent Niter 7.5 per cent White lead 5.5 per cent Carbonate o f ammonia .... 5.5 per cent Magnesia 4 percent Silica powder. . . 4 per cent The following are useful for culinary utensils, as they do not contain lead: IV.— Frit of silica powder 26 per cent Oxide of tin ... . 21 per cent Borax 20 per cent Soda 10.25 per cent Niter 7 percent Carbonate o f ammonia .... 5 per cent Magnesia 8.25 per cent This should be ground up with the f«>Uowing: Silica powder. . . 4.25 per cent Oxide of tin . . . . 2.25 per cent Soda 0.5 per cent Magnesia 0.5 per cent v.— Feldspar 41 per cent Borax S5 per cent Oxide of tin ... . 17 per cent Niter 7 per cent \l.~Borax 80 per cent Feldspar 22 per cent Silicate powder. 17.5 percent Oxide of tin. , . . 15 per cent Soda 18.5 per cent Niter 2 percent Borax will assist fusion. Quartz mix- ings require more soda than feldspar mixings. VII.— Borax. 28 per cent Oxide of tin . . . . 19.5 per cent Cullet (powdered white glass) . . 18 percent Silica powder. . . 17.5 per cent Niter. 9.5 per cent Magnesia 5 per cent Clay 2.5 per cent VIII.— Borax 26.75 per cent Cullet 19 per cent Silica powder. . . 18.5 per cent Oxide of tin ... . 19 per cent Niter. . 9.25 per cent Magnesia 4.5 per cent Soda 8 per cent To No. VII must be added— while being ground — the following percentages of the weight of the frit: Silica powder. . . 18 per cent Borax. 9 per cent Magnesia 5.25 per cent Boracic acid. . . . 1.5 percent To No. VIII should be similarly added the following percentages of the frit: Silica powder. . . 1.75 per cent Magnesia 1.75 percent Soda 1 per cent This mixing is one which is used in the production of some of the best types of hollow ware for culinary purposes. The glaze should be kept in tubs mixed with water until used, and it should be carefully protected from dust. Defects in the Glaze or White.— A bad white may be due to its being insuffi- ciently opaque. More oxide of tin is required. Cracks may be prevented by the addition of carbonate of ammonia. Insufficient luster can be avoided by adding to the quantity of soda and re- ducing the borax. If the gray shows through the white it proves that the temperature of fusion is too high or the viscosity of the mixing is too great. If the coating is not uniformly spread it mav be due to the glaze being too thin; add magnesia. If the glaze separates from the gray add some bitter salt. Viscosity will be increased by reduc- ing the ouantity of borax. Immunity against chemical reaction is procured by increasing the quantity of Dorax. An improvedluster will be obtained by add- ing native carbonate of soda.^ The greater the quantity of silicic acid the greater must be the temperature for fusion. To reduce the temperature add borax. Clay will increase the difficulty Digitized by VjOOQ IC 804 ENAMELING of fusion. Oxide of lead will make a frit more easily fusible. A purer white can be obtained by adding a small quantity of smalt. Water. — The character of the water used in the mixing of enamels is too fre- quently taken for granted, for unsuitable water may render a mixing almost entire- ly useless. Clean water, and with little or no sulphur present, is essential. For very fine enamels it is advisable to use carefully filtered water which has shown, after analysis, that it is free from any matter which is injurious to any of the enamel constituents. How to TeU the Character of Enamel. — In the case of sign tablets the charac- teristics looked to are appearance and the adherence of the coatings to the iron. For the latter the tests are simple. The plate if slightly bent should not crack the coating. An enamel plate placed in boiling water for some time and then plunged into very cold water should not show any cracks, however small, even after repeated treatment of this kind. Culinary utensils, and those to hold chemicals, should not only look well, but should be capable of resisting the action of acids. Lead should never enter into the composition of enamels of this class, as they then become easily acted upon, and in the case of chipping present a menace to health. The presence of lead is easily detected. Destroy the outside coating of the enamel at some spot by the application of strong nitric acid. Wash the Dart and apply a drop of ammonium sulphide. If lead is present, the part will become almost black, but remains unchanged in color if it is absent. Another simple test is to switch up an egg in a vessel and allow it to stana for about 24 hours. When poured out and rinsed with water a dark stain will re- main if lead is present in the enamel. To test the power of chemical resistance is equally simple. Boil diluted vineffar in the vessel for several minutes, ana if a sediment is fonned and the luster and smoothness of the ^laze destroyed^ or partially destroyed, it follows that it is incapable of resisting the attacks of acids for any length of time. There are sev- eral other tests adopted,^ but those given present little difficulty in carrying out, and give reliable results. Waaten and Seconds: Repairing Old Articles.— In all enameling there must be certain articles turned out which are defective, but the percentage should never be very great. The causes which most frequently tend to the production of wasters are new mixings and a tempera- ture of fusion which is either too high or too low. There are two ways of dis- posing of defective articles, vis.: (1| chipping off the bad spots, patching them up and selling them as '^seconds**: (2) throwing the articles into the waste heap. The best firms adopt the latter course, because the recoatinff and firing of defective parts practically means a repetition of tne whole process, thus add- ing greatly to the cost, while the selling price is reduced. Overheating in fusion IS generally shown by blisters or bv the enamel being too thin in various places. Chipping naay be also due to this cause, the excessive heat having practically fused the fundamental coating. At this stage the defects may be remedied bv breaking off the faulty parts, patching tnem up, and then recoating the whole. With sign tablets there is no objection to doing so, but with hollu« ware the fact remains that the article i« faulty, no matter how carefully defect* may be hidden. As white is the miK«t Seneral coatinc used, and shows up the efects more than the colored coatingn^ the greatest care is necessary at emery stage of the manufacture, nhile glow- inc[ on the article, it should appear uniformly yellow, but on cooling it sbould revert to a pure white shade. On ex- amining different makes of white coated articles, it will be found that some arr more opaque than others. The formrr are less durable than the latter, beraux- they contain a large percentage of oxide of tin, which reduces the elasticity. To ensure hardness the mixing mujit br very liquid, and this cannot be arrit-ed at when a large quantity of oxide of tin is introduced. Old utensils which have become broken or chipped can be repaired, although, except in the case of lar^r articles, this is rarely done. The opera- tions necessary are: (1) The defectitr parts chipped off; (£) submitted to a mi neat for a few moments; (S) coated with gray on the exposed iron; (4) fused: -^i coated with the glase on the gray; ^i») fused. To Repair Enameled Signs.— Copal 5 parts Damar 6 parts Venice turpentine ... 4 parts Powder the rosins, mix with the fur* pentine and add enough alcohol to form a thick licjuid. To this add finely powdered sine white in sufficient quan- tity to yield a plastic mass. Coloring Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 805 matter may, of coarse, be added if desired. The mass after application is polished when it has become sufficiently nard. Exuunel for Cop^ Cookiiig Vessels. — White fluorspar is ground to a fine powder and strongly calcined with an pqual volume of unburnt gypsum, at a li^ht glowing heat, stirring diligently. Grind the mixture to a paste with water, paint the vessel with it, using a brush, or pour in the paste like a glaze and dry • the same. Increase the heat gradually sod bring tbe vessels with the glass substance quickly into strong heat, under s suitable covering or a mantle of burnt cUy. The substance soon forms a white ojpsque enamel, which ahderes firmly to the copper. It can stand pretty hard knocks without cracking, is adapted for rooking purposes and not attacked b^ acid matters. If the glassy substance is desired to cling well and firmly to the copper, a sudden and severe heat must be observed. To Pickle Black Iron-Plate Scrap Before Enamelixip;. — The black iron- plate scraps are &st dipped clean in a mixture of about 1 part of sulphuric arid and iO to 22 parts of water heated to SO* to 40« C. (86« to 104° F.), and Aharp quartz sand is then used for scour- ing. They are then plunged for a few seconds in boiling water, taken out, and allowed to dry. Kinsing with cold water and allowing to dry thus may cause rust. The grains of quartz cut grooves in the fibers of the iron; this helps the pounding to adhere well. With many kinds of plate it is advisable to anneal 'after pickling, shutting off the air; by this means the plates will be thoroughlv clean and free from oxidation. Much practice is required. — The Engineer, ENAMELED mON RECIPES. The first thing is to produce a flux to fuM at a moderate heat, which, by flow- ing upon the plate, forms a uniform sur- U**e for the white or colored enamels to »urk upon. FIqx for Enameled Iron. — White lead 10 parts Ball clay 1 part Flint glass 10 parts Whiting 1 part The plates may then be coated with sny of the following mixtures, which may either be spread on as a powder «itb a little gum, as in the case of the flux, or the colors may be mixed with oil and the plates dipped therein when coated; the plate requires heating suffi- ciently to run the enamels bright. Soft Enamels for Iron, White.— Flint glass 16 parts Oxide of tin Imparts Niter l\ parts Red lead 4 parts Flint or china clay. .. 1 part Black.— Red oxide of iron. ... 1} parts Carbonate of cobalt. . l} parts Red lead 6 parts Borax 2 parts Lynn sand 2 parts Yellow Coral.— Chromate of lead. ... 1 part Red lead 2} parts Flint 1 part Borax J part Canary. — Oxide of uranium ... 1 part Red lead 4} parts Flint li parU Flint glass 1 part Turquoise. — Red lead 40 parts Flint glass 12 parts Borax 16 parts Flint 12 parts Enamel white 14 parts Oxide of copper 7 parts Oxide of cobalt { part Red Brown. — Calcined sulphate of iron 1 part Flux No. 8 (see page SOT) S parts Mazarine Blue. — Oxide of cobalt 10 parts Paris white 9 parts Sulphate barytes 1 part Fire the above at an intense heat and for use take Above stain 1 part FXux No. 8 (see page 307) S parts Sky Blue.— Flint glass 80 parts White lead 10 parts Pearlash 2 parts Common salt 2 parts Oxide of cobalt 4 parts Enamel, white 4 parts Chrome Green. — Borax 10 parts Oxide of chrome 4 J parts White lead 9 parU Flint glass 9 parts Oxide of cobalt 2 parts Oxide of tin 1 part Digitized by VjOOQ IC 806 ENAMELING G>nl Red.— Bichromate potash . . 1 part Red lead 4 J parts Sugar of lead 1} parts Flint li parts Flint glass 1 part Enamel White.— &ft : Red lead 80 parts Opal glass 50 parts Flint 50 parts Borax 84 parts Arsenic 8 parts Niter 6 parts Enamel White.— Red lead 10 parts Flint 6 parts Boracic acid 4 parts Niter 1 part Soda crystals 1 part Where the enameled work is intended to be exposed to the weather do not us# flux No. 8, but substitute the following: White lead 1 part Ground flint glass 1 part All the enamels should, after beins mixed, be melted in crucibles, poured out when in liquid, and powdered or ground for use. FUSIBLE ENAMEL COLORS. The following colors are fusible by heat, and are all suitable for the decora- tion of china and glass. In the follow- ing collection of recipes certain terms are employed which may not be quite understood by persons who are not con- nected with either the glass or porcelain industries, such as "glost fire" and "run down," and in such cases reference must be made to the following defini- tions: "Run down.'* Sufficient heat to melt into liquid. "Glost fire." Ordinary glaxe heat. "Grind only." No calcination re- quired. "Hard fire." Highest heat attain- able. "Frit." The ingredients partly com- posing a glaze, which require calcina- tion. "Stone." Always best Cornwall stone. "Paris white." Superior quality of whiting. "Parts." Always so many parts by tpeigkt^ unless otherwise stated. "D. L. Zinc." Particular brand not eHsential. Any good quality oxide of zinc will do. Ruby and Muoon.~Prep«fmtkm of silver: Nitric acid 1 ounce Water 1 ounce Dissolve the silver till saturated, then put a plate of copper in the solution to precipitate the silver in a metallic state. Wash well with water to remove the ace- tate of copper. Flux for Above. — Six dwts. white lead to 1 ounce prepared silver. Tin Solution.— Put the add (aqua regia) in a bottle, add tin in small quan- tities until it becomes a dark-red color; let it stand about 4 days before use. When the acid becomes saturated it will turn red at the bottom of the bottle, then shake it up and add more tin; let it stand and it will become clear. Aqua Regia. — Nitric acid 2 parts Muriatic acid 1 part Dissolve grain gold in the aqua regis so as to make a saturated solution. Take a basin and fill it S parts full of water; drop the solution of gold into it till it becomes an amber color. Into this solution of gold gradually drop the solu- tion of tin, until the precipitate is cuni- plete. Wash the predpiUte untH the water becomes tastdeas, then dry slowljr and flux as follows: Flux Ho. X. — Borax S parts Red lead 3 parts Flint « parts Run down. Rose Mixture. — Purple of Cassius 1 ounce Flux No. 1 6 ouncrs Prepared silver 8 dwts. Flint glass « ounces Grind. Purple Mixture. — Purple of Cassius 1 ounce Flux No. 8 (see page 907) «i ouncr* Flint glass « ouncrs Grind. Ruby.— Purple mixture «1 parts Rose mixture 1} parU Grind. Maroon.— Rose mixture 1 part Purple mixture « pwts Grind. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING 807 Bkck— Extra quality.— Red oxide of iron .... 12 parts Carbonate of cobalt . . 12 parts Oicide of cobalt 1 part Black flux A (see next formula) 80 parts Glost fire. Bladk Flux A.— Red lead S parts Calcined borax ) part Lynn sand 1 part Run down. Black No. 2.— Oxide of copper 1 part Carbonate of cobalt. . } part Flux No. 8 (see next oolunui) 4 parts Grind only. Enamel White.— Arsenic fti parts Niter 1 J parts Borax 4 parts Flint 16 parts Glass 16 parte Red lead 82 parte Glost fire. Turquoise. — Cliiua : Calcined copper 5 parte Whiting 6 parte Phosphate of soda 8 parte Oxide of zinc 16 parte Soda crystals 4 parte Magnesia 2 parte Red lead 8 parte Flux T (see next for- mula) 52 parte Glost fire. Flux T.— Borax 2 parts Sand 1 part Run down. Orange. — Orange U. G 1 part Flux No. 8 (see next column) 8 parte Grind only. Blue Green. — Flint glass 8 parts Enamel white 25 parts Borax 8 parte Red lead 24 parte Flint 6 parte Oxide of copper 2) parte Glost heat. Coral Red.— Chromate of potesh. . 1 part Sugar of lead 1 } parte Dissolve in hot water, then dry. Take 1 part of above, 8 parte flux for coral. Grind. Flux for CoraL— Red lead 4) parte Flint li parte Flint glass I } parte Run down. Turquoise. — Oxide of copper 5 parte Borax 10 parte Flint 12 parte Enamel white 14 parte Red lead 40 parts Glost fire. Flux Ho. 8. — Red lead 6 parte Borax 4 parts Flint 2 parts Run down. Russian Green. — Malachite green 10 parte Enamel yeflow 5 parts Majolica white 5 parts Flux No. 8 (see pre- vious formula) 2 parte Grind only. Amber. — Oxide of uranium ... 1 part Coral flux 8 parte Grind only. Gordon Green. — Yellow U.G 5 parts Flux No. 8 (see above) 15 parts Malachite green 10 parte Grind only. Celadon. — Enamel light blue ... 1 part Malachite green 1 part Flux No. 8 (see above) 15 parte Grind only. Red Brown. — Sulphate of iron, fired 1 part Flux No. 8 (see above) 3 parte Grind only. Matt Blue.— Flux No. 8 (see above) lOA parts Oxide of zinc 5 parts Oxide of cobalt 4 parts Glost fire, then take Of above base 1 part Flux No. 8 (see above) 1} parte Grind only. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 308 ENAMEUNG PREPARATION OF ENAMELS. The base of enamel is glass, colored different shades by the addition of me- tallic oxides mixed and melted with it. The oxide of cobalt produces blue; red is obtained by the Cassius process. The purple of Cassius, which is one of the most brilliant of colors, is used al- most exclusively in enameling and min- iature Dainting; it is produced by adding to a solution of ^old chloride a solution of tin chloride mixed with ferric chloride until a green color appears. The oxide of iron and of copper also produces red, but of a less rich tone; chrome produces green, and manganese violet; black is produced by the mixture of these ox- ides. Antimony and arsenic also enter into the composition of enamels. Enamels are of two dassesyopaque and transparent. The opacity is caused by the presence of tin. When the mingled glass and oxides have been put in the crucible, this is placed in the furnace, heated to a tem- perature of LSSa** or 2.«00'» F. When the mixture becomes fused, it is stirred with a metal rod. Two or three hours are necessary for the operation. The enamel is then poured into water, which divides it into grains, or formed into cakes or masses, which are left to cool. ^ For applying enamels to metals, gold, silver, or copper, it is necessary to r^uce them to powder, which is effected ia an agate mortar with the aid of a pestle of the same material. During the opera- tion the enamel ought to be soaked in water. For dissolving the impurities which may have been formed during the work, a few drops of nitric acid are f)oured in immediatelv afterwards, well mixed, and then got rid of by repeated washing with filtered water. This should be carefully done, stirring the enamel powder with a glass rod, in order to keep the particles in suspension. The powder is allowed to repose^ at the bottom of the vessel, after making sure by the taste of the water that it does not contain any trace of acid; only then is the enamel ready for use. For enameling a jewel or other object it is necessary, first to heat it strongly, in order to burn off any fatty matter, and afterwards to cleanse it in a solution of nitric acid diluted with boiling water. After rinsing with pure water and wip- ing; with a very clean cloth, it is heated slightiv and is then ready to receive the enamel. Enamels are applied with a steel tool in the form of a spatula; water is the vehicle. When the layers of enamel hare been applied, the contained water is removed by means of a fine linen rag, pressinff slightly on the parts that ha^e receivea the enamel. The tissue at»- sorbs the water, and nothing remains on the object except the enamel powder. It is placed before the fire to remove every trace of moisture. Thus prepared and put on a fire-clap slab, it is ready for its passage to the heat which fixes the enamel. This operation is conducted in a furnace, with a current of air who*^ temperature is about 1,832^ F. In ILU operation the fire-chamber ought not to contain any gas. Enamels are fused at a temperature 4>f 1,292'' to 1,472'' F. Great attention U needed, for experience alone is the guide, and the duration of the process is quite short. On coming from the fire« the molecules composing the enamel powdrr have been fused together and prraent to the eve a vitreous surface covering the metal and adhering to it perfectly. Vn- der the action of the heat the metal! ir oxides contained in the enamel have met the oxide of the metal and formed one body with it, thus adhering completely. JEWELERS' ENAMELS, Melt together: Traiupareiit Red. — Cassius gold pur- ple, 65 parts, bv weight; oyabuglass. SO parts, by weight; borax, 4 parts, by weight Tnuuparent Blue. — CrystsJ glass. Si parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight. Dark Blue.— Crystal glass, SO parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, bv weight; co- balt oxide, 4 parts, oy weight; bone Mark. 4 parts, by weight; arsenic aci4« 2 pafi*, by weight. Truupftrent Green.— Crystid gjass, HO parts, bv weight; cupric oxide, 4 parts, oy weight; borax, 2 parts, by weight. Dark Green. — Crystal ^aas, 80 part<, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight: cupric oxide, 4 parts, by wei|^ht; boor black, 4 parts by weight; arsenic acid, 2 parts, by weight. Black.— Crystal glass, SO parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weii^nt; cupric oxide, 4 parts, by weight; fernc oxide, S parts, bv weight; cobalt oxide, 4 parU. by weignt; manganic oxide, 4 parts, by weight. White.— I,— Crystal glass, SO parts, by weight; stannic oxide, 6 parts, by weight; borax, 6 parts, by weigbt; arsenic acid. 2 parts, by weight. 11,— Crystal glass. SO parts, by weight; sodium antimonate, 10 parts, by weight. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ENAMELING— ENGRAVINGS 309 The finely pulverized colored enamel is applied with a brush and lavender oil on the white enamel already fused in and then only heated until it melts. For rfrtain purposes, the color compositions may also be fused in without a white l^round. The glass used for white. No. i, must be free from lead, otherwise the enamel will be unsightly. Various Bnamels for Precious Metals : White.— CrvsUl glass, 80 parts, by weight; oxide of tin, 6 parts, by weight; iK^rax, 6 parts, by weight; dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight, or silicious Aand, 50 parts, by weight; powder, con- iisting of 15 of Un per 100 of lead, 100 parts, by weight; car Donate of potassium, 40 parts, by weight. Fuse the whole with a Quantity of manganese. To take away tne accidental coloring, pour it into water, and after having pulverized it, melt again 3 or 4 times. Opaque Blue. — Crystal glass, 30 parts, by waght; borax, 6 parts, by wei^^ht; cobalt oxide, 4 parts, by weight; calcined bone, 4 parts, oy weignt; dioxide of ar- senic, 2 parts, by weignt. Transparent Green. — Crystal glass, SO parts, by weight; blue verditer, 4 parts, by weight; borax, ft parts, by weight. Opaque Green. — Crystal glass, 80 parts, oy weight; borax, 8 parts, by weight; blue verditer, 4 parts, by weight; ralcined bone, 4 parts, hy weight; dioxide of arsenic, 2 parts, by weight. Black.— I.— Crystal glass, 30 parts, by weight; borax, 8 parts, by weignt; oxide of copper, 4 parts, bv weight; oxide of iron, 3 parts, i>y weight; oxide of cobalt, 4 parts, by weight; oxide of manganese, 4 parts, by weignt. n.— Take } part, by weight, of silver; i\ parts of copper; 8} parts of lead, and il parts of muriate of ammonia. Melt tof^ther and pour into a crucible with twire as much pulverized sulphur; the crucible is then to be immediately covered that the sulphur may not take fire, and the mixture u to be calcined over a smelt- ing fire until the superfluous sulphur is burned away. The compound is then to be coarsely pounded, and, with a solu- tion of muriate of ammonia, to be formed into a paste which is to be placed upon the article it is designed to enamel. The article must then be held over a spirit lamp till the com{>ound upon it melts and flows. After this it may be smoothed and polished up in safety. See also Varnishes and Ceramics for « fermentation. The latter is the best, «]« the addition of alcohol to the fresh jttiee« destroys their aroma and injures ibr taste. ^ The induction of a light fermen- tation is far the better method, not onJv preserving, when carefully condurtrtl, the taste and aroma of the fruit, but yield- ing far more juice. The fruit is rrtislMvl and the juice subsequently carefully but stronglv pressed out Sometimes tlie crushed fruit is allowed to stand awhile, and to proceed to a lif ht fermentatioo before pressure is applied: but while • greater amount of juice is thus obtained. tne aroma and flavor of the produrl mrr' veiy sensibly injured bv the procedure. To the juice thus obtained, add from 1 to 2 per cent of sugar, and put away in a cool place (where the temperature will not rise over 70® or 75* P.). PermentA- tion soon begins, and will proceed for a few days. ^ As soon as the development of carbonic acid gas ceases, the jture begins to clear itself, from the surf nee downward, and in a short time all iciltd matter will lie in a mass at the boUom, leaving the liquid bright and rienr Draw off the latter with a aiphon, very carefully, so as not to disturb the sedi- mentary matter. Per mentation shoo Id be induced in closed vessels only. n« when conducted in open containers a fungoid growth is apt to form on the surface, sometimes causing putrefacttYr. and at others, an acetic, fermentation, tn either event spoiling the juice for sab- Digitized by VjOOQ IC ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS 811 Kquent U9e« except as a vinegar. The vMseU, to effect toe^ end desired, should bf filled onlv two-thirds or three-fourths full, and then carefullv closed with a ti^ht-fitting cork, througn which is passed a tube of glass, bent at the upper end, the short end of which passes below the surface of a vessel filled with water. As MKm as fermentation commences the rarbonic acid developed thereby escapes through the tube into the water, whence it passes off into the atmosphere. When hubbies no longer pass off from the tube the operation should be interrupted, and (ifcantation or siphoning, witn subse- ts urnt filtration, commenced. Bt proceeding in this manner all the aroma and flavor of the juices are re- tained. If it is intended for preserva- tion for any length of time the iuice should be heated on a water bath to aoout 176^ P. and poured, while hot, into bot- tles which have been asepticized by filling irith cold water, and placing in a vessel similarly filled, bringing to a boiling; temperature, and maintaining at this temperature until the juice, while still hot, is poured into them. If now closed with corks similarly asepticized, or by dipping into hot melted paraffine, the juice may be kept unaltered for years. It U better, however, to make the juice at once into syrup, using the best refined »ugar, and boiling in a copper ^ kettle 'iron or tin spoil the color), following the usual precautions as to skimming, etc. The syrup should be poured hot into the bottles previously heated as before de- ♦cribed. Ripe fruit may be kept in suitable quantities for a considerable time if cov- ered with a solution of saccharine and left undisturbed, this, too, without dete- riorating the taste, color, or aroma of the fruit if packed with care. Whole fruit ma^ be stored in bulk, bj carefully and without fracture filling into convenient-sized jars or bottles, and pouring thereon a solution containing a quarter of an ounce of refined sacchanne to the gallon of water, so filling each «esMl that the solution is within an inch |>f the cork when pressed into position. The corks should first of all be immersed io melted paraffine wax, then drained, and allowed to cool. When fruit juices alune are required for storage purposes they are prepared by subjecting the juicy fruits to considerable pressure, by which process the luices are liberated. The sound ripe fruits are crushed and packed into felt or flannel bags. The Wt fhould be carefully selected, rotten or impaired portioiu being carefully re- moved; this is important, or the whole stock would be spoiled. Several meth- ods are adopted for preserving and clari- fying fruit juices. A common wa^ in which they are kept from fermenting is by the use of salicylic acid or other antiseptic substance, which destroys the fermentative germ, or other- wise retards its action for a considerable time. The use of this acid is seriously objected to by some as injurious to the consumer.^ About 2 ounces of salicylic acid, previously dissolved in alcohol, to 25 gallons of juice, or 40 grains to the gallon, is generally considered the proper proportion. Another method adopted is to fill the freshly prepared cold juice into bottles until it reaches the necks, and on the top of this fruit juice a little glycerine is placed. Juices thus preserved^ will keep in an unchanged condition in any season. Probablv one of the best methods of pre- serving fruit juices is to add 15 per cent of 95 per cent alcohol. On such an ad- dition, albumen and mucila^nous matter will be deposited. The juice may then be stored in large bottles, jars, or barrels, if securely closed, and when clear, so that further clarification is unnecessary, the juice should finally be decanted or siphoned off. A method applicable to most berries is as follows: Take fresh, ripe berries, stem them, and rub through a No. 8 sieve, rejecting all soft and green fruit. Add to each gallon of pulp thus obtained 8 pounds of eranulated sugar. Put on the fire and bring just to a boil, stirring constantlv. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon 1 ounce of a saturated alco- holic solution of salicylic acid, stirring well. Remove the scum, and, while still hot, put into jars and hermetically seal. Put the jars in cold water, and raise them to the boiling point, to prevent them from^ bursting by sudden expansion on pouring hot fruit into them. Fill the jars entirely full, so as to leave no air space when fruit cools and contracts. Prevention of Foaming and Partial Caramelization of Fruit Tuices. — Fresh fruit juices carr^ a notable amount of free carbonic acid, which must make its escape on heating the liquid. This will do easily enough if the juice be heated in its natural state, but the addition of the sugar so increases the density of the fluid that the acid finds escape difficult, and often the result is foamin/i;. As to the burning or partial caraviehzation of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 812 ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS the syrup, that i» easily accounted for in the greater density of the syrup at the bottom of the kettle — the lighter portion* or that still carrying impnsonea gases, remaining on top until it is freed from them. Constant stirring can prevent this only partially, since it cannot entirely overcome the results of the natural forces in action. The consequence is more or less caramelisation. ^ The remedy is very simple. Boil the juices first, adding dis- tilled water to make up for the loss by eraporation, and add the sugar afterwards. ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS: Almond Eztrmcti. — L — Oil of bitter almonds 90 minims Alcohol, 94 per cent, quantity suffi- cient to make 8 ounces. II. — Oil of bitter almonds 80 minims Alcohol 7 ounces Distilled water, quantity sufficient to make 8 ounces. III.— Oil of bitter al- monds, deprived of its hydrocyanic acid 1 ounce Alcohol 15 ounces In ,oider to remove the hydrocyanic add in oil of bitter almonds, dissolve 2 parts of ferrous sulphate in 16 parts of distilled water; in another vessel slake 1 part freshly burned quicklime in a simi- lar quantitv of distilled water, and to this add the solution of iron sulphate, after the same has cooled. In the mixture put 4 parts of almond oil, and thorougnly agitate the liquids together. Repeat the agitation at an interval of 5 minutes, then filter. Put the filtrate into a glass retort and distil until all the oil has passed over. Remove any water that may be with the distillate by decantation, or otherwise. Apricot Eztrmct^ Linalyl formate. 90 minima Glycerine 1 ounce Amyl valerianate 4 drachms Alcohol . . 11 ounces Fluid extract orris. . . 1 ounce Water, quantity sufficient to make 1 pint. i^pte Extract^ Glycerine 1 ounce Amyl valerianate 4 drachms Linalyl formate 45 minims Fluid extract orris.. . . 1 ounce Alcohol 11 ounces Water, quantity sufficient to make 1 pint. Apple Syrup.— I.— Peel and remove the cores of, say, 5 narts of apples and rut them into little bits. Put in a suitable vessel and pour over them a mixture tjf 5 parts each of common white wine and water, and let macerate togetber for 5 days at from 125'' to 135'' F., the vr«»d being closed durins the time. Then stnin the liquid througn a linen dotli, usanjc gentle pressure on the solid matter, forr- mg as much as possible of it through thr cloth. Boil SO parts of sugar and iO parts of water together, and when boiling add to the res ul tins syrup the appl« juice; let it boil up for a minute or »i*. and strain through flannel. II. — Good ripe apples are cut into small pieces ana pounded to a pulp in a mortar of any metal with the excrpljoo of iron. To 1 part of this pulp add 1 1 parts of water. Allow this to stand f**r 12 hours. Colate. To 11 parts of the colature add 1 part of sugar. BoO U*t 5 minutes. Skim carefully. Bottle »i%tk^- ly warm. A small Quantity of tariarv*- acid may be added to neighten the flavor. Banana Syrup. — Cut the fruit in slir«*« and place in a jar; sprinkle with uugmr and cover the jar, wnich is then eDTc4- oped in straw and placed in cold water and the latter is heated to the boiling point. The jar is then removed, allow«>«i to cool, and the juice poured into boilirs. Cinnamon Eaaenoe, — Oil of cinnamon 2 draehsiM Cinnamon, powdered 4 ounces Alcohol, deodorised . . 16 oum*r« Distilled water 16 ounces Dissolve the oil in the alcohoK and a«M the water, an ounce at a time, with a^nt*- tion after each addition. Moisten tbr cinnamon with a little of the water, ad«i. and agitate. Cork tightly, and out in m warm place, to macerate, 2 -wt^kjK jp^- ing the flask a vigorous agitation mrr- eral times a day. Finally, fiJter tkro«r^ paper, and keep in small vials, tigbtl% stoppered. Chocolate Eztrmct.— Probably the beM form of chocolate extract is made as fol- lows: Curacao cocoa 400 parts Vanilla, chopped fine 1 part Alcohol of 55 per cent 9.000 parts Mix and macerate together for 15 da^s, express and set aside. Par4 th^ residue in a percolator, and poor on boil> ing water (soft) and percolate until 573 parts pass through. Put the percoLatr Digitized by VjOOQ IC ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS 813 in t flask, cork, and let cool, then mix with the alcoholic extract. If it be de- »irfd to make a syrup, before mixing the fxtract, add 1,000 parts of sugar to the percolate, and with gentle heat dissolve the sugar. Mix the syrup thus formed, ifter cooling, with the alcoholic extract. Coffee Extracts. — In making coffee extract, care must be used to avoid ex- tracting the bitter properties of the coffee, as this IS where most manufacturers fail; in tryinff to get a strong extract they suc- ceed only in getting a bitter one. I. — The coffee should be a mixture of Mocha, 8 parts; Old Government Java, 5 parts; or. as some prefer. Mocha, S parts; Java, 3 parts; best old Rio, 2 parts. Coffee, freshly roasted and pulverized 100 parts Boiling water 600 parts Pack the coffee, moistened with boil- ing water, in a strainer, or dipper, placed in a vessel standing in the water bath at lM>i]ing point, and let 400 parts of the water, in active ebullition, pass slowly through it. Draw off the liquid as quick- ly as possible (best into a vessel previously heated by boiling water to nearly the boil- ing point), add SOO parts of boiling water, and pass the whole again through the drainer (the container remaining in the water bath). Remove from the bath; add 540 parts of sugar, and dissolve by agitation while still hot. II. — The following is based upon Lie- big*!i method of making coffee tor table use: Moisten 50 parts of coffee, freshlv n>asted and powdered as before, with roid water, and add to it a little egg albu- men and stir in. Pour over the whole 4O0 parts of boiling water, set on the fire, and let come to a boil. As the liquid foams, stir down with a spoon, but let it (Mine to a boil for a moment; add a little cold water, cover tightly, and set aside in a warm place. Exhaust the residual f^ffee with 300 parts of boiling water, as detailed in the first process, and to the filtrate add carefully the now clarified extract, up to 600 parts, by adding boiling vtter. Proceed^ to make the syrup by the method detailed above. III. — To make a more permanent ex- tract of coffee saturate 600 parts of freshly roasted coffee, ground moderately fine, with any desired quantity of a 1 in 3 mixture of alcohol of 94 per cent and diMtilled water, and pack in a percolator. <\ow the faucet and let stand, closely •toppered, for 24 hours; then pour on the residue of the alcohol and water, and let nin through, adding sufficient water, at the last, so as to compensate for what boils awav. Set this aside, and continue the percolation, with boiling water, until the powder is exhausted. Evaporate the resultant percolate down to the consist- ency of the alcoholic extract, and mix the two. If desired, the result may be evaporated down to condition of an ex- tract. To dissolve, add boiling water. I V.-;-This essence is expressly adapted to boiling purposes. Talce 8 pounds of good cofl^e, 4 ounces of granulated susar, 4 pints of pure alcohol, 6 pints of not water. Have coffee fresh roasted and of a medium grinding. Pack in a glass per- colator, and percolate it with a men- struum, consisting of the water and the alcohol. Repeat the percolation until the desired strength is obtained, or the coffee exhausted; then add the sugar and filter. V. — Mocha coffee I pound Java coffee I pound Glycerine, quantity sufficient. Water, quantity sufficient. Grind the two coffees fine, and mix, then moisten with a mixture of 1 part of glycerine and 3 parts of water, and pack in a glass percolator, and percolate slowly until 30 ounces of the percolate is ob- tained. It is a more complete extraction if the menstruum be poured on in the con- dition of boiling, and it be allowed to macerate for 20 minutes before percola- tion commences. Coffee extract should, by preference, be made in a glass per- colator. A glycerine menstruum is pref- erable to one of dilute alcohol, giving a finer product. VI. — Coffee, Java, roast- ed. No. 20 pow- der 4 ounces Glycerine, pure. . . . 4 fluidounces Water, quantity sufficient. Boiling, quantity sufficient. Moisten the coffee slightly with water, and pack firmlv in a tin percolator; pour on water, gradually, until 4 fluidounces are obtained, then set aside. Place the coffee in a clean tin vessel, with 8 fluid- ounces of water, and boil for 5 minutes. A^ain place the coffee in the percolator with the water (infusion), and when the liquid has passed, or drained off, pack the grounds firmly, and pour on boiling water until 8 ffuidounces are obtained. When cold, mix the first product, and add the glycerine, bottle, and cork well. The excellence of this extract of cof- fee, from the manner of its preparation, will be found by experience to be incom- parably superior to that made by the for- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 814 ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS mulas usually recommended, the reason being apparent in the first step in the process. Coffee EflMnce.— Best ground Mocha coffee 4 pounds Best ground chicory. . 2 pounds Boil with 2 gallons of water in a closed vessel and when cold, strain, press, and make up to 2 gallons, and to this add Rectified spirit of wine 8 ounces Pure glycerine (fluid) 16 ounces Add s^rrup enough to make 4 gallons, and mix intimately. Cncnmber Eaaence. —Press the iutce from cucumbers, mix with an equal vol- ume of alcohol and distil. If the distil- late is not sufficiently perfumed, more juice may be added and the mixture dis- tilled. It is said that the essence thus prepared will not spoil when mixed with fats in the preparation of cosmetics. Fruit Jelly Extract.— Fill into separate paper bags: Medium finely pow- dered gelatin 18 parts Medium finely pow- dered citric acid. ... S parts Likewise into a glass bottle a mixture of any desired Fruit essence 1 part Spirit of wine 1 part and dissolve in the mixture for obtain- ing the desired color, raspberry red or lemon yellow, ^ part. ^ For u.se, diAxolve the gelatin and the citric acid in boiling water, adding Sugar 195 parts and mixing before cooling with the fruit essence mixture. Ginger Eztracti. — The following U an excellent method of preparing a soluble essence or extract of ginger: I. — Jamaica ginger 24 ounces Rectified spirits. 60 per cent 45 ounces Water. 15 ounces Mix and let macerate together with frequent agitations for 10 days, then per- colate, press off, and filter. The yield should be 45 ounces. Of this take 40 ounces and mix with an equal amount of distilled water. Dissolve 6 drachms of sodium phosphate in 5 ounces of boiling water ; let cool and add the soluti«m to the fihimle and water, mixinf^ well. Add 2 drachms of calcium chloride dissolved in 5 ounces of water, nearly cold, and again thoroughly shake the whole. Let stand for 12 hours; then filter. Put the filtrate in a still, and distil off, at as slow a teinperature as possible, SO ounces. Set this distillate to one aide, and continue the distillation tiU anotbrr 40 ounces have passed, then let the »tiU cool. The residue in the still, some l^ ounces, is the desired essence. Pour out all that is possible and wash the still «itb the SO ounces of distillate first set asidr. This takes up all that is es»rntial Finally, filter once more, through double filter paper and preserve the filtrate about 40 ounces, of an amber-coloriNl liquid containing all of the essentials «»f Jamaica ginger. Soluble EaMnce of Ginger.— II. - The following is Harrop's method of pn>crrd> ing: Fluid extract of gin- ger (U. S.) 4 ouocr^ Pumice, in moder- ately fine powder . . 1 ounrr Water enough to make 1 1 ouno«*« Pour the fluid extract into a bottle, add the pumice and shake the mixture ai>ii repeat the shaking in the cHiurse of Arvrral hours. Now add the water in prupti*^. tion of about 2 ounces, shaking well ar.«l frec^uentlv after each addition. Wkrn all IS adaed repeat the agitation o». sionall^ during 24 hours, then 6lt«*r. returning the last portion of the filtrmle until it comes through clear, and if i»r< . essary add sufficient water to makr It ounces. III. — Jamaica ginger, ground 9 poun«i« Pumice stone, ground 2 ounrf-% Lime, slaked t ounces Alcohol, dilute 4 pint* Rub the ginger with the pumice sttvnr and lime until tnoroujrhly mixed. M(«itr-Ti with the dilute alcohol until saturated an%i f»lace in a narrow percolator, being rart- ul not to use force in packing, but mbi nl t putting it in to obtain the po«ti«)a i»f a powder to be percolated, so Ibat tb«* menstruum will go through unifi^mU Finally, add the dilute alcohol and prv. ceed until 4 pints of percolate are %»\^ tained. Allow the liquid to stattil f«.r 24 hours; then filter if necessary. I v.— Tincture ginger 480 parte Tinct u re capsicu m. . 1 < parts Oleoresin ginger. ... 8 parts Magnesium carbon- ate 16 parte Rub the oleorestn with the mag»r«a*, and add the tinctures; add about 44iu Digitized by VjOOQ IC ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS 816 {Mils of water, in divided portions, stir- ^H vigorously the while. Transfer the mixture to a Dottle, and allow to stand 1 week, shaking; frequentlv; then filter, iD(l make up 060 parts witn water. v.— Fluid extract of ginger (U.S. P.) 4 ounces Pumice, powdered and washed 1 ounce Water enough to jnake 12 ounces Pour the fluid extract of ginger into a lN)ttIe, and add the pumice, shake thor- nuifhly, set aside, and repeat the opera- tion in the course of several hours. Add the water, in the proportion of about 2 ounces at a time, a»tating vigorously ifter each addition. When all is added, rrpeat the agitation occasionally during i\ hours, then filter, returning^ the first portion of the filtrate until it comes through bright and clear. If necessary, pa^s water through the filter, enough to Diake 12 fluidounces of filtrate. VI.— Strongest tincture of ginger.. .... . 1 pint Fresh slaked lime . 1 } ounces Salt of tartar | ounce VII. Jamaica ginger, ground 82 parts Pumice stone, pow- dered 82 parts Lime, slaked 2 parts Alcohol, dilute, sufficient to make 82 parts Rab the ginger with the pumice stone and lime, then moisten with alcohol until it i.H saturated with it. Put in a narrow p^roolator, using no force in packing. Allow the mass to stand for 24 hours, thrn let run through. Filter if neces- Mry. VIII.— The following is insoluble: Cochin ginger, cut fine 1,000 parts Alcohol, 05 per cent 2,500 parts Water 1,250 parts Glycerine 250 parts Digest together for 8 days in a very ^arm. not to say hot, place. Decant, prfMs off the roots, and add to the cola- tiirf. then filter through paper. This makes a strong, natural tasting essence. IX. —Green Gmger Eztrmct. — The r«^n ginger root is freed from the epi- ricrmts and surface dried bv exposure to the air for a few hours, ft is then cut into thin slices and macerated for some measure 2 pints. Orange Peel, Soluble Extract^ Freshly grated orange rind 1 part Deodorized alcohol... 1 pari Macerate for 4 days and express. .Vild the expressed liquid to 10 per reot of it« weight of powdered magnesium carbonatr Digitized by VjOOQ IC essp:nces and extracts 817 in a mortar, and rub thoroughly until a Kmooth, cream V mixture results; then gradually add tne water, constantly stir- ring. Let stand for 48 hours, then filter through paper. Keep in an amber bottle »nd cool place. To make syrup of orange, add 1 part of this extract to 7 parts of heavy simple syrup. Pteftch Extract— Linalyl formate 120 minims Am^l valerianate 8 drachms Fluid extract orris. . . « ounces Oenanthic ether. ... 2 drachms Oil rue (pure Ger- man) 30 minims Chloroform 2 drachms Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol, 70 per cent, to 3 pints. PiOMpple Essence.— A ripe, but not too soft, pineapole, wei|[hing about, say, 1 pound, is masned up in a mortar with Tokav wine, 6 ounces. The mass is then brought into a flask with 1 pint of vater, and allowed to stand 2 liours. Alcohol, 00 per cent, \ pint, is then added ind the mixture distilled until 7 quarts of distillate have been collected. Coji;- nsr, 9 ounces, is then added to the dis- tillation. Pistachio Essence.— 1.— Essence of almond 2 fluidounces Tincture of vanilla 4 fluidounces Oil of neroli 1 drop II.— Oil of orange peel . 4 fluidrachms Oil of cassia 1 fluidrachm Oil of bitter almond 15 minims Oil of calamus. ... 15 minims Oil of nutmeg 1 } fluidrachms Oil of clove SO minims Alcohol 12 fluidounces Water 4 fluidounces Magnesium car- bonate 2 drachms Shake together, allow to stand 24 bouni, and filter. Pomegranate Essence.— Oil of sweet orange 3 parts Oil of cloves ...... 3 parts Tincture of vanilla. 15 parts Tincture of ffinger. 10 parts Maraschino liqueur 150 parts Tincture of coccion- ella 165 parts Distilled water.. . . . 150 parts Phosphoric acid, dilute 45 parts Alcohol, 05 per cent, quantity suffi- cient to make 1 000 parts. Mix and dissolve. Quince Eztrmct. — Fluid extract orris. ... 2 ounces Oenanthic ether 1 ) ounces Linalyl formate 00 minims Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol, 70 per cent, to 3 pints. Raspberry Syrup, without Alcohol or Antiseptics. — The majority of producers of fruit juices are firmly convinced that the preservation of these juices without the addition of alcohol, salicylic acid, etc., is impossible. Herr Steiner's proc- ess to the contrary is here reproduced: The fruit is crushed and pressed; the juice, with 2 per cent of sugar added, is poured into containers to about three- quarters of their capacity, and there al- lowed to ferment. The containers are stoppered with a cork through which runs a tube, whose open end is protected by a bit of gum tubing, the extremity of wnich is immersed in a glass filled with water. It should not go deeper than 1^ of an inch hi^h. The evolution of carbonic ffas begins in about 4 hours and is so snarp that the point of the tube must not be immersed any deeper. Ordinarily fermentation ceases on the tenth da^, a fact that may be ascertained by shaking the container sharply, when, if it has ceased, no bubbles of gas will appear on the surface of the water. The fermented juice is then filtered to get rid of the pectinic matters, yeast, etc., and the filtrate should be poured back on the filter several times. The juice filters quickly and comes off very clear. The necessary amount of sugar to make a syrup is now added to the liquid and al- lowed to dissolve gradually for 12 hours. At the end of this time the liquid is put on the fire and allowed to boil up at once, by which operation the solution of the sugar is made complete. Straining through a tin strainer and filling into heated bottles completes the process. The addition of sugar to the freshly pressed juice has the advantage of caus- ing the fermentation to progrcs.s to the fuu limit, and also to preserve, by the alcohol produced bv fermentation, the beautiful red color of the juice. Any fermentation that may be per- mitted prior to the pressing out of the juices is at the expense of aroma and flavor; but whether fermentation occurs before or after pressure of the berry, the ordinary alcohol test cannot determine whether the juice has been completely fermented (and consequently whetner the pectins have been completely separated) or not. Since, in spite of the tact that the liquid remains limpid after 4 day:*' Digitized by VjOOQ IC 318 ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS fermentation, the production of alcohol is progressing all the time — a demonstra- tion that fermentation cannot then be completed, and that at least 10 days will be required for this purpose. An abortive raspberry syrup is always due to an incomplete or faulty fermenta- tion, for too often does it occur that in- completely fermented juices after a little time lose color and become turbid. The habit of cjarifying juices by shak- inf( up with a bit of paper, talc, etc., or boiling with albumen is a useless waste of time and labor. By the process indi- cated the entire process of clarification occurs automatically, so to speak. Deep Red Raapberry Symp. — A much deeper and richer color than that ordi- narily attained may be secured by add- ing to crushed raspberries, before fer- mentation, small quantities of sugar, sifted over the surface in layers. The ethylic alcohol produced by fermentation in this manner aids in the extraction of the red coloring matter of the fruit. Moie- over. the fermented juice should never be cooked over a fire, but by super- heated steam. Only in this way can caramel ization be completely avoided. Only sugar free from ultramarine and chafk should be used in making the syrup, as these impurities also have a bad influence on the color. Raspberry Essences. — I. — Raspberries, fresh . . 16 ounces Angelica (California) 6 fluidounces Brandy (California) 6 ounces Alcohol 6 ounces Water, quantity sufficient. Ma.sh the berries to a pulp in a mortar or bowl, and transfer to a flask, along with the Angelica, brandy, alcohol, and about 8 ounces of water. Let macerate overnight, then distil off until 82 ounces have passed over. Color red. The addition of a trifle of essence of vanilla improves this essence. II. — Fresh raspberries . . . 200 grams Water, distilled 100 grams Vanilla essence 2 grams Pulp the raspberries, let stand at a temperature of about 70® F. for 48 hours, and then add 100 grams of water. Fiftv grams are then distilled off, and alcohol, 90 per cent, 25 grams, in which 0.01 vanillin has been previously dissolved, is added to the distillate. Sarsapftrilla, Soluble Eztrmct— Pure oil of winter- green 5 fluidrachms Pure oil of sassa- fras. 5 fluidrachms Pure oil of anise . . 5 fluidrachms Carbonate of mag- nesium 2| ounces Alcohol 1 pint Water, quantity sufficient to make 2 pints. Dissolve the various oils in the alcohcil. and rub with carbonate of magnesium in a mortar. Pour the mixture into a quart bottle, and fill the bottle with water. Allow to macerate for a week or more, shaking every day. Then filter through the paper, adding enough water through the paper to maice the finished product measure 2 pints. Strawberry Juice. — Put into the water bath 1,000 parts of distilled water and 600 parts of sugar and boil, with con- stant skimming, until no more scum arises. Add 5 parts of citric acid and continue the boiling until about 1.^30 parto are left. Stir in, little by little, 500 parts of fresh strawberries, properly stemmed, and be particulariy cmrriul not to crush the fruit. When all the berries are added, cover the vessel, re- move from the fire, put into a warm place and let stand, closely covered, for 3 hour^. or until the mass has cooled down to the surrounding temperature, then strain otT through flannel, being careful not in crush the berries. Prepare a sufficient number of pint bottles by filling thrin with warm water, putting them into a kettle of the same and heatini^ them ii* boiling, then rapidly emptying ard draining as quickly as possible. Inti* these pour the hot juice, cork and en cloth to retain heat as long as possible. Shake over the beans 1 part of potassium carbonate, in powder, tnen pour over the mass 240 parts distilled water, in an Digitized by VjOOQ IC 820 ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS active state of ebullition, cover the vessel closely, and set aside in a moderately warm place. When quite cold add 720 parts alcohol, close tne vessel tightly, and set aside in a moderately warm place, to macerate for 15 days, then strain off, press out, and set aside for a day or two. The Hquid mav then be filtered and bottled. The addition of a little musk to the beans before pouring on the hot water, is thought by many to greatly improve the product. One part of this extract added to 800 parts simple syrup is excellent for fountain purposes. VI. — Vanilla beans 8 ounces Glycerine 6 ounces Granulated sugar. . . 1 pound Water 4 pints Alcohol of cologne spirits 4 pints Cut or grind the beans very fine; rub with the glycerine and put in a wooden keg: dissolve the sucar in the water, first heating the water, if convenient; mix the water and spirits, and add to the vanilla; pour in keg. Keep in a warm place from S to 6 months before using. Shake often. To clear, percolate through the dregs. If a dark, rich color is desired add a little sugar coloring. VIL—Vanilla beans. good quality. . 16 ounces Alcohol 64 fluidounces Glycerine 24 fluidounces Water 10 fluidounces Dil ute alcohol, quantity sufficient. Mix and macerate, with frequent agi- tation, for S weeks, filter, and add dilute alcohol to make 1 gallon. VIIL— Vanilla beans, good quality. . . 8 ounces Pumice stone, lump 1 ounce Rock candv. ... 8 ounces Alcohol and water, of each a suffi- ciency. Cut the beans to fine shreds and trit- urate well with the pumice stone and rock candy. Place the whole in a percolator and percolate with a menstruum com- posed of 0 parts alcohol and 7 parts water until the percolate passes through clear. Bring the bulk up to 1 gallon with the same menstruum and set aside to ripen. IX. — Cut up, as finelv as possible, 20 parts of vanilla bean and with 40 partn of milk sugar (rendered as dry as posle by being kept in a drying closet until it no longer lories weight) rub to a r<}ar»e powder. Moisten with 10 parts of dilute alcohol, pack somewhat loosely in a closed percolator and let stand for 2 hours. Add 40 parts of dilute alcohol, close the percolator, and let stand 8 day^. At the end of this time add 110 oaris of dilute alcohol, and let oass througn. The residue will repay worl&ing oyer. Dry it well, add 5 parts of vanillin, and 1 10 parts of milk sugar and pass through a sieve, then treat as before. The following are cheap extracts: X. — Vanilla beans, chopped fine . . 5 parts Tonka beans, powdered 10 parts Sugar, powdered . 14 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent 25 parts Water, quantity sufficient to make 100 parts. Rub the sugar and vanilla to a fine powder, add the tonka beans, and ancor- porate. Pack into a filter, and poor on 10 parts of alcohol, cut with 15 parts of water; close the faucet, and let marrrate overnight. In the morning percolate with the remaining alcohol, added to so parts of water, until 100 parts of perco- late pass through. XI. — Vanilla beans 4 ounces Tonka beans 8 ounces Deodorised alcohol 8 pints Simple syrup 2 pints Cut and bruise the vanilla beanv afterwards bruising the tonka bean«. Macerate for 14 days in one- half of th^ spirit, with occasional agitation. Pour off the clear liquor and set aside; pour the remaining spirits in the magma, and heat bv means of the water bath to about 170** F. in a loosely covered vessel. Keep at this temperature 2 or S hours, and strain through flannel, with slight prrs- sure. Mix the two portions of liquid, and filter through felt. Add the syrup. White Pine and Tar Sjnip«~ White pine bark .... 75 "parts Wild cherry bark. ... 75 parts Spikenard root 10 parts Balm of Gilead buds 10 parts Sanguinaria root .... 8 parts Sassafras bark 7 parts Suffar 750 parts Chloroform 6 parts Svrup of tar 75 parts Alconol, enough. Water, enough. Syrup enougn to make 1,000 parts. Reduce the fir^t six ingredients to a coarse powder and by using a mrnstnium composed of 1 in S alcohol, obtain 500 parts of a tincture from them. In tb&* Digitized by VjOOQ IC ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS 321 dissolve the suffar, add the syrup of tar aod the chloroform, and, finally, enough syrup to bring the measure of the fin- ished product up to 1,000 parts. Wild Cherry Extract.— Oenanthic ether. . 2 fluidrachms Amyl acetate 2 fluidrachms Oil of bitter al- monds (free from hydrocyanic acid^ 1 fluidrachm Fluid extract of wild chen^ S fluidounces Glycerine 2 fluidounces Deodorized alcohol enough to make 16 fluidounces. HARMLESS COLORS FOR USE IN SYRUPS, ETC.: Red. — Cochineal syrup, prepared as follows: I. — Cochineal in coarse powder 6 parts Potassium carbon- ate S parts Distilled water 15 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent 12 parts Simple syrup to make 500 parts. Rub the cochineal and potassium to- gether, adding the water and alcohol little by little, under constant trituration. Let stand overnight, add the syrup, and filter. II. — Carmine, in fine powder 1 part Stronger ammonia water 4 parts Distilled water to make 24 parts. Rub up the carmine and ammonia and to the solution add the water, little by little, under constant trituration. If in standing this shows a tendency to sepa- rate, a arop or two of ammonia will cor- rect the trouble. Besides these there is caramel, which, of course, you know. Knk.— III.— Carmine 1 part Liquor potassie. ... 6 parts Distillecl water 40 parts Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the requisite color is obtained. To Test Fruit Juices and Syrups for AniliBe Colors* — Add to a sample of the «/Tttp or juice, in a test tube, its own volunie of distilled water, and agitate to C«t a thorough mixture, then add a few dro|i» of the standard solution of lead diftretate, shake, and filter. If the syrup is free from aniline coloring matter the filtrate will be clear as crystal, since the lead salt precipitates natural colorinj; matters, but has no effect upon the ani- line colors. To Test Fruit Juices for Salicylic Add. J— Put a portion of the juice to oe tested in a large test tube, add the same volume of ether, close the mouth of the tube and shake gently for 30 seconds. Set aside until the liquid separates into two layers. Draw off tne supernatant ethereal por- tion and evaporate to drvness in a cap- sule. Dissolve the residue in alcohol, dilute with S volumes of water, and add 1 drop of tincture of iron chloride. If salicylic acid be present the character- istic purple color will instantly disappear. Syrups Selected from the Formulary of the Pharmaceutical Society of Antwerp. — DujfUne Syrup. — Dionine, 1 part; dis- tilled water, 19 parts; simple syrup, 1,980 parts. Mix. Jaborandi Syrup. — Tincture of jabor- andi, 1 part; simple syrup, 19 parts. Mix. ConyaUaria Syrup. — Extract of con- vallaria, 1 part; distilled water, 4 parts; simple syrup, 95 parts. Dissolve the ex- tract in the water and mix. Codeine Phosphate Syrup. — Codeine phos- phate, S parts; distilled water, 17 parts; simple syrup, 980 parts. Dissolve the co- deine in the water and mix with the syrup. Licorice Syrup. — Incised licorice root, 4 parts; dilute solution of ammonia, 1 part; water, 20 parts. Mix and macerate for 12 hours at 58^ to 66'' F. with frequent agitation; press, heat the liquid to boil- ing, then evaporate to two parts on the water bath; add alcohol, 2 parts; allow to stand for 12 hours; then niter. Add to the filtrate enough simple syrup to bring the final weight to 20 parts. Maize Stigma Syrup. — Extract of maize stigmas, 1 part; distilled water, 4 parts; simple svrup, 95 parts. Dissolve the ex- tract in tne water, filter, and add the syrup. Ammonium Valerianate Solution.— Am- monium valerianate, 2 parts; alcoholic ex- tract of valerian, 1 part; distilled water, 47 parts. Kola Tincture. — Powdered kola nuts, 1 part; alcohol, 60 per cent, 5parts. Mace- rate for 6 days, press, and niter. Bide^e Liqtnd Vesicant. — Tincture of cantharides, tincture of rosemary, chloro- form, equal parts. Peptone Wine. — Dried peptone, 1 part; Malaga wine, 19 parts. Dissolve without heat and filter alter standing for several days. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ^22 ETCHING Etching General Instructioiis for Etching. — In etching, two factors come into con- sideration, (1) that which covers that part of the metal not exposed to the etching fluid (the resist), and (2) the etchinff fluid itself. In tne process, a distinction is to be made between etching in relief and etching in intaglio. In relief etching, the design is drawn or painted upon the surface with the liquia etching-ground, so that after etching and removal of the etching-ground, it appears raised. In intaglio etching, the whole surface is covered with tne etching-ground, and the design put on with a needle; the ground being thus removed at the points touched by tne drawing, the latter, after etching and removal of the etching- ground, is sunken. CoverinE Agents or Resists. — The plate is enclosed bv a border made of grafting wax (yellow beeswax, 8 parts; pine rosin, 10 parts; beef tallow, 2 parts; turpentine, 10 parts); or a mixture of yellow wax, 8 parts; lard, 3 parts; Burgundy pitch, i part. This mixture is also used to cover the sides of vessels to be etched. Another compound consists of wax, 5 parts; cobbler s wax, 2} parts; turpentine, 1 part. Etching -Ground. — I. — Soft : Wax. 2 parts; asphalt, 1 part; mastic, 1 part. II.— Wax, 3 parts; asphalt, 4 parts. III. — Mastic, 16 parts; Burgundy pitch, 50 parts; melted wax, 125 parts; and melted asphalt, 200 parts added succes- sively, and, after cooling, turpentine oil, 500 parts. If the j^round should be deep black, lampblack is added. Hard: Burgundy pitch, 125 parts; rosin, 125 parts, melted; and walnut oil, 100 parts, added, the whole to be boiled until it can be drawn out into long threads. Etchings-Ground for Copper En^;rav- tng.— White wax, 120 parts; mastic, 15 parts; Burgundy pitch, 60 parts; Syrian asphalt, 120 parts, melted together; and 5 parts concentrated solution of rubber in rubber oil added. Ground for Relief Etching.— I.— Syrian asphalt, 500 parts, dissolved in turpen- tine oil, 1,000 parts. II. — Asphalt, rosin, and wax, 200 parts of each, are melted, and diitolved in turpentine oil, 1,200 part*. The under side of the metal plate i» |irotcf*t<*d by a coating of a spirituous »tii*llM<* Nolution, or by a solution of as- plittit, tlOO parts, in benzol, 600 parts. For Strongly Add SolutionB.— I.— Black pitch, 1 part; Japanese wax. 2 parts; rosin, 1} parts; Oamar rosin. 1 part, melted together and mixed with turpentine oil, 1 part. 11. — ^Heavy black printers* ink, 3 parts; rosin, 1 part; wax, 1 part. For electro-etching, the following ground is recommended: Wax, 4 parts; asphalt, 4 parts; pitch, 1 part If absolute surety is required respect- ing the resistance of the etching-ground to the action of the etching fluids, several etching-grounds are put on, one over the other; first (for instance), a solution of rubber in benzol, then a spirituous shel- lac solution, and a third ^ stratum of asphalt dissolved in turpentine oil. If the etching is to be of different de- grees of depth, the places where it is (o be faint are stopped out with varni«k, after they are deep enough, and the ob- ject is put back into the bath for further etching. For puttinff on a design before the etching, the following method may be used: Cover the metal plate, tin plate for example, with a colored or c^lorle^i^ spirit varnish; after drying, cover this in a dark room, with a solution of gelatiiu 5 parts, and red potassium chromate, 1 part, in water, 100 parts; or with a solution of albumen, 2 parts; ammonium bichromate, 2 parts, in water, 200 part*. After drying, put the plate, covered with a stencil, in a copying or printing; frame, and expose to light. The sensitive gela- tin stratum will become insoluble at the places exposed. Place in water, and iUr gelatin will be dissolved at the plarr* covered by the stencil; dry, and remo%r the spirit varnish from the places with spirit, then put into the etching fluid. Etching Fluids. —The Hching fluiil i^ usually poured over the metallic surfarr, which IS enclosed in a border, as de- scribed before. If the whole object i* to be put into the fluid, it must be entirph covered with the etching-ground. Afl«V etching it is washed with pure water, dried with a linen cloth, and the etchinjc- ground is then washed off with turpentine oil or a light volatile camphor oil. The latter is very good for the purpose. Etching Fluids for Iron and SteeL- I. — Pure nitric acid, diluted for li|rht etching with 4 to 8 parts of water, for deep etching with an equal weight of water. II.— Tartaric add, 1 part, by we-iicht. mercuric chloride, 15 parts, by weight: water, 420 parts; nitric acid, 15 to 2Q drops, if 1 part equals 28 } grains. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ETCHING ni. — Spirit, 80 per cent, 120 parts, by weight; pure nitric acid, 8 parts; silver nitrate, 1 part. IV. — Pure acetic acid, 30 per cent, 40 parts, by weight; absolute alcohol, 10 parts; pure nitric acid, 10 parts. V. — Fuming nitric acid, 10 parts, by weight; pure acetic acid, 30 per cent, 50 parU, diluted with water if necessary or desired. VI. — A chromic acid solution. VII. — Bromine, 1 part; water, 100 parts. Or — mercuric chloride, 1 part; water, 30 parts. VIII. — Antimonic chloride, 1 part; water, 6 parts; hydrochloric acid, 6 parts. For Delicate Etchings on Steel. — I. — Iodine, 2 parts; potassium iodide, 4 parts; water, 40 parts. n.— Silver acetate, 8 parts, by weight; alcohol, ^50 parts; water, 250 parts; pure nitric acid, 260 parts; ether, 64 parts; oxalic acid, 4 parts, in. — ^A copper chloride solution. Etching Powder for Iron and SteeL — Blue vitnol, 50 parts; common salt, 50 (mrts; mixed and moistened with water. For lustrous figures on a dull ground, as on sword blades, the whole surface is polished, the portions which are to re- main bright covered with stencils and the object exposed to the fumes of nitric acid. This is best done by pouring sul- phuric acid, 20 parts, over common salt, 10 parts. Relief Etching of Copper, Steel, and Brass. — Instead of nitric acid, which has a tendency to lift up the etching-ground, by evolution of gases, it is better to use a mixture of potassium bichromate, 150 parts; water, 800 parts; and concentrated sulphuric acid, 200 parts. The etching i» Slow, but even, and there is no odor. For Etchinjg; Copper, Brass, and Tom- bac.— Pure nitric acid diluted with water to 18*^ Be. The bubbles of gas given out »hf>uld immediately be removed with a feather that the etcning may be even. Another compound consists of a boil- ing solution of potassium chlorate, 2 parts, in water, 20 parts, poured into a mixture of nitric acid, 10 parts, and water, 70 parts. For delicate etchings dilute still more with 100 to 200 parts of water. Etching Fluid for Copper.— Weak: A boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 20 ptarts, in water, 200 parts, |>oured into m mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 20 part«; water. 500 parts. Stronger: A boiling solution of potas- sium chlorate, 25 parts, in water, 250 Earts, poured into a mixture of pure ydrochloric acid, 250 parts; water, 400 parts. Very strong: A boiling solution of potassium chlorate, 30 parts, in water, 300 parts, poured into a mixture of pure hydrochloric acid, 300 parts; water, 300 parts. For etchine on copper a saturated solution of bromine in dilute hydro- chloric acid may also be used; or a mix- ture of potassium bichromate, } part; water, 1 part; crude nitric acid, 3 parts. The following are also much used for copper and copper alloys: I. — ^A copper chloride solution acidi- fied with hydrochloric acid. II. — Copper nitrate dissolved in water. III. — A ferric chloride solution of 30° to 45° Be. If chrome gelatin or chrome albumen is used for the etching-ground, a spirituous ferric chloride solution is employed. The etching process can be made slower by adding[ common salt to the ferric chloride solution. Bfatt Etching of Copper.— White vi- triol, 1 to 5 parts; common salt, 1 part; concentrated sulphuric acid, 100 parts; nitric acid (36° B^.). 200 parts, mixed together. The sulphuric acid is to be poured carefully into the nitric acid, not the reverse. Etching Fluid for Brass.— Nitric acid, 8 parts; mixed with water, 80 parts; into this mixture pour a hot solution of potas- sium chlorate, 3 parts, in water, 50 parts. Etching Fluid for Brass to ICake Stencils.— Mix nitric acid, of 1.3 specific weij^ht, with enough fuming nitric acid to give a deep yellow color. This mix- ture acts violently, and will eat through the strongest sheet brass. Etching Fluid for Zinc— Boil pounded gallnuts, 40 parts, with water, 560 parts, until the whole amounts to 200 parts; filter, and add nitric acid, 2 parts, and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. Ferric chloride and antimonic chloride solutions may also be used to etch zinc. Relief Etchixig of Zinc— The design is to be drawn witn a solution of platinum chloride, 1 part, and rubber, 1 part, in water, 12 parts. The zinc plate is placed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 in 16). The black drawing will remain as it is. Another compound for the drawing is made of blue vitriol, 2 parts; copper chloride, 3 parts; water, 64 parts; pure hydrochloric acid, 1.1 specific weight. After the drawing is made, lay the plate in dilute nitric acid (1 in 8). Digitized by VjOOQ IC 8«4 ETCHING Etching Fluid for Alaminum. — Dilute hydrochloric acid serves this purpose. Aluminum containinff iron can be mat- ted with soda Ive, followed by treatment with nitric acia. The lye dissolves the aluminum, and the nitric acid dissolves the iron. Aluminum bronze is etched with nitric acid. Etchixig Fluid for Tin or Pewter.— Ferric cmoride, or highly diluted nitric acid. EtcUng Fluids for Silver.— I.— Dilute pure nitric acid. II. — Nitric acid (specific weight. 1.185), m parts; water, 340 parU; potassium bicnromate, 80 parts. Etching Fluid for Gold.— Dilute aqua regia (-nitric and sulphuric acids, in the proportion of 1 in 3). Etching Fluid for Copper, Zinc, and Steel. — A mixture of 4 parts of acetic acid (30 per cent), and alcohol, 1 part; to this is added gradually, nitric acid, 1 part. Etching Fluid for Lead, Antimony, and Britumia Metal.— Dilute nitric acid. Etching Powder for Metals (Tin, Silver, Iron, German Silver. Copper, and Zinc). — Blue vitriol, 1 part; ferric oxide, 4 parts. The powder, moistened, is ap- plied to the places to be etched, as, for instance, knife blades. Calcined green vitriol can also be used. Electro -Etching. —This differs from ordinarv etching in the use of a bath, which does not of itself affect the metal, but is made capable of doing so by the galvanic current. ^ Ordinary etching, seen under the microscope, consists of a succession of uneven depressions, which widen out considerably at a pertain depth. In elec- tro-etching, the line under the micro- scope appears as a perfectly even furrow, not eaten out beneath, however deeply cut. The work is, accordingly, finer and sharper; the fumes from the acids are also avoided, and the etching can be modified by regulation of the current. The preparation of the surface, by cov- ering, stoppinff-out, etc., is the same as in ordinary etching. At some uncovered place a conducting wire is sohlered on with soft solder, and covered with a coat of varnish. The plate is then suspendecl in the bath, and acts as the anode, with another similar plate for the cathode. If gradations in etching are desired, the plates are taken out after a time, rinsed, and covered, and returned to the bath. For the bath dilute acids are used. or saline solutions. Thus, for copper. dilute sulphuric acid, 1 in iO. For mp- per and orass, a blue vitriol solution. For zinc, white vitriol or a sine chloride solution. For steel and iron, green vitriol, or an ammonium chloride solu- tion. For tin, a tin-salt solution. For silver, a silver nitrate or potassium cya- nide solution. For gold and platinum, gold chloride and platinum chloride solutions, or a potassium cyanide m>1u- tion. For electro-etching a Ledaiich^ or Bunsen battery is to lie recommended. In the former, the negative xinc pole i« connected with a plate of the same metal as that to be etched, and the positive imn pole with the plate to be etched. In th<* Bunsen battery, the carbon pole is con- nected with the object to be etched, tb^ zinc pole with the metal plate. Etching Bath for Brass.- 1. — Mi% nitric acid (specified gravity, 1,4>, s parts, with water, 80 parts. <.— Chlumtr of potash, 8 parts, dissolved in 30 part* of water. Mix 1 and i. For protecting those portions which are not to tie etrheif . any suitable acid-proof compoaitioQ can be used. Etching on Copper.— I.— In order to do regular and quick etching on copper take a copper plate silvered on the etrh- ing side. Trace on this plate, either with varnish or lithographic ink. the denign. When the tracing is dry, place the pUtr in an iron bath, usiuff a batt«*ry. The designs traced with the varnish or ink are not attacked by the etching fluid When the plate Is taken from the bath and has l>een washed and dried, remote the varnish or ink with essence of turpen- tine; next pour mercury on the plaor^ reserved by the varnish or ink; the mer- cury will attack the silvered portions and the etching is quickly made. When tb^ mercury has done its duty gather up ihr excess and return to the bottle with a paper funnel. Wash the plate in strong alum water, and heat. II. — The plate must be first p«>liftbr«J either with emery or fine pumice rt^rar. and after it has been dried with carr. spread thereon a varnish comiMi«rd of eoual parts of yellow wax and c««eti< «- of turpentine. The solution of the wa\ in the essence is accomplished in the cold; next a little oil of turpentine ar •! some lampblack are added. This var- nish is allowed to dry on, away frur. dust and humidity. *W*hen dry', tra« the design with a very fine ptiint. Make a border with modeling wax. fto aa to pre* vent the acid from running off. l*our «*n nitric acid if the plate is of copper. «*r Digitized by VjOOQ IC ETCHING 325 )ijdroch]oric acid diluted with water if thr plate i* of zinc, allow the acid to act aiTording to the desired depth of the en- l^iving: wash several times and remove tbf varnish by heating the plate lightly. Wjuih with essence of turpentine and dry «f|l in sawdust or in tjie stove. For relief engraving the designs are traced More the enf^raving on the plate with the resist varnish instead of covering the plate entirely. These designs must be drlioately executed and without laps, as the acid eats awajr all the parts not pro- tected by the varnish. Etchia^ Fluids for Copper.— I.— A new etching fluid for copper plate is hy- drogen peroxide, to which a little dilute immonia water is added. It is said to bite in very rapidlj^ and with great regu- larity and uniformity. II. — Another fluid is fuming hydro- chloric acid (specific gravity, 1.19), 10 parts; water, 70 parts. To this add a s«ilution of potassium chlorate, 2 parts, dissolved in 20 parts of hot water. If the articles to be etched are very delicate and fine this should be diluted with from 100 to 1200 parts of water. ETCHIlfG OH GLASS. Names, designs, etc., can be etched on irlasji in three ways: First, by means of an engraving wheel, a method which requh*es Mime manual skill. Second, by means of a Aaod bla^st, making a stencil of the name, fixing this on the glass, and then, bv means of a blast of air, blowing sand on tne glass. Third, by the use of nydrofluoric acid. The glass is covered with beeswax, par- affine wax, or some acid resisting ink or varnish; the name or device is then etched out of the wax by means of a knife, snd the glass dipped in hydrofluoric acid, »hich eats aw^av the glass at those parts where the wax has been cut away. Fancy work, ornamental figures, let- tering, and monograms are most easilv and neatly cut into glass by the sand- blast process. Lines and figures on tu lies, jars, etc., may be deeply etched by «niearing the surface of the ^lass with beeswax, drawing the lines with a steel point, and exposing the glass to the fumes of hydrofluoric acid. This acid is ob- tained by putting powdered fluorspar into a tray made of sheet lead and pour- ing sulphuric acid on it, after whicn the tray Ls slightly warmed. The propor- tiona wfll vary with the purity of the materials used, fluorspar (except when in ery«tal«) being generally mixed with a Urjce quantity of other matter. Enough ^d to make a thin paste with the pow- dered spar will be about right. Where a lead tray is not at hand, the powdered spar may be poured on the glass and the acid poured on it and left for some time. As a general rule, the marks are opaque, but sometimes they are transparent. In this case cut them deeply and fill up with black varnish, if they are reauired to be very plain, as in the case of graduated vessels. Liquid hydrofluoric acid has been recommended for etching, but is not always suitable, as it leaves the surface on which it acts transparent. There are two methods of marking bottles — dry etching, or by stampinjg with etching inks.^ The first process is usually followed in glass factories. A rubber stamp is necessary for this proc- ess, and the letters should be made as large and clean cut as possible without crowding them too much. Besides this, an etching powder is reauired. A small quantitv of the powder is poured into a porcelain dish, and this is g laced on a sand bath or over a gentle re, and heated until it is absolutely dry, so that it can be rubbed down to an im- palpable powder. The bottle or other glass to be marked must be perfectly clean and drv. The etching^ powder takes better when the vessel is somewhat warm. The stamp should be provided with a roller which is kept constantly supplied with a viscid oil which it distributes on the stamp and which the stamp transfers to the glass surface. The powder is dusted on the imprint thus made, by means of a camel's- hair brush. Any surplus fallins on the unoiled surface may be removea with a fine long-haired pencil. The printed bottle is transferred to a damp place and kept for several minutes, the dampness aiding the etching powder in its work on the fflass surface. The bottle is then well washed in pjain water. Glass cylinders, large flasks, carboys, etc., may be treated in a somewhat differ- ent manner. The stamp here is inserted, face upward, between two horizontal boards, in such a manner that its face projects about a quarter of a millimeter (say O.OI inch) aoove the surface. Oil is applied to the surface, after which the cylinder, carboy, or what not, is rolled along the board and over the stamp. The design is thus neatly transferred to the glass surface, and the rest of the operation is as in the previous case. For an etching ink for glassware the following is recommended: Ammonium fluoride . . ^ drachms Barium sulphate 2 drachms Reduce to a fine powder in a mortar. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 826 ETCHING then transfer to a lead dish and make into a thin writing-cream with hprdrofluoric acid or fuming sulphuric acid. Use a piece of lead to stir the mixture. The ink may be put up in bottles coated with paraffine, wnich can be done by heating the bottle, pouring in some melted parat- fine, and letting it flow all around. The writing is done with a €|uill, and in about half a minute the ink is washed off. Extreme caution must be observed in handling the acid, since when brought in contact with the skin it produces dan- gerous sores very difficult to heal. The vapor ^ is also dangerously poisonous when inhaled. Hydrofluoric Fonnulas.— I.— Dissolve about 0.72 ounces fluoride of soda with 0.14 ounces sulphate of potash in ^ pint of water. Make another solution of 0.28 ounces chloride of zinc and l.SO ounces hydrochloric acid in an equal quantity of water. Mix the solutions and apply to the glass vessel with a pin or brush. At the end of half an hour the design should be sufficiently etched. 11." -A mixture consisting of ammo- nium fluoride, common salt, and carbon- ate of soda is prepared, and then plaref regular and decorative design similar lo the flowers of frost deposited on window- panes in winter. When salts that arr readily crystallizable and that evert no chemical action upon the gelatin arr dissolved in the latter the figures etch rd upon the glass exhibit a crystalline a|»> pearance that recalls fern fronds. Hyposulphite of .sooarcr«ir lead, which bend backward in drying and assume the form of an irregular cylinder. Such etching of glass and differeDt mineral substances bv the action «af gr la- tin may be eniployeeTed bv substituting mixtion" for the varnish and applying on this mixtion a leaf of gold or sdver, cut in pieces a little larger than the design to be cov- rrvd; press down the gold oy means of a soft brush so as to cause it to penetrate to the bottom: let dry and remove the pro- truding edges. • Etching on Steel. — The print should be heavily inked and powdered with drag- on's blood several times. After eacn powdering heat slightly and additional powder will stick, forming a heavy cpat- mg in 2 or 3 operations. Before pro- ceeding to heat up, the plate should re- ceive a light etching in a weak solution of the acid described later on. The purpose of this preliminary etching is to clean up the print, so that the lines will not tend to thicken, as would be the case otherwise. Next a good strong heating should be given. On top the dragon's blood plumbago may be used in addition. For etching use nitric acid mixed with an even amount of acetic acid. Some operators use vinegar, based on the same theory.^ When commencing the etching, start with a weak solution and increase as soon as the plate is deep enough to allow another powdering. If the operator is familiar with lithography, and under- stands rolling up the print with a litho- roller, the etching of steel is not harder than etching on zinc. Liquids for Etching Steel. — I. — Iodine . .......... 2 parts Potassium iodide. . 5 parts Water 40 parts II. — Nitric acid 60 parts Water 120 parts Alcohol 200 parts Copper nitrate .... 8 parts III. — Glacial aceti^acid . 4 parts Nitric acid 1 part Alcohol 1 part IV. — Mix 1 ounce sulphate of copper, i ounce alum, } teaspoonf ul of salt (reduced to powder), with 1 gill of vinegar and 20 drops of nitric acid. This fluid can be used either for etching deeply or for frosting, according to tne time it is al- lowed to act. The parts of the work which are not to be etched should be protected with beeswax or some similar substance. v.— Nitric acid, 60 parts; water, 120 parts; alcohol, 200 parts; and copper ni- trate, 8 parts. Keep in a glass-stoppered bottle. To use the fluid, cover the sur- face to be marked with a thin even coat of wax and mark the lines with a ma- chinist's scriber. Wrap clean cotton waste around the end of the scriber or a stick, and dip in the fluid, applying it to the marked surface. In a few minutes the wax may be scraped off, when fine lines will appear where the scriber marked the wax. The drippings from a lighted wax candle can be used for the Digitized by VjOOQ IC 828 ETCHING— EXPLOSIVES coating, and this may be evenly spread with a knife heated in the candle flame. VI.— For Hardened Steel.— Heat an iron or an old pillar-file with a smooth side, and with it spread a thin, even coat of beeswax over the brightened surface to be etched. With a sharp lead pencil (which is preferable to a scriber) write or mark as wanted through the wax so as to be sure to strike the steel surface. Then daub on with a stick etching acid made as follows: Nitric acid, 8 parts; muriatic acid, 1 part. If a lead pencil has been used the acid will begin to bub- ble immediately. Two or three minutes of the bubblinff or foaming will be suf- ficient for marking; then soak up the acid with a small piece of blotting paper and remove the beeswax with a piece of cotton waste wet with benzine, and if the piece be small enough dip it into a saturated solution of sal soda, or if the piece be lar^e swab over it with a piece of waste. This neutralizes the remaining acid and prevents rusting, which oil will not do. ^ ^ If it is desired to coat the piece with beeswax without heating it, dissolve pure beeswax in benzine until of the consistencv of thick cream and pour on to the steel, and even spread it by rocking or blowing, and lay aside for it to harden; then use the lead pencil, etc., as before. This method will take longer. Keep work from near the fire or an open flame. EUCALYPTUS BONBONS FOR COLDS AND COUGHS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures. EXPECTORANTS: See Cold and Cough Mixtures. Explosives Explosives may be divided into two great classes — mechanical mixtures and chemical compounds. In the former the combustible substances are intimately mixed with some oxygen supplying material, as in the case of gunpowd«*r, where carbon and sulphur are inti- mately mixed with pota.Hsium nitrate; while gun cotton and nitro-glycerine are examples of the latter class, where each molecule of the substance contains the necessary oxygen for the oxidation of the carbon and hydrogen present, the oxygen being in feeble combmation with nitrogen. Manv explosives are, how- ever, mechanical mixtures of compounds which are themselves explosive, e. g., cordite, which is mainly composed of gun cotton and nitro-glycerine. The most common and familiar of explosives is undoubtedly gunpowder. The mixture first adopted appean to have consisted of equal parts of tbf three ingredients — sulphur, charcoal, sod niter; but some time later the propor- tions, even now taken for all ordinarr purposes, were introduced, namely: Potassium nitrate. ... 75 parts Charcoal 15 parts Sulphur 10 parts 100 parts Since jgunpowder is a mechanical mii- ture, it IS clear that the first aim of iht maker must be to obtain perfect incur- poration, and, necessarily, in order to obtain this, the materials must be in s very finely divided ^ state. Moreovrr. in order that uniformitv of effect may be obtained, purity of ttie original «u)h stances, the percentage of mouture prr^ ent, and the density of the finisbrd powder are of importance. ^ The weighed quantities of the ingrr- dients are first mixed in ffun metal c»r copper drums, having blades in the interior capable of working in the oek posite direction to that in which the drum itself is traveling. After paMinjc through^ a sieve, the mixture (green charge) is passed on to the incorporation; mills, where it is thoroughly ground un- der heavy metal rollers, a small qusn> tity of water being added to prevent dust and facilitating incorporation, snJ during this process the risk of explosion is greater possibly than at any other stage in the manufacture. Theie are usually 6 mills working in the ssme building, with partitions between. O^er the bed of each mill is a horisontal board, the *'flash board," which is connected with a tank of water overhead, the ar- rangement being such that the upsettinc of one tank discharges the contents of the other tanks onto the correspond inK mill beds below, so that in the event of an accident the charge is drowned in each case. The "mul cake" is no« broken down between rollers, the "me*'" C rod need bein^ placed in strong (t«^ oxes and subjected to hydraulic pre*^- sure, thus increasing its density and hardness, at the same time bringing the ingredients into more intimate contact. After once more breaking down the material (press cake), the powder onli requires special treatment to adapt it for the various purposes for which it is intended. The products of the combustion of powder and its manner of burning arc Digitized by VjOOQ IC EXPLOSIVES 329 largely influenced by the pressure, a property well illustrated by the failure of a red-hot platinum wire to ignite a mass of powder in a vacuum, only a few gniQS actually in contact with the plati- Dum undergoing combustion. Nttro-glycerine is a substance of a umilar chemical nature to gun cotton, the principles of its formation and puri- fication being very similar, onlv in this case the materials and product are liquids, thereby rendering the operations of manufacture and washing much less difficult. The glycerine is spraved into the add mixture by compressea-air in- jectors, care being taken that the tem- perature during nitration does not rise alwve 86® F. The nitro-fflycerine formed readily separates from uie mixed acids, and being insoluble in cold water, the Hashing is comparatively^ simple. Nitro-^lycerine is an ody liauid readily fioluble in most organic solvents, but becomes solid at SP or 4^ above the freezing point of water, and in this con- dition is less sensitive. It detonates when heated to 600"* F., or bv a sudden blow, yielding carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and water.^ Being a fluid un- der ordinary conditions, its uses as an explosive were limited, and Alfred Nobel conceived the idea of mixing it with other substances which would act as absorb- ents, first using charcoal and afterwards an infusorial earth, "kieselguhr,'* and obtaining what he termed dynamite." Nobel found that "collodion cotton" — Jioluble gun cotton — ;^could be converted by treatment with nitro-glycerine into a jellyltke mass which was more trust- worthy in action than the components aJune, and from its nature the suDstance was christened "blasting gelatin." Nobel took out a patent for a smoke- icM powder for use in euns, in which thrffe ingredients were aaopted with or without the use of retarding agents. The Dowders of this class are ballistite and nlite, the former being in sheets, the latter in threads. Originally camphor was introduced, but its use has been abandoned, a small quantity oi aniline taking its place. Sir Freaerick Abel and Prof. Dewar patented in 1880 the use of trinitro- Mlolose and nitro-glycerine, for al- though, as is well known, this form of nitroKcellttlose is not soluble in nitro-glyc- (hae, vet by dissolving the bodies in a ■nutual solvent, perfect incorporation (^n be attained. Acetone is the solvent a«ed in the preparation of "cordite," and forafl ammunition except blank charges a certain proportion of vaseline is also added. The combustion of the powder without vaseline gives products so free from solid or liquid substances that excessive friction of the projectile in the gun causes rapid wearing of the rifling, and it is chiefly to overcome this that the vaseline is introduced, for on explosion a thin film of solid matter is deposited in thegun, and acts as a lubricant. Tiie proportion of the ingredients are: Nitro-glycerine 58 parts Gun-cotton 37 parts Vaseline 5 parts Gun cotton to be used for cordite is prepared as previously described, but the alkali is omitted, and the mass is not submitted to great pressure, to avoid making it so dense that ready absorption of nitro-glycerine would not take place. The nitro-glycerine is poured over the dried gun cotton and first well mixed by hand, afterwards in a kneading machine with the requisite quantity of acetone for S) hours. A water jacket is provided, since, on mixing, the temperature rises. The vaseline is now added, and the kneading continued for a similar period. The cordite paste is first subjected to a preliminary pressing, and is finally forced through a hole of the proper size in a plate eitner by hand or by hydraulic pressure. The smaller sizes are wound on drums, while the larger cordite is cut off in suitable lengths, the drums and cut material being dried at 100® F., thua driving off the remainder of the acetone. Cordite varies from yellow to dark brown in color, according to its thick- ness. When ignited it burns with a strong flame, which ma^ be extinguished hy a vigorous puff of air. Macnab and Ristori give the yield of permanent gases from English cordite as 647 cubic centi- meters, containing a much higher per cent of carbon monoxide than the gases evolved from the old form of powder. Sir Andrew Noble failed in attempts to detonate the substance, and a rifle Dullet fired into the mass only caused it to burn quietly. Dynamite. — Dynamite is ordinarily made up of 75 per cent nitro-glycerine, 25 per cent infusorial earth; dualine con- tains 80 per cent nitro-elycerine, 20 per cent nitro-cellulose; rena-rock has 40 per cent nitro-glycerine, 40 per cent nitrate of potash, IS per cent cellulose, 7 per cent paraffine; giant powder, 86 per cent nitro-glycerine, 48 per cent nitrate of potash, 8 per cent sulphur, 8 per cent rosin or charcoal. Smokeless Powder. — The base of smokeless powders is nitrated cellulose. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 880 EXPLOSIVES which has been treated in one of various ways to make it burn slower than gun cotton, and also to render it less sensitive to heat and shocks. As a rule, these powders are not only less inflammable than gun cotton, but require stronger detonators. As metallic salts cause smoke, they are not used in these pow- ders. The smokeless powders now in use may be divided into three groups: (1) Those consisting of mixtures of nitro-glycerine and nitrated cellulose, which have been converted into a hard, hornlike mass, either with or without the aid of a solvent. To this group be- longs ballistite, containing 50 per cent of nitro-glycerine, 40 per cent of nitrated cellulose, and 1 per cent of diphenyl- amin; also cordite (see further on), Lenord's powder, and amberite. This last contains 40 parts of nitro-glycerine and 56 parts of nitrated cellulose. (2) Those consisting mainly of nitrated cel- lulose of any kind, which has been ren- dered hard and hornj bv treatment with some solvent which is afterwards evapo- rated. These are prepared by treating nitrated cellulose with ether or benzine, which dissolves the collodion, and when evaporated leaves a hard film of collo- dion on the surface of each grain. Sometimes a little camphor is added to the solvent, and, remaining in the pow- der, greatly retards its comoustion. (3) Those consisting of nitro-derivatives of the aromatic hydrocarbons, either with or without the admixture of nitrated cellulose; to this group belong Dupont's powder, consisting of nitrated cellulose dissolved in nitro-benzine; indurite, con- sisting of cellulose hexanitrate (freed from collodion b^ extraction with methyl alcohol), made into a paste with nitro- benzine, and hardened by treatment with steam until the excess of nitro-benzinc is removed; and plastonieite, consisting of dinitrotoluene and nitrated wood pulp. Cordite is the specific name of a smokeless powder which has been adopted by the English government as a military explosive. It contains nitro- glycerine, 58 parts; gun cotton, 87 parts; and petrolatum, 5 parts. The nitro- glycerine and gun cotton are first mixed, 10.2 parts of acetone added, and the pasty mass kneaded for several hours. The petrolatum is then added and the mixture again kneaded. The paste is then forced through fine openings to form threads, whicTi are dried at about 105** F. until the acetone evaporates. The threads, which resemble brown twine, are then cut into short lengths for Another process for the maoufacture of smokeless powder is as follows: Straw, preferably oat-straw, is treated in the usual way with a mixture of nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric add, and then washed in water to free it from these, then boiled with water, and again with a solution of potassium carbooate. It is next subjected, for 2 to 6 hours, to the action of a solution composed of 1,000 parts of water, 12.5 parts of potas- sium nitrate, 3.5 parts of potassium chlorate, 12.5 parts of xinc sulphate, and 12.5 parts of potassium permanganate. The excess of solution is pressed out. and the mass is then pulverized, granu- lated, and finally driea. The warning^ as to the danger of e\- perimenting with the manuHicturc of ordinarv gunpowder applies with n- newed force when nitro-glycerine is the subject of the experiment. Berge's Blinting Powder. ~ This u composed of chlorate of potash* 1 part; chromate of potash, 0.1 pari; sugar, 0.45 parts; yellow wax, 0.09 parts. The proportions indicated may varjr within certain limits, according to the force desired. For the preparation, the chlo- rate and the chromate of potash, as w cU as the sugar, are ground separately and very finelv, and sifted so that the grains of the different substances may hare the same size. At first any two of the suf>- stances are mixed as thoroughlv as possi- ble, then the third is added. The yellow wax, cut in small pieces, is finally added, and all the substances are worked to- gether to produce a homogeneous prod- uct. The sugar may be replaced with charcoal or anj other combustible body. For commercial needs, the compound may be colored with any inert matter, also pulverized. Safety in Explodvee. — Ammoniaral salts have been used in the manufarture of explosives to render them prtMif against firedamp, but not with the full success desired. Ammonium chloride has been utilized, but ineonvenienr«*» are met with, and the vapor is quite dU- agreeable. ^ In cooperation with eauira- lent quantities of soda and poiaah, its action is regarded as favorable. Test« employing benzine vapor and coal du«t were maoe, and the comparative secnrilv calculated to be as given below. I. — Donarite* composed as follow** 80 per cent of nitrate of ammonia, 1< •!( trinitrotoluol. 4 of flour, 3.8 of nitro- glycerine, and 0.2 per cent of cotton col- 1 ml ion. Security: Donarite alonr« S7 parts; 05 per cent of donarite and S per Digitized by VjOOQ IC EXPLOSIVES S81 cent of ammonium chloride, 125 parts; 90 per cent of donarite and 10 per cent uf ammonium chloride, 250 parts; 86 per cent of donarite and 5.5 per cent of ammonium chloride, with 8.5per cent of nitrate of aoda, 425 parts. Tne force of the explosion b decreased about 8 per cent, while the security is quintupled. IL— Roburite, with the following com- position: 72.5 per cent nitrate of am- monia; 12 binitro-bcnzol; 10 nitrate of potash; 5 sulphate of ammonia; 0.5 per cent permanganate of potash. Secunty: Rohurite only, 325 parts; ammonium rhloride, taking the place of sulphate of ammonia, 400 parts. Here an intensi- fication of the explosive force is simul- taneously produced. 111. — Ammon carbonite I, composed thus: 4 per cent nitro-j|;lycerine; 75.5 nitrate of ammonia; 0.5 nitrate of potash; 9.5 coal dust; 10.5 flour. Security: Am- mon carbonite I only, 250 parts; 95 per crnt A. C. I. and 5 per cent ammonium chloride, 400 parts; 92 per cent A. C. I. and 8 per cent ammonium chloride, 500 parts. The addition of 5 per cent am- monium chloride diminishes the ex- plosive force only 3 per cent. IV. — An explosive of nitro-glycerine base composed thus: SO per cent nitro- dyrerine; 1 per cent cotton collodion; ii.6 nitrate of ammonia; 13 nitrate of potash; 3 to 4 per cent starch. Security uf this mixture, 150 parts. v.— Thirty per cent nitro-glyccrine; 1 prr cent cotton collodion; 47^ nitrate of ammonia; 11.6 nitrate of potash; 3.1 starch; 7 per cent ammonium chloride. This mixture has a security of 350 parts. Inflimmabic Explosive with Chlorate of Potash.— Take as an agent promot- ing combustion, potassium chlorate; as a rtimbustibte aj^ent, an oxidized, nitrated, or natural rosin. If, to such a mixture, another bodv is added in order to render it Moft and plastic, such as oil, nitro-ben- zine. glucose, glycerine, the benefit of the discovery is lost, for the mixture is ren- dered combustible with nitro-benzine, frrula, sulphur, etc., and inexplosive with glvcenne, glucose, and the ou. Of all the chlorates and perchlorates, potassium chlorate (KClOs) responds the best to what b desired. As to the nnins, they may be varied, or even mixed. To obtain the oxidation or nitration of the rosins, they are heated vith nitric acid, more or less concentrat- rd. and with or without the addition of •ol oh uric add. An oxidation, sufficient aad without danger, can be secured hj « simple and practical means. This is boiling them for several hours in water containing nitric acid, which is renewed from time to time in correspondence with its decomposition. The rosins recom- mended by M. Turpin are of the tere- binthine R^oup, having for average for- mula CsoHsoCJs. Colophony is the type. The products, thus nitrated, are washed with boiling water, and, on oc- casion, by a solution slightly alkaline, with a final washing wiui pure water, and dried at a temperature of 230** F. or in the open air. The mixing of the constituents of this explosive is preferably cold. For this purpose they are used in the state of fine powder, and when mixed in the tub, 2) to 5 per cent of a volatile dissolvent is added, as alcohol, carbon sulphide, ether, or benzine. As soon as thorough- ly mingled, the mass is put either in an ordinary grainer, or in a cvlinder of wire cloth revolving horizontally on its axis, with glass gobilles forming a screen, by the aid of which the graining is rapidly accomplished. Thus a powder more or less finely granulated is produced free from dust. The proportions preferably employed are: 1. Potassium chlorate. . . 85 parts Natural rosin 15 parts 2. Potassium chlorate. . . 80 parts Nitrated rosin 20 parts For employment in firedamp mines, there is added to these compounds from 20 to 40 per cent of one of the following substances: Ammonium oxalate, am- monium carbonate, oxalic acid, sodium bicarbonate, calcium fluoride, or other substance of the nature to lower suffi- ciently the temperature of the explosive flame. Gun Cotton. — For the production of a high-grade gun cotton, it is important that tne cotton used should approach as near as possible pure cellulose. The waste from cotton mills, thoroughly purified, is usually employed. After careful chemical examination has been made to ascertain its ^ freedom from grease and other impurities, the cotton waste is picked over by hand to remove such impurities as wood, cardboard, string, etc. The cotton is then passed, through the "teasing machine,'* which opens out all knots and lumps, thereby reducing it to a state more suitable for the acid treatment and exposing to view any foreign substances which may have escaped notice in the previous picking. The cotton is then dried. When per- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 332 EXPLOSIVES fectly dry, it is removed to air-tight iron cases, in which it is allowed to cool. The iron cases are taken to the dipping houses, and the cotton waste weighed into small portions, which are then transferred as rapidly as possible to the mixed acids, allowed to remain a few minutes, then removed to the grating and the excess of acid squeezed out. The cotton now containing about ten times its weight of acid is placed in an earthenware pot and transferred to the steeping pits, where it is allowed to re- main for 24 hours, a low temperature being maintained by a stream of cold water. The cotton is now wholly converted into nitro-cellulose. The superfluous acid is next removed by^ a centrifugal extractor, after which the gun cotton is taken out of the machine and immedi- ately immersed in a large volume of water, and thoroughly washed until it shows no acid reaction. The moisture is then run out and the gun cotton is con- veyed by tramway to the boiling vats, where it undergoes several boilings bv means of steam. When the ** heat test shows that a sufficient degree of stability has been obtained, the ^un cotton is re- moved to a beating engine, and reduced to a very fine state of division. When thb process is completed the pulp is run by gravity alon^ wooden shoots, pro- vided with "grit traps" and electro- magnets, which catch anv traces of sand, iron, etc., into large ' poachers,'* in which the gun cotton is continuou.sly affitated, toff ether with a large quantity of water. In this way it is thoroughly washed and a blend made of a large quantity of gun cotton. Soluble Gun Cotton. — Soluble gun cotton b made on the same lines, except that greater attention has to be paid to the physical condition of the cotton used, and to the temperature and strength of acid mixture, etc. The term "soluble" usually implies that the gun cotton is dissolved by a mix- ture of ethyl-ether and ethyl-alcohol, 2 parts of the former to 1 of the latter being the proportions which yield the best solvent action. The classification of nitro-cellulosea according to their solu- bility in ether-alcohol is misleading, except when the nitrogen contents are also quoted. The number of solvents for gun cotton which have at various times been pro- posed is very large. Among the more important may be mentioned the follow- ing: Alcohols (used chiefly in conjunc- tion with other solvents), methyl, ethrl. propyl, and am^l, methyl-amyl ether, acetic ether, di-ethyl-ketone, methO- ethyl ketone, amyl nitrate and aerUtp. nitro-benzole, nitro-toluol, nitrated oils, ris* cial acetic acid, camphor dissolved in alcohol, etc. Some of the above may be called selective solvents, i. e., they dissolve one particular variety of gun cotton better than others, so that solubility in anv given solvent must not be used to iniJi- cate solubility in another. No nitrt>- cotton is eutirelv soluble in any solrent. The solution,^ after standing some time, always deposits a small amount of iii»oI- uble matter. Therefore, in makin/c collodion solutions, care should be takt^n to place the containing bottles in a pUtr free from vibration and shork. After standing a few weeks the clear super* natant Uquid may be decanted off. Oo a larger scale collodion solutions are filtered under pressure through layers of tiffhtljr packed cotton wool. The state ofdivision is important. When the en. I in view'is the production of a stronj; tilm or thread, it is advisable to use uapulpnl or only slightly i>ulped nitro-eellul(»>e. In this condition it also dissolves more easily than the finely pulped matcriaL FULMIlfATES: Fulminating Antimony. — Tartar emetic (dried), 100 parts; lampblack or charcoal powder, 3 parts. Triturate together, put into a crucible that it wil) three-fourths fill (previously rubbed in^de with charcoal powder). Cover it with » layer of dry charcoal powder, and lutr on the cover. After S hours* exposure tn a strong heat in a reverberatory funut-e, and 6 or 7 hours' cooling, cautiou^'ly transfer the solid contents of thecmnMe. as quickly as possible, without breakiDC. to a wide- mouthed stoppered pbu). where, after some time, it will mnlM- neously crumble to a powder, f^'hm the above process is properly conducted, the resulting powder contains potassium. and fulminates violently on contact with water. A piece the size of a pea intro- duced into a mass of gunpowder ex- plodes it on being thrown mto water. or on its being moistened in any other manner. Fulminating Bismuth.— Take hi*- muth, HO parts; carbureted cream t>f tartar, 60 parts; niter, 1 part. Fulminating Copper.— Digest copfier (in powder of filings) with fulminatr »«« mercury or of Ailver» and a Uttlc water* Digitized by VjOOQ IC EXPLOSIVES— FATS 333 It forms 9olab]e green crystals that ex- plode with a green flame. Fttlminnting Mercury. — Take zner- riiry. 100 parts; nitric acid (specific grtrity, 1.4), 1.000 parts (or 740 parts, by mrasure). Dissolve by a gentle heat, and when the solution has acquired the temperature of 130® F., slowly pour it through a glass funnel tube into alcohol (specific gravity, .830), 830 parts (or 1,000 parts, by measure). As soon as the effervescence is over, and white fumes cease to be evolved, filter through double paper, wash with cold water, and dry by stram (nut hotter than SU"" F.) or hot walrr- The fulminate is then to be packed in 100-grain paper parcels, and these stored in a tight box or corked lK>ttle. Product 130 per cent of the weight of mercury employed. Fulminating Powder.— I.— Niter, 3 partjt; carbonate of potash (dry), 2 part.^; flowers of sulphur, 1 part; reduce them separately to fine powder, before mixing them. A little of this compound iiO to SO grains), slowly heated on a shovel over the fire, first fuses and be- eomes brown, and then explodes with a deafening report. II.— Sulphur, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 3 parts. ^ Wnen triturated, with fttrong pressure, in a marble or wedg- vwxl-ware mortar, it produces a series of Itiiid reports. It also fulminates by per- cu«<^ion. HI. — Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; pure lampblack, 4 parts; sulphur, 1 part. A little placed on an anvil detonates with a loud report when struck with a ham- mer. KXPOSTTBtES IN PHOTOGRAPHING: See Photography. EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracti. EXTRACTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods. EYE LOTIONS: "BUck Eye" Lotion.— "Black eves" cir other temporary discolorations of the ^kim may be disguised by the application of pink grease paint, or collodion colored l>v means of a little 'carmine. As lotions the following have been recommended: I. — Ammonium chlo- ride 1 part Alcohol 1 part Water 10 parts Diluted acetic acid may be substituted for half of the water, and the alcohol mav be replaced by tincture of arnica, with advantage. II. — Potassium nitrate. . . 15 grains Ammonium chloride SO grains Aromatic vinegar. . . 4 drachms Water to make 8 ounces. III. — The following is to be applied with camel's-hair pencil every 1, 2, or 3 hours, fie careful not to get it in the eyes, as it smarts. It will remove the black discoloration overnight: Oxalic acid 15 grains Distilled water 1 ounce Foreign Matter in the Eye. — If a piece of iron or other foreig[n matter in the eye irritates it, and there is no way of remov- ing it until morning, take a raw Irish potato, grate it, and use as a poultice on the eye. It will ease the eye so one can sleep, and sometimes draws the piece out. Drops of Lime in the Eye.— If lime has dropped in the eye, the pouring-in of or the wiping-out with a few drops of oil is the best remedy, as the causticity of the lime is arrested thereby. Poppy-seed oil or olive oil is prescribed, but pure lin- seed oil ought to render the same service, as it is also used in the household. Sub- sequently, the eye may be rinsed out with syrup, as the saccharine substance will harcien any remaining particles of lime and destroy all causticity entirely. FABRIC CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods and also Household Formulas. FABRICS, WATERPROOFING OF: See Waterproofing. FACE BLACK AND FACE POWDER: See Cosmetics. Fats Bear Fat.-^Fresh bears* fat is white and very similar to lard in appearance. The flank fat is softer and more trans- parent than the kidney fat, and its odor recalls that of fresh bacon. Bears* fat differs from the fats of the dog, fox, and cat in having a lower specific gravity, a very low melting point, and a fairly high iodine value. Bleachinff Bone Fat. — Bone fat, which IS principally obtained from horse bones, is very dark colored in the crude state, and of an extremely disagreeable smell. To remedy these defects it may be bleached by the air or chemicals, the former metnod only giving good results Digitized by VjOOQ IC 884 FATS when the fat has been recovered by means of steam. It consists in cutting up the fat into small fragments and ex- posing it to the air for several davs, the mass being turned over at intervals with a shovel. When sufficient! v bleached in this manner, the fat is boiled with half its own weight of water, which done, about 3 or 4 per cent of salt is added, and the whole is boiled over again. This treatment, which takes 2 or S weeks, sweetens the fat, makes it of the consist- ency of butter, and reduces the color to a pale yellow. Light seems to play no part in the operation, the chanffe being effected solelv by the oxygen of the air. The chemical treatment nas the advan- tage of being more rapid, sufficient de- coloration being proauced in a few hours. The fat, which should be free from gelatin, phosphate of lime, and water, is placed in an iron pan along with an equal weight of brine of 14** to 15° Be. strength, with which it is boiled for 3 hours and left to rest overnight. Next day the fat is drawn off into a wooden vessel, where it is treated by degrees with a mixture of 2 parts of potassium bichromate, dissolved in 6 of boiling water, and 8 parts of hydro- chloric acid (density «2® B^.), this quan- tity being sufficient for 400 parts a| fat. Decoloration proceeds gradually, and when complete the fat is washed with hot water. Bleaching Tallows and FatB.— In- stead of exposing to the sun, which is always attended with danger of render- ing fats rancid, it is better to liouefy these at a gentle heat, and then add { in weight of a mixture of equal parts of kaolin and water. The fatty matter should be worked up for a time and then left to separate. Kaolin has the advantage of cheapness in price and of being readily procured. Freshlv burned animal charcoal would perhaps be a more sati.sfactory decolor- izer than kaolin, but it is more expen- sive to start with, and not so easy to re- generate. Exposure of tallow to the action of steam under high pressure (a tempera- ture of «50« or 260* F.) is also said to render it whiter and harder. Coloring Hatter in FatB.— A simple method for the detection of the addition of coloring matter to fats is here de- scribed. Ten parts* by measure, of the melted fat are put into a small separating funnel and dissolved in 10 parts, by meas- ure, of petroleum ether. The solution is then treated with 15 parts, by measure. of glacial acetic acid and the whole shaken thoroughly. The addition of coloring matter is known by the red or vellow coloration which appears in the lower layer of acetic acid after the coo- tents of the funnel have been allowed to settle. If only a slight addition uf coloring matter is suspected, the art*tic acid solution is run on into a porcelain basin and the latter heated on a water bath, when the coloration will be seen more readily. This test is intended for butter and margarine, but is also suitabie for tallow, lard, etc. Fatty Add Fermentation Procoi.— The production of fatty adds from fat* and oils by fermentation is growinf in importance. These particulars, vbirb are the actual results from recent experi- ments on a somewhat extended scale, are given: Seven hundred and fifty pound* of cottonseed oil are mixed with 45 gallop < of water and 34 pounds of acetic KitJ; this mixture is heated to a tempenturr of 85® F. Castor-oil seeds, 53 pounds decorticated and ground, are miYt-d thoroughly with S gallons of water ami 4} gallons of the oil, and this mixture U stirred into the oil and water; the whM mass is then kept mixed for 12 hour^ ^iv blowing air through, after which it u allowed to stand for another IS bour<. being given a gentle stir by hand at the end of every hour. After S4 hours the mass is heated to a temperature of l'>0' F., which stops the fermentation and at the same time allows the fatt^ acid% to separate more freely. To assist in tVi* effect there is added 1 gallon of sulphum acid (1 in S) solution. After 2 hours' standing, the inas^^il' have separated into three layers— fatt> acids on the top, glycerine water lieliiw. and a middle, undefined layer. . Th<- glvcerine water is run awayl and the Whole mass left to stand for < bour^. The middle portion is run off from (lie separated fatty acids into another ve-^*rl. where it is mixed with 10 galloDs of Ixtt water, thoroughly stirred, and alloiied t» stand for 16 hours or more. The uraleri layer at the bottom, which contains u*tof glycerine, is then run off. while the rr*i aue is mixed with a further quantitv«>f 10 gallons of water, and again alluwf«i to stand. The water which separate* out. also the layer of fatty acids that fornix «•« the top, are run off and mixed vith thr I>ortions previously obtainnl. Tbr va- rious glycerine waters are treated to re- cover the glycerine, while the fatty »<"»*i« are made marketable in any conrrotrnt way. Digitized by VjOOQ IC FATS— FEATHER BLEACHING PreMTTation of Fats.— To produce UU and oils containing both iodine and sulphur, whereby they are preserved from Roing rancia, and consequently can br utilised to more advantage for the usual purposes, such as the manufacture of soaos, candles, etc., following is the Loebeu method: The essential feature of the process is that the iodine is not merely held in solu- tion by the oil or fat, but enters into chemical combination with the same; the sulphur also combines chemically with the oil or fat, and from their reactions thepreserring properties are derived. Toe process consists of heating, for fxsmple, 6 parts of oil with 1 part of sul- phur to a temperature varying between SOO"" and 400'' F.. then, when at about \95^ F., a solution of iodine and oil is added to the mixture, which is constantly sfptated until cool to prevent lumps forming. A product is thus obtained which acquires the consistency of butter, and contains both iodine and sulphur in combination. PuriMng Oils and Fata. — In purifying fatty oils and fats for edible purposes the chief thing is to remove the free fatty acids, which is done by the aid of solu- tions of alkalies and ^ alkaline earths. The subsequent precipitation of the rfjiultin^ Boa^py emulsions, especially when lime is used, entails prolonged heating to temperatures sometimes as high as the boiling point of water. Furthermore, the amount of alkalies taken is always greater than is chemically netressary, the consequence being that some of the organic substances present - arc attacked, and malodorous products are formed, a condition necessitating the employment of animal charcoal, etc., as deodorizer. f o prevent the formation of these un- towara products, which must injuriously affect the quality of edible oils, C. Fre- senius proposes to accelerate the disper- «ioo of the said emulsions by subjecting the mixtures to an excess pressure of 1 to 1} atmospheres and a corresponding temperature of about 220* F., for.a short time, the formation of decomposition products, and anv injurious influence on the taste and smell of the substance being prevented by the addition of fresh char- rod, etc., beforehand. Charcoal may, and must in certain cases, be replaced for this purpose by infusorial earth or fuUeKs earth. When this process is ap- plied to cottonseed oil, 100 parU of the uil are mixed with ^ part of^ fresh, pure charcoal, and } pari of pure fuller's earth. The mixture is next neutralized with lime-water, and placed in an autoclave, where it is kept for an hour under pres- sure, and at a temperature of 220* F. Under these conditions the emulsion soon separates, and when this is accomplished the whole is left to cool down in a closed vessel. FATS, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil. FEATHER BLEACHING AND COL- ORING: See also Dyes. Bleaching and Coloring Feathers.— Feathers, in their natural state, are not adapted to undergo the processes of dye- ing and bleaching; they must be prepared by removing their oil and dirt. Tnis is usually done by washing them in moder- ately warm soap and water, and rinsing in warm and cold water; or the oil may be chemically removed by the use of ben- zine. To remove it entirely, the feathers must be left in the cleansing fluid from a half hour to an hour, when they may be subjected to the process of bleaching. Bleaching Plumes.— Plumes may be almost entirely bleached by the use of hydrogen peroxide, without injuring their texture. In specially constructed glass troughs, made the length of an average ostrich feather, 15 or 20 of these feathers can be treated at a time. The bleaching fluid is made from a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen peroxide, with enough am- monia added to make it neutral; in other words when neutral, blue litmus paper will not turn red, and red will take a pale violet tinge. The previously cleansed feathers are entirely immersed in this bleaching bath, which may be diluted if desired. The trough is covered with a glass plate and put in a dark place. From time to time the feathers are stirred and turned, adding more hydrogen peroxide. This process requires 10 to 12 hours and if necessary should be repeated. After bleaching they are rinsed in distilled water or rain water, dried in the air, and kept in motion while drying. To insure success in coloring feathers in delicate tints, they must be free from all impurities, and evenly white. It has been found of advantage to %ib the quill of heavy ostrich plumes while still moist with carbonate of ammonia before the dyeing is begun. Methods of Dyeing Feathers.— I.— A boiling hot neutral solution, the feathers to be dried in a rotating apparatus. Suit- able dyes for this method are chrysoidin. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 886 FEATHER COLORING— FERTILIZERS A, C; crystal vesuvin, 4 B C; phosphin extra, leather yellow, O H; leather red» O, G B; leather brown, O; morocco red, O; azophocphine, G O, B R O; fuchsine, cerise, G R; ffrenadine, O; safranine, O; methylene violet, malachite green, crys- tal brilliant green, methvlene green, methylene gray, coal black II. II. — A boiling hot sulphuric solution. Dyes, acid fuchsine, orseilline, R B; acid cerise, O; acid maroon, O; opal blue, blue de lyon, R B; cotton blue. No. 2, China blue No. 2, naphthalene green, O; patent blue, V A; fast blue, O R; fast blue black, O; deep black, G; aso yellow, victorine yellow, orange No. 2, fast brown O, ponceau G R R R, fast red O, Bordeaux, GBR. III. — An acetic solution. Dyes, Bengal pink G B, phloxine G O, rosolan O B O F, rhodamine O 4 G, cosine A G, erythrosine. By appropriate mixtures of the dyes of any one class, plumes can be dyed every possible color. After dyeing they are rinsed, and dried in a rotating apparatus. The final process is that of curling, which is done by turning them round and round over a gentle heat. For white feathers a little sulphur may be burned in the fire; for black or colored ones a little sugar. IV.— The spray method. The solu- tion of the dye to be used is put into an atomizer, and the spraj directed to that part of the feather which it is desired to color. By using different colors the most marvelous effects and most delicate transitions from one color to another are obtained. Any kind of an atomizer can be used, the rubber bulb, pump, or bel- lows; the result is the same. FELT WATERPROOFmO: See Waterproofing. FEHIAN FIRE: See Pyrotechnics. FERMERTATION PROCESS, FATTY ACID: See FaU. FERMERTATIOir, PREVERTIOir OF: See Anti-Ferments and Wines and Liquors. FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography. Fertilizers (See also Phosphate, Artificial.) PUnt FertiHzen.'PlanU are as sen- aitive to exrcHnively minute quantities of nutrient substances, nuch S4 milts of potassium, in the soil, af« tliry are to minute miantities of poisonous 9iib> stances. Poisons are said to be infinite- ly more sensitive reagents for the pres- ence of certain met^lic salts than the most delicate chemical, the statement having been made that a trace of copper which might be obtained by distilling in a copper retort is fatal to the white and yellow lupin, the castor-oil plant, and spirogyra. Coupin has found salts of suver. mercurv, copper, and cadmium especially fatal to plants. With copper sulphate the limit of sensittvenrsa is placed at 1 in 700.000,000. Devaui asserts that both phanerogams and cryptogams are poisoned by solutions of salts of lead or copper oiluted to the extent of 1 in 10,000,000, or less. As a result of a series of experiments. Schloesing stated that the nitrification of ammonium salts is not for all plants a necessary preliminary to the absorption of nitrogen by the plant. While for somr plants, as for example buckwheat, thr preferable form of tne food material t* that of a nitrate, others, for in«tanre, tropeolum, thrive even better when the nitrogen is presented to them in an ammoniacal lorm. Artificial FertUizen for Pot PUnls.— Experiments on vegetation have shovn that a plant will thrive when the lacking substances are supplied in a suitable form, e. g., in the foHowing combination*: I. — Calcium nitrate, potassium ni- trate, potassium phosphate, ma^nrMum phosphate, ferric phosphate (sodium chloride). II. — Calcium nitrate, ammonium ni- trate, potassium sulphate, maicne^ium phosphate, iron chloride (or sulphate t (sodium silicate). It is well known that in nature nitmir* are formed wherever decomposition of organic nitrogenous substances ta^f^ place in the air, the ammonia formed by the ^ decomposition beins oxidised l«» nitric acid. These conditions for th«- formation of nitrates are presetit in nearly every cornfield, and they are al««> the cause of the presence of nitrates m water that has its source near stmhl^-^. etc. In Peruvian guano nitrafr>*Q U present partly in the form of polaa«ium nitrate, partly as ammonium phoaphair and sulphate. ^ As a nitrate it acts oKirr rapidly than in the form of ainisit»aiA. but in the latter case the effect ia mirr lasting. Phosphoric acid occurs in gpaano combined with ammonia, potaals, ati*l chiefly with lime, the last oetttK ^^umwr and more lasting In action thna the others. Digitized by VjOOQ IC FERTILIZERS 8S7 Neariy all artificial fertilizers conform, more or \esui, to one of the following gen- eial formulas: ].— Artificial Flower Fertilizer.— 3 40.0 parte 20.0 parte 25.0parte 5.0 parte 6.0 parte 4.0 parte 1 2 Ammonium nitrate 0.40 1 .60 Ammonium phosphata... 0.20 0.80 Potesium mtrate 0.25 1.00 Ammonium ohloride 0 . 05 0 . 20 Calcium sulphate 0.06 0.24 >'*rroua sulphate. 0.04 0.16 1.00 4.00 lOO.Oparte Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and water the flowers with it 2 or S times weekly. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water with this quantity 10 or H potfl of medium size. II. — Compost for Indoor Plants. — 1 2 3 Ammonium tulphate. . . .0.30 1 .20 30.0 parte Hotltum chloride 0.30 1.20 30.0 parte Potamum nitrate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parte Macneaium sulphate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parte Majpeshum phosphate. ..0.04 0.20 4.0 parte .Sodium phoephate. 0.06 0.24 6.0 parte 1.00 4.00 lOO.Oparte One part to be dissolved in 1,000 parts water and the flowers watered up to 3 times daily. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water witn this solution daily: III.— Plant Food Solution.— 1 2 Potanium ehloride 0.16 or 12.5 parte (VUctum nitrate 0.71 or 58.0 parte Magnesium sulphate 0,125 or 12.0 parte Poteasium phosphate. 0.133 or 15.0 parte Iron phosphate, recently precipitated 0.032 or 2.5 parte 1.160 or 100. 0 parte This turbid mixture (1 part in 1,000 parts) is used alternately with water for watering a pot of about 1 quart capac- ity; for smaller or larger pots in pro- portion. After using tne amount indi- cated, the watering is continued with water alone. IV.— Fertilizer with Organic Matter, for Pot Flowers. — Potassium nitrate. . 100.0 parts Ammonium phos- phate 100.0 parts Phosphoric acid ... 2.5 parts Simple syrup 1,000 parts Add not more than 10 parts to 1,000 parts water, and water alternately with this and with water alone. For cac- taccK, crassulaoee, and similar plants, which do not assimilate organic matter directly, use distilled water instead of lymp. Cnlorotic plants are painted with a dilute iron solution or iron is added to the .soil, which causes them to assume their natural green color. The iron is used in form of ferric chloride or ferrous sul- phate. V. — Sodium phosphate 4 ounces Sodium nitrate .... 4 ounces Ammonium s u I - phate 2 ounces Sugar 1 ounce Use 2 teaspoonf uls to a gallon of water. VI. — Ammonium phosphate 30 parts Sodium nitrate 25 parts Potassium nitrate 25 parts Ammonium sulphate. . 20 parts Water 100,000 parts One application of this a week is enough for the slower ^rowing^ plants, and 2 for the more rapid growing her- baceous ones. VII. — Calcium phos- phate 4 ounces Potassium nitrate 1 ounce Potassium phos- phate 1 ounce Magnesium sul- phate 1 ounce Iron (ferric) phosphate 100 grains VIII. — Pot plants, especially flowering plants kept around the nouse, should be treated to an occasional dose of the fol- lowing: Ammonium chlo- ride 2 parts Sodium phosphate 4 parts Sodium nitrate S parts Water 80 parts Mix and dissolve. To use, add 25 drops to the quart of water, and use as in ordinary watering. IX. — Sugar 1 part Potassium nitrate. 2 parts Ammonium s u 1 - phate 4 parts X. — Ferric phosphate. . 1 part Maenesium sul- pnate 2 parts Potassium phos- phate 2 parts Potassium nitrate. 2 parts Calcium acid phosphate 8 parts About a teaspoonful of either of these mixtures is added to a gallon of water, and the plants sprinkled with the liquid. For hastening the growth of flowers, the following fertilizer is recommended: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 388 FERTILIZERS XI. — Potassium nitrate. 30 parts Potassium phos- phate 25 parts Ammonium sul- phate 10 parts Ammonium nitrate 35 parts The following five are especially recom- mended for indoor use: XII.— Sodium chloride . . 10 parts Potassium nitrate. 5 parts Maffnesium sul- phate. 5 parts Magnesia 1 part Sodium phosphate 2 parts Mixed and bottled. Dissolve a tea- spoonful daily in a quart of water and water the plants with the solution. XIII.— Ammonium nitrate 40 parts Potassium nitrate. 00 parts Ammonium phos- phate 50 parts Two grams is sufficient for a medium- sized flower pot. XIV. — Ammonium sul- phate 10 parts Sodium chloride . . 10 parts Potassium nitrate. 5 parts Magnesium sul- pnate. 5 parts Magnesium car- bonate 1 part Sodium phosphate 20 parts One teaspoonf ul to 1 quart of water. XV. — Ammonium nitrate 40 parts Ammonium phos- phate 20 parts Potassium nitrate. 0.25 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 5 parts ' Calcium sulphate. 0 parts Ferrous sulphate.. 4 parts Dissolve 2 parts in 1.000 of water, and water the plants with the solution. XVI. — Potassium nitrate. 20 parts Potassium phos- phate. 25 parts Ammonium sul- phate 10 parts Ammonium nitrate 35 parts This mixture produces a luxuriant foliage. If blooms are desired, dispense with the ammonium nitrate. XVII.— Saltpeter, 5 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; bitter salt, 5 parts; mag- nesia, 1 part; sodium pho.sphate, 2 parts. Mix and fill in bottles. Dissolve a tea- spoonful in 1| pints of hot water, and water the flower pots with it each day. XVIII.— Ammonium sulphate, SO parts; sodium chloride, SO parts; potash niter, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 13 parts; magnesium phosphate. 4 pa rt»; sodium phosphate, 6 parts. Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and apply S times per day. XIX.— Calcium nitrate, 71 parts: potassium chlorate, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 12.5 parts; potassium pfaos- J»hate, IS.S parts; freshly precipitated erric phosphate, 3.2 parts. A solution of 1 in 1,000 of this mixture is applied, alternating with water, to the planU. After using a certain quantity, pour on only water. XX. — Ammonium phosphate, SOO parts; sodium nitrate, 250 parts; poU$^ sium nitrate, 250 parts; ana ammonium sulphate, 200 parts, are mixed together To every 1,000 parts of water dissolve < parts of the mixture, and water the pot- ted plants once a week with this soluttun. XXI.— Potash niter, 20 parts; calcium carbonate, 20 parts; sodium chlorate. fO parts; calcium phosphate, 20 parts; Me- dium silicate, 14 parts; ferrous sulphate. 1.5 parts. Dissolve 1 part of the mi« ture in 1,000 parts water. Preparing Bone for Fertilizer. — Bone. in its various forms, is the only one of the insoluble phosphates that is^ now used directly upon the soil, or without other change tnan is accomplished by mechanical action or grinding. The terms used to indicate the character n M)ils which are deficient in lime may U- utilised as the basis of testing. FEVER nr CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. no SQUARES: See Confectionery. Files Compontion Files.— These files, which t'r frequently used by watchmakers and l*tbf r metal workers for grinding and pol- i*hiug, and the color of which resembles silver, are composed of 8 parts copper, 2 parts tin, 1 part zinc, 1 part lead. They are cast in forms and treated upon the grindstone; the metal is very hard, and therefore worked with difficulty with the file. To Keep Files Clean (sec also Clean- ing Preparations and Methods^. — The un- even working of a file is usually due to the fact that filings clog the teeth of the file. To obviate tnis evil, scratch brush the files before use, and then grease them with olive oil. A file prepared in this manner lasts for a longer time, does not become so quickly filled with filings and can be conveniently cleaned with an or- dinary rough brush. Recutting Old Files.— Old files may be rendered useful again by the following Crocess: Boil them in a potash bath, rush them with a hard brush and wipe off. Plunge for half a minute into nitric acid, and pass over a cloth stretched tiehtly on a- flat piece of wood. The effect will be that tne acid remains in the grooves, and will take away the steel without attacking the top, which has been wiped dry. The operation may be repeatea according to the depth to be ob- tamed. Before using the files thus treated they should be rinsed in water and dried. FILE METAL: See Alloys. FILLERS FOR LETTERS: See Lettering. FILLERS FOR WOOD: See Wood. FILTERS FOR WATER. A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and cheaply cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical impurities ^ with rapidity, may be formed oy placing a stratum of sponge between two perforated metallic plates, united by a central screw, and arranged in such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed as re- ouired. Water, under gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through the pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that a few square feet of this sub- stance will perfectly filter several millions of gallons of water daily. The sponges are cleaned thoroughly, rolled together as much as possible, and placed in the escape pipe of a percolator in such a manner that the larger portion of the sponge is in the pipe while the smaller portion, spreading by itself, pro- trudes over the pipe toward the interior Digitized by VjOOQ IC 840 FILTERS— FIRE EXTINGUISHERS of the percolator, thus forming a flat filter covering it. After a thorougn moist- ening of the sponge it is said to admit of a very ^uick and clear filtration of large quantities of tinctures, juices, etc. For filtering water on a small scale, and for domestic use, "alcairazas,*' diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone and layers of sand and charcoal, etc., are commonly employed as filtering. A cheap, usef ul forni of portable filter is the following, given in the proceedings of the British Association: Take anv common vessel, perforated below, such as a flower pot, fill the lower portion with coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt clay perforated with small notes should be put, and on this again a stratum of 3 or 4 inches thick of well- burnt, pounded animal charcoal. A filter thus formed will last a considerable time, and will be found particularly use- ful In removing noxious and putrescent substances held in solution by water." The "portable filters," in stoneware, that are commonly sold in the shops, contain a stratum of sand, or coarsely eowdered charcoal; before, however, aving access to this, the water has to pass through a sponge, to remove the coarser portion of the impurities. Alum Process of Water PtirificatioxL— Water may be filtered and purified by precipitation, by means of alum, by add- ing a 4 per cent solution to the water to be clarified until a precipitate is no longer produced. After allowing the turbid mix- ture to stand for 8 hours, the clear portion may be decanted or be siphoned off. About 2 grains of alum is ordinarily re- quired to purify a gallon of water, rotassa alum only should be used, as ammonia alum cannot be used for this purpose. The amount of alum re- (|uired varies with the water, so that an initial experiment is required whenever water from a new source is being purified. If the purification is properly done, the water will not contain any alum, but only a trace of potassium sulphate, for the aluminum of the double sulphate unites with the various impurities to form an insoluble compound which [gradually settles out, mechanically carry- ing with it suspended matter, while the sulphuric acid radical unites with the calcium in the water to form insoluble calcium sulphate. FILTER PAPER: See Paper. FILM-STRIPPING: See Photography. FINGER-TIPS, SPARKS FROM: See Pyrotechnics. FIRES. COLORj^D: See Pyrotechnics. FIRE, LIGHT WITHOUT: See Light. FIREARM LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. FIRE EXTINGX7ISHERS: I. — Calcium chloride. 184 parts Maffnesium chlo- ride 57 parts Sodium chloride. . 13 parts Potassium bro- mide 82 parts Barium chloride. . S parts Water to make. . . 1,000 parU Dissolve and fill into hand grenades. II. — Iron sulphate 4 parts Ammonium sul- phate 10 parts Water 100 parts Mix, dissolve, and fill into flasks. III.— Sodium chloride. . . 430 parts Alum 195 parts Glauber salts 50 parts Sodium carbonate, impure 35 parts Water glass S«6 parts Water £33 parts Mix, etc. I v.— Sodium chloride. . . 90 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 45 parts Water 300 parts Mix, dissolve, and put into qasrt 'flasks of very thin glass, which are to \^ kept conveniently disposed in the d« ril- ing rooms, etc., of all public institutions. V. — Make 6 solutions as follows: a. — A m m o n i u m chloride 20 parts Water «.000 parts 6. — Alum, calcined and powdered 35 parts Water.. 1,000 parts c. — Ammonium sul- phate, p o w - dered 30 parti Water 500 parU d. — Sodium chloride 80 part* Water 4,000 parts 0. — Sodium carbon- ate 35 p«rt« Water 500 parts /. — Liuuid water glass 450 parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC FIRE EXTINGUISHERS— FIREPROOFING 841 Mix the solutions in the order named aod to the mixture, while still yellow and turbid, add 2,000 parts of water, and let stand. When the precipitate has sub- sided fill o£F the clear liquid into thin glass (preferably blue, to deter^ decom- pfMition) containers each of S pints to a half gallon capacity. VI.— Calcium chloride.. 30 parts Mai^nesium chlo- ride 10 parts Water 60 parts VII.— Sodium chloride . . 20 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 9 parts Water 71 parts VIII.— Sodium carbonate 10 parts Sodium chloride. 04 parts Water 920 parts The most effective of all extinguishers u ammonia water. It is almost instan- taneous in its effect, and a small quan- tity only is required to extin^pish any fire. Next in value is carbonic acid gas. This may be thrown from siphons or soda- water tanks. The vessel containing it should be thrown into the fire in such a vay as to insure its breaking. Dry Powder Fire Eztiiiffuishen.— The effirarjr of these is doubted by good authorities. They should be tested be- fore adoption. I.— Alum 24 parts Ammonium sulphate 52 parts Ferrous sulphate — 4 parts IL— Sodium chloride 8 parts Sodium bicarbonate 6 parts Sodium sulphate.. . . 2 parts Calcium chloride.. . . 2 parts Sodium silicate 2 parts III.— Sodium chloride. ... 6 parts .\mmonium chloride 0 parts Sodium bicarbonate. . 8 parts IV. --Ammonium chloride 10 parts Sodium sulphate 6 parts Sodium bicarbonate 4 parts Oil Extingiiiaher. — To extinguish oils which have taken fire, a fine-meshed «irr net of the size of a boiling pan •tiould be kept on hand in every varnish U'iary. etc. In the same moment when t(i^ netting is laid upon the burning sur- ^Acf, the flame is extinguished because 't ii a glowing mass of gas, which the in)Q wire quicaly cools off so that it can- nnt ^low any more. The use of water is 'Yriude- ommended for conibating the inflsm- inability of organic tissues, some rxm^t*!- in^ in external applications, othen in infection, under a certain pressurr. of saline solutions. By simple superficial application* nnW illusory protection is attained, for tfar^ coverings, instead of fireproofing the -ralled rrmedy ^^ res tunnmr paper which has not been dipped tntu the add solution. Digitized by VjOOQ IC FOOD ADULTERANTS 851 Detection of Formaldehyde.— Formal- dehyde is rarely used with other foods than milk. The method for its detec- tion in milk is given later. For its detection in other foods it is usually necessary first to separate it by distilla- tion, a process which is scarcely available for the averaffc person without laboratory training ana special apparatus. For this reason no method is suggested here for the detection of formaldehyde in other foods than milk. Detection of Saccharine. — Saccharine has a certain preservative power, but it is used not so much for this effect as be- cause of the very sweet taste which it imparts. It is extracted by means of chloroform, as described under the detection of salicylic acid. In the case of solid and semi-solid foods, the sample must, of course, be prepared by extrac- tion with water, as oescribed under sali- cylic acid. The residue left after the evaporation of the chloroform, if a con- siderable amount of saccharine is present, has a distinctly sweet taste. The only other substance having a sweet taste which may be present in foods, i. e., sugar, is not soluble in chloroform, ana therefore does not interfere with this reaction. Certain other bodies (tannins) which have an astringent taste are present, and as they are soluble in chloroiorm may sometinies mask the test for saccharine, but with practice this diflSculty is obviated. Detennination of Artificial Colors: Detection of Coal-Tar Dyes.— Coloring matters used with foods are usually soluble in water. If the food under examination be a liquid, it may there- fore be treated directly by the method pven below. If it be a solid or a pasty substance, soluble in water either in the cold or after heating, it may be dissolved in sufficient water to form a thin liquid. If it contains some insoluble material, it may be treated with suflicient water to di&«olve the soluble portion with the formation of a thin liquid and filtered, and then strained through a clean white ti>tton cloth to separate the insoluble portion. About a naif tcacupful of the liquid thu.4 described is heated to boiling, after adding a few drops of hydrochloric a^id and a small piece of white woolen Huth or a few strands of white woolen farn. (Before using, the wool should ne boiled with water containing a little •«m } of an inch to an inch above the surface of the lic)uid itself. A drop of household ammonia changes this red color to a dark men, almost olack. If too much bi* drochloric acid is used a dirty brovntsh color is produced. Detection of Ceimmel.— A aolutsoo of caramel is used to color many «ulv stances, such as vinegar and some div tilled Honors. To detect it two test tuhe« or small bottles of about equal site and shape should be employed and an eqtul amount (2 or 3 tablespoonfuls or morr of the suspected sample placed in esrh. To one of these bottles is added a tra- spoonful of fuller's earth, the samplr snaken vigorouslv for 2 or 8 minutr's and then filtered through filter pap<'.r- the first portion of the filtered liquMl being returned to the filter paper and the sample finally collected into the tr«t tube or bottle in which it was orinnall) placed, or a similar one. The fillrrrd liquid is now compared with the un- treated ^ sample. If it is markedly lighter in color it may be ta.ken for granted that the color of the liquid is dur to caramel, which is largely removed b« fuller's earth. In applying this tr«l. however, it must be borne in mind thst caramel occurs naturaUy in malt vtoei^jr. being formed in the preparation of tb^ malt. It is evident that tne tests require practice and experience before they ran oe successfullv performed. The bott«r- wife can use tnem, but must repeat them freouently in order to become profident in tneir use. EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN CLASSES OF FOODS: Canned Vc^tablee.— These are rrU- tivel^ free from adulteration by mean* *4 foreign substances. The different grsdr* of products may with care be rratiit* detected bv the general appearancr of the sample. The purchaser is, ai course, at the disadvantage of not betac able to see the product until the ran n opened. Bv a study of the diffrrrnt brands available in the viHnity, h4i«e«rr. he can readily select those «hirk are preferable. As stated in an earlier ptrt of this article, canned tomatue* h>iiw- times contain an artificial coloring mat ter, which may be detected a* d«rnbr«l- Canned sweet corn is sometimes tvrrl ened with saccharine, which may hr de- tected as described. It is believed that« as a rule, ra»n«'d vegetables are free fn>m presertati^**. alt no ugh some instances of eheniH »* preservation have recently been reportril in North Dakota, and »omc importrtl Digitized by VjOOQ IC FOOD ADULTERANTS 858 toroatoefl have l>een found to be arti- ficially preserved. The presence of cop- per, often used for the artificial greening of imported canned peas, beans, spinach, etc., may be detected as described. Coffee. — There are a number of sim- ple tests for the presence of the adulter- ants of ground coffee. These are called simple because the^ can be performed without the facilities of the chemical laboratory, and by one who has not had the experience and training of a chemist. It must be understood that they require careful observation and study, and that une must perform them repeatedly in order to obtain reliable results. Before applying them to the examination of an unknown sample, samples of known character should be secured and studied. Unground coffee may be ^ound in the home and mixed witn various kinds of adulterants, which can also be secured separately. Thus the articles themselves in known mixtures may be studied, and when the same results are obtained with unknown samples they can be correctly interpreted. These tests are well known in the laboratory and may be used in the home of the careful housewife who has the time and perseverance to master them. PfayBical Tests.— -The difference be- tween the genuine ground coffee and the adulterated article can often be detected b? simple inspection with the naked eye. This is particularly true if the product he coarsely crushed rather than finely pound. In such condition pure coffee has a (^uite uniform appearance, whereas the mixtures of peas, beans, cereals, chicory, etc., often disclose their hetero- freneous nature to the careful observer. Thu is particularlv true if a magnifyin^^ f^AM be employeo. The different arti- cles comoosing the mixture may then be senaratea by the point of a pen-knife. Tne dark, gummy-looking chicory par- ticles stand out in strong contrast to the other substances used, and their nature can be determined by one who is familiar with them by their astringent taste. The appearance of the coffee particles u also quite distinct from that of many «>f the coffee substitutes employed. The ruffee has a dull surface, whereas some of ita substitutes, especially leguminous products, often present the appearance of having a polisned surface. After a careful inspection of the sample with the naked eye, or, better, with a niagnifpng glass, a portion of it may be placed ID a small bottle half full of water and shaken. . The bottle is then placed on the table for a moment. Pure coffee contains a large amount of oil, by reason of which the greater portion of the sample will float. All coffee substitutes and some particles of coffee sink to the bot- tom of the liquid. A fair idea of the purity of the sample can often be deter- mined by the proportion of the sample which floats or sinks. Chicory contains a substance which dissolves m water, imparting a brownish- red color. When the suspected sample is dropped into a ^lass of water, the ffrains of chicoiy which it contains may be seen slowly sinking to the bottom, leaving a train of a dark-brown colored liquid oehind them. This test appears to lead to more errors in the hands of inexperienced operators than any other test here gpven. Wrong conclusions may be avoided by working first with known samples of coffee ana chicory as suggested above. Manv coffee substitutes are now sold as sucn and are advertised as more wholesome than coffee. Notwithstand- ing the claims that are made for them, a few of them contain a considerable per- centage of coffee. This may be deter- mined by shaking a teaspoon! ul in a bot- tle half full of water, as described above. The bottle must be thoroughly shaken so as to wet everv particle of the sample. Few particles of coffee substitutes will float. Chemical Tests.— Coffee contains no starch, while all of the substances, ex- cept chicory, used for its adulteration and in the preparation of coffee substi- tutes contain a considerable amount of starch. The presence of such substi- tutes may, therefore, be detected by applying the test for starch. In making this test less than a quarter of a teaspoon- ful of ground coffee should be used, or a portion of the ordinary infusion pre- pared for the table may be employed after dilution. The amount of water that should be added can only be de- termined by experience. Condimental Sauces. — Tomato catsup and other condimental sauces are fre- quently preserved and colored artifi- cially. The preservatives emplojred are usually salicylic acid and benzoic acid or their sodium salts. These products may be detected by the methods given. Coal-tar colors are frequently em- ployed with this class of goods, espe- cially with those of a reddish tint, like tomato catsup. They may be detected by the methods given. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 854 FOOD ADULTERANl^ DAIRY PRODUCTS: Butter.— Methods arc available which, with a little practice, may be employed to distinguish between fresh butter, renovated or process butter, and oleo- marffarine. These methods are commonly used in food and dairy laboratories. They give reliable results. At the same time con- siderable practice is necessary before we can interoret correctly the results ob- tained. Some process butters are on the market which can be distinguished from fresh butter only with extreme difficulty. During the last few years considerable progress has been made in the attempt to renovate butter in such a way that it will appear like fresh butter in all respects. A study must be made of these methods if we would obtain reliable results. The "spoon" test has been suggested as a household test, and is commonly used by analvtical chemists for distin- guishing fresh butter from renovated butter and oleomargarine. A lump of butter, 2 or 8 times the size of a pea, is placed in a large spoon and heated over an alcohol or Bunsen burner. If more convenient the spoon may be held above the chimney or an ordinarv kerosene lamp, or it ma^ even be held over an ordinary illuminating gas burner. If the sample in Question be fresh butter it will boil ouietly, with the evolution of manv small bubbles throughout the mass which produce a large amount of foam. Oleomargarine and process butter, on the other hand, sputter and crackle, making a noise similar to that heard when a green stick is placed in a fire. Another point of distinction is noted if a small portion of the sample be placed in a smaU bottle and set in a vessel of water sufficiently warm to melt the butter. The sample is kept melted from half an hour to an hour, when it is examined. If renovated butter or oleomargarine, the fat will be turbid, while if genuine fresh butter the fat will almost certainly be entirely clear. . -'T^ manipulate what is known as the Waterhouse" or "milk" test, about 2 ounces of sweet milk are placed in a wide- mouthed bottle, which is set in a vessel of boiling water. When the milk is thoroughly heated, a teaspoonful of outter IS added, and the mixture stirred with a splinter of wood until the fat is melted. The bottle is then placed in a dish of ice water and the stirring con- tinued until the fat solidifies. If the sample be butter, either fresh or reno- vated, it will be solidified in a granular condition and distributed through tlie milk in small particles. If, on the other hand, the sample consist of oleomar* garine it solidifies practicallv in one piec^ and may be lifted by the stirrer from the milk. B;r these two testa, the first of which distinguishes fresh butter from procti» or renovated butter and oleomarganne, and the second of which distinguishes oleomargarine from either fresh butter or renovated butter, the nature of the sample under examination may be determined. Milk.— The oldest and simplest method of adulterating milk is by dilution with water. This destroys the natural yellow- ish-white color and produces a blui'h tint, which is sometimes corrected br the addition of a small amount of coloring matter. Another form of adulteration is the removal of the cream and the snle ** whole mUk of skimmed or partial!^ skimmed milk. Again, the difficultT experienced in the preservation of mill in warm weather has led to the wide- spread use of chemical preservatires. DetecHon of Water.—lt a lactomrtrr or hydrometer, which can be obtained of dealers in chemical apparatus, be avail- able, the specific gravity of milk will afford some clew as to whether the sam- ple has been adulterated by dilution with water. Whole milk has a specific grav- ity between 1.0«7 and LOSS. The spe- cific gravity of skimmed milk is higher, and milk very rich in cr^am is some- times lower than these figures. It is understood, of course, that by specific gravity is meant the weight of a substaotr with reference to the weight of an e«|ual volume of water. The specific graritjr of water is I. It is obvious that if water be added to a milk with the specific gravity of l.OSO, the specific gravity uf the mixture will be somewhat below those figures. An indication bv means of a bvdnAi- eter or lactometer below the figure 1.CW7 therefore indicates either that the sample in question is a very rich milk or that it is a milk (perhaps normal, prrhap^ skimmed) that has been watered. Tbr difference in appearan(*e and nature irf these two extremes is sufficiently nbTi«U'» to make use of the lactometer or hydrom- eter of value as a preliminary test of the purity of milk. Drieciion of Color, — As preiri«u*li stated, when milk is diluted by mean* «if water the natural yellowish-while color is changed to a bluish tint, which u sometimes corrected by the aJdilioa Digitized by VjOOQ IC FOOD ADULTERANTS 855 of coloring matter. Coal-tar colors are usually employed for this purpose. A reaction for these colors is often obtained in the method given below for the detec- tioD of formsddehyde. When strong hydrochloric acid is added to the milk in approximately equal proportions before the mixture is heated a pink tinge some- times is evident if a coal-tar color has been added. Detection of Formaldehyde. — Formal- dehyde is the substance most commonly um for preserving milk and is rarely, if ever, adaed to any other food. Its use li inexcusable ana especially objection- able in milk served to infants and in- valids. To detect formaldehyde in milk 3 or 4 tablespoonf uls of the sample are placed in a teacup with at least an equal amount of strong hydrochloric acid and a piece of ferric alum about as laree as a pin- bead« the liquids being mixed by a gentle rotary motion. The cup is then placed in a vessel of boiling water, no further heat being applied, And left for 5 min- uter. At the end of this time, if formal- dehyde be present, the mixture will be di^ttiQctly purple. If too much heat is applied, a muddy appearance is imparted to the contents of the cup. Caution. — Great care must be exerdsed in working with ^ hydrochloric add, as it is strongly corrosive. Edible Oils«— With the exception of ce deterlrti by the methods given. Vinesar. — A person thoroughly famQ- iar with vinegar can tell much rrgarding the source of the article from its appear- ance, color, odor, and taste. If a glass be rinsed out with the sample of vinegar and allowed to stand fur a number of hours or overnight* the odor of the residue remaining in the ^la^ i« quite different with different kinds of vinegar. Thus, wine vinegar has the odor characteristic of wine, and cider vineffar has a peculiar^ fruity odor. A small amount of practfcc with thin tr«»t enables one to distinguish with a high degree of accuracy between wine and cider vinegars and the ordinary sulwti- tutes. If a sample of vinegar he placed in a shallow disk on a warm stove or boiling teakettle and heated to a temperature sufficient for evaporation and not suffi- cient to burn the residue, the odor of the warm residue is also characteristic of the different kinds of vinegar. Thus, the residue from cider vinegar has the odor of baked apples and the flavor is acid and somewnat astringent in taxte. and that from wine vinei;ar is eoually char- acteristic. The residue obtained l»y evaporating vinegar made from «u|tar- house products and from spirit and wo4m1 vinegar colored b^ means of caranirl has the peculiar bitter taste character- istic of caramel. If the residue be heated until it br|nn« to burn, the odor of the burning prouurt also varies with different kinds of %'inr> gar. Thus, the residue from cider vinegar has the odor of scorched applet, while that of vinegars made from suj^mr- house wastes and of distilled and wtx^l vinegars colored with a large amount the addition of apple jellv. The cheaper lorms of vinegar, espe- cially distilled and wood vinegar, are commonly colored with caramel, mUu U can be detected by the method given. FOOD C0L0RA5TS. (Most, if not all, of these eoloranta are injurious and should therefore l>e u*e^ with extreme caution.) Sausaga Color.— To dye sausare r«<|, certain tar dyciituffs are eiuphtj*-*!. Digitized by VjOOQ IC FOOD ADULTERANTS 359 especially the azo dyes, preference being given to the no-called genuine red. For this purpose about 100 parts of dyestuif are dinsolved in 1,000 to 2,000 parts of hut water; when the solution is com- plete* add a likewise hot solution of 45 to 50 parts of boracic acid, whereupon the mixture should be stirred well for some time; then filter, allow to cool, and pre- serve in tightly closing bottles. It is absolutely necessary in using aniline colors to add a disinfectant to the dye- stuff solution, the object of which is, in case the sausage should commence^ to decompose, to prevent the decomposition azo dyestuff by the disengaged hydrogen. Instead of boracic acid, formalin may be used as a disinfectant. Of this formalin, S8 per cent, add about 25 to SO parts to tne cooled and filtered dye- stun solution. This sausage color is used by adding about 1 } to 2 tablespoon- f uls of It to the preserving salt measured out for 100 kilos of sausage mass, stirring well. The sausage turns neither gray nor yellow on storing. Cheefle Color. — I. — To produce a suit- able, pretty yellow color, boil 100 parts of oriean or annatto with 75 parts of potassium carbonate in 14 to 2 liters of water, allow to cool, and filter after set- tling, whereupon 15 to 18 parts of boracic acid are added to give keeping qualities to the solution. According to another method, digest about 200 parts of or- Iran, 200 parts of potassium carbonate, and 100 parts of turmeric for 10 to 12 days in 1,500 to 2,000 parts of 60 per cfTki alcohol, filter, and Keep in bottles. To 100,000 parts of milk to be made into chee.<»e add IJ to 2 small spoonfuls of thift dye. whicn imparts to tne cheese a permanent and natural yellow appear- ance. IL — ^To obtain a handsome vellow color for cheese, such as is demanded for ci-rtain sorts, boil together 100 parts of annatto and 75 parts of potassium car- bonate in from 1,500 to 2,000 parts of pure water; let it cool, stand it aside for a time, and filter, adding finally from 12 to 15 parts ol boracic acid as a preservative. Ftir coloring batter, there is in the trade a mi^iture of bicarbonate of soda with 12 prr cent to 15 per cent of sodium chlo- ride, to which IS added from H per cent to 2 per cent of powdered turmeric. Boner Color. — For the coloring of butter there is in the market under the name of butter powder a mixture of %odtam bicarbonate with 12 to 15 per cent of sodium chloride and 1 } to 2 per cent ol powdered turmeric; also a mix- ture of sodium bicarbonate, 1,500 parts; saffron surrogate, 8 parts; and salicylic acid, 2 parts. For the preparation of liquid butter color use a uniform solution of olive oil, 1,500 parts; powdered tur- meric, 300 parts; oriean, 200 parts. The oriean is applied on a plate of glass or tin in a thin layer ana allowed to dry perfectly, whereupon it is ground very nne and intimately mixed with the powdered turmeric. This mixture is stirred into the oil with digestion for several hours in the water bath. When a uniform, liauid mass has resulted, it is fillered hot tnrough a linen filter with wide meshes. After cooling, the fil- trate is filled into bottles. Fiftv to 60 drops of this liquid color to 1) Icilos of butter impart to the latter a handsome golden yellow shade. mFANT FOODS: Infants' (Malted) Food.— I. — Powdered malt .... 1 ounce Oatmeal (finest ground) 2 ounces Suear of milk 4 ounces BaKed flour 1 pound Mix thoroughly. II. — Infantine is a German infant food which is stated to contain egg albumen, 5.5 per cent; fat, 0.08 per cent; water, 4.22 per cent; carbohydrates, 86.58 per cent (of which 54.08 per cent is soluole in water); and ash, 2.81 per cent (consisting of calcium, 10.11 per cent; potassium, 2.64 per cent; sodium, 25.27 per cent; chlorine, 36.65 per cent; sulphuric acid, 3.13 per cent; and phos- phoric acid, 18.51 per cent). MEAT PRESERVATIVES. (Most of these are considered injurious by the United States Department of Agri- culture and should therefore be used with extreme caution.) Ilie Preservation of Meats. — Decom- position of the meat sets in as soon as the blood ceases to pulse in the veins, and it is therefore necessarjr to properly preserve it until the time of its consump- tion. The nature of preservation must be governed by circumstances such as the kind and quality of the article to be pre- served, length of time and climatic con- dition, etc. While salt, vinegar, and alcohol merit recognition on the strength of a long-continued usage as^ preserva- tives, modern usage favors boric acid and borax, and solutions containing salicylic acid and sulphuric acid are common. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 860 FOOD PRESERVATIVES and have been the subject of severe criti- cism. Many other methods of preservation have been tried with variable degrees of success; and of the more thoroughly tested ones the following .probably include all of those deserving more than passinff mention or consideration. 1. The exclusion of external, atmos- pheric electricity, which has been ob- served to materially reduce the decaying of meat, milk, butter, beer, etc. 8. The retention of occluded electric currents. Meats from various animals packed into the same packages, and sur- rounded bv a conducting medium, such as salt and water, liberate electricity. 5. The removal of the nerve centers. Carcasses with the brains and spinal cord left therein will be found more prone to decomposition than those wherefrom these organs have been removed. 4. Desiccation. Dried beef is an excellent example of this method of pres- ervation. Other methods coming un- der this heading are the application of spices with ethereal oils, various herbs, coriander seed extracted with vinegar, etc. 6. Reduction of temperature, i. e., cold storage. 6. Expulsion of air from the meat and the containers. Appert*s, Willaumez's, Redwood's, and Prof. A. VogePs meth- ods are representative for this category of preservation. Phenvl paper. Dr. Buscn*s, Georges*s, and Medlock and Baily*s proc- esses are equally well known. 7. The application of gases. Here may be mentioned Dr. Gamgee's and Bert and Re^noso's processes, applying carbon dioxide and other compressed gases, respectively. Air-drying, powdering of meat, smok- ing, pickling, sugar or vinegar curing are too well^ known to receive any further attention here. Whatever proc- ess may be employed, preference should be given to that whicn will secure the principal obiects sought for, the most satisfactory being at tne same time not deleterious to health, and of an easily applicable and inexpensive nature. To Preserve Beef, etc., in Hot Weather.— Put the meat into a hot oven and let it remain until the surface is browned all over, thus coa^^ulating the albumen of the surface and inclosing the body of the meat in an impermeable en- velope of cooked flesh. Pour some melttxl lard or suet into a jar of sufficient Mize, and roll the latter around until the sides are evenly coated to the depth of half an inch with the material. Pat in thr meat, taking care that it does not touch the sides of the jar (thus scraping avsT the envelope of grease), and fill up with more suet or lard, being careful to ct>n- pletely cover and envelop the meat. Thus prepared, the meat will remain absolutely I resit for a long time, even in the botteftt weather. When required for use the outer portion may be left on or removed. The same fat ma^ be tiaed over and over again by melting and retalnioft in the melted state a few momenta each tiroc. bv which means not only all solid portiont of the meat which have been retainnl fall to the bottom, but all septic microbes are destroyed. Meat Preservatiyes. — I. — Barwuniu Corning Aaeni: For every 100 partss by weight, take 25.8 parts, hj weight* of saltpeter; 46.8 parts, bv weigh t« sodium chloride; 25.7 parts, oy weight, cane sugar; 0.8 parts, by weight, piaster i*f Paris or gjrpsum; 0.1 part, by weight, of some moistening material, and a tnvt of magnesia. II. — Carniform, A : For every 100 paHv by weight, take 3.5 parts, bv weight, sodium diphosphate; 3.1 parts, by weight. water of crystallization; 68.4 paits, (>« weight, sodium chloride; 24.9 parts, hy weight, saltpeter; together with tracer i>f calcium phosphate, magnesia, and i^ui- phuric acid. III.— Carnt/orm, B: For every liHi parts, by weight, take 22.0 partjk. l») weight, sodium diphosphate; 17.3 part«. by weight, water of crystalliKatiun; ^9 7 parts, by weight, saltpeter; O.t^ parts. !•« weight, calcium phosphate; wito trsrm of sulphuric acid and magnesia. l\.—**Cervelatvurti** [spict fovdft'^: Far 100 parts, by weight, take 0.7 part«. by weight, of moistening; 3.5 part*, bv weight, spices — mostly pepper; 89 psrt^ by weight, sodium chloride; 5 parts. \*y weight, saltpeter; 0.7 parts, by wci|rlit« gypsum; and traces of magnesia. V. — Cervelaiwurat Soli {svift ptunUr For 100 parts, by weight, take 7.5 p^riv by weignt, spices — mostly pepprr; I t« parts, bv weight, moistener; SI. 9 psH*, by weignt, sodium chloride; 2.5 p*rt%, hy weight, saltpeter; 6.2 parts, by urifchi. cane sugar; and traces of magi)r«ia. VI. — Rubrolin Sausaffe iMpict pow^r^^ For 100 parts by weight, Uke 53.5 part*, by weight, sal ammoniac, and 45.2 part*. by weight, of saltpeter. VII. Sfrrator Special Miik «md B^f iff Pregennng Salt: 80.3 per cen\ "f crystallized boracic aciil; 10.7 per etui Digitized by VjOOQ IC FOOD PRESERVATIVES— I'X)OT-POWDERS 361 sodium chloride; and 9.5 per cent of beasoic acid. (Its use is» however, pro- hibited in Germany.) \llh— Wittenberg Pickling Salt: For 100 parts, Ky weisht, take 58.6 parts, by weignt, sodium cnloride; 40.5 parts, by weight, saltpeter; 0.5 parts, by weight, grpsum; traces of moisture and mag- nesia. IX. — SecuTo: For a quart take 8.8 parts, by weij^ht, aluminum oxide, and 8 parts, by weight, acetic acid ; basic ace- tate of alumina, 62 parts, by weight; sulphuric acid, 0.8 parts, by weight ; sodium oxide, with substantially traces of lime and magnesia. \,—MicheU Caeeala Salt: This is partially disintegrated. 30.74 per cent sofiium chloride; 15.4 per cent sodium phosphate; £3.3 per cent potassio-sodic tartrate; 16.9 per cent water of crystalli- zation; 1.£ per cent aluminum oxide; and 2.1 per cent acetic acid as basic ace- tate of alumina; 8.4 per cent sugar; 0.98 per cent benzoic acid; 0.5 per cent sul- phuric acid; and traces of lime. XI. — Corning SaH: Sodium nitrate, 30 parts; powdered boracic acid, 45 parts; salicylic acid, 5 parts. XII. — Preservative Salt: Potassium nitrate, 70 parts; sodium bicarbonate, 15 parts: sooium chloride, 15 parts. \Ul.— Another Corning Salt: Potas- nuro nitrate, 50 parts; sodium chloride, iO parts; powdered boracic acid, 20 parts; sugar, 10 parts. Xiy. —^Maciline (offered a$ condiment and binding agent for aausagen): A mix- ture of wheat flour and potato flour dyed intensely ydlow with an azo dyestuff and imprecated with oil of mace. XV.— Borax 80 parts Boric acid. ..... 17 parts Sodium chloride. 3 parts Reduce the ingredients to a powder and mix thoroughly. XVI. — Sodium sulphite, powdered .... 80 parts Sodium sulphate, powdered .... 20 parts X^lI.~Sodittm chloride. 80 parts Borax 8 parts Potassium nitrate 12 parts Reduce to a powder and mix. XVIII. — Sodium nitrate. . 50 parts Salicylic acid 5 parts Boric acid 45 parts XIX. — Potassi u m n i - tratc 70 parts Sodium bicar- bonate ...... 15 parts Sodium chloride. 15 parts XX. — Potassium ni- trate 50 parts Sodium chloride. 20 parts Boric acid 20 parts Sugar 10 parts A Gennan Method of Preserving Meat. — Entire unboweled cattle or large, suit- ably .severed pieces are sprinkled with acetic acid and then packed and trans- ported in sawdust impregnated with cooking salt and sterilized. Extract of Meat Containing Albumen. — In the ordinary production of meat extract, the albumen is more or less lost, partly through precipitation by the acids or the acid salts of the meat extract, part- ly through salting out by the salts of the ex- tract, and partly by coagulation at a higher temperature. A subsequent addition of albumen is impracticable because the al- bumen is likewise precipitated, insolubly, by the acids and salts contained in the extract. This precipitation can be pre- vented, according to a French patent, by neutralizing the extract before mixing with albumen, by the aid of sodium bicarbonate. The drying of the mixture is accomplished in a carbonic acid at- mosphere. The preparation .dissolves in cold or hot water into a white, milky liquid and exhibits the smell and taste of meat extract, if the albumen added was tasteless. The taste which the extract loses bv the neutralization returns in its original strength after the mixture with albumen. In this manner a meat prep- aration is obtained which contains larger quantities of albumen and is more nutritious and palatable than other preparations. FOODS. PREDIGESTED: See reptonoids. Foot-Powders and Solutions The following foot-powders have been recommended as dusting powders: I. — Boric acid 2 ounces Zinc oleate 1 ounce Talcum 3 ounces • II. — Oleate of zinc (pow- dered) J ounce Boric acid 1 ounce French chalk 5 ounces Starch 1 } ounces Digitized by VjOOQ IC 862 FOOT-POWDERS— FORMALDEHYDE III. — Dried alum 1 drachm Salicylic acid } drachm Wheat starch 4 drachms Powdered talc 1 } ounces IV. — Formaldehyde solu- tion 1 part Thymol iV part Zinc oxide S5 parts Powdered starch. ... 65 parts V. — Salicylic acid 7 drachms Boric acid . 2 ou nces, 440 grains Talcum 38 ounces Slippery elm bark. . . 1 ounce Orris root I ounce VI.— Talc. 12 ounces Boric acid '. . . 10 ounces Zinc oleate I ounce Salicylic acid 1 ounce Oiloi eucalyptus. .. 2 drachms Vn. — Salicylic acid ..... . 7 drachms Boric acid 3 ounces Talcum 38 ounces Slipperv elm, pow- dered 1 ounce Orris, powdered .... I ounce Salicylated Talcum.— I. — Salicylic acid 1 drachm Talcum 6 ounces Lycopodium 6 drachms Starcn ^ 3 ounces Zinc oxide 1 ^ ounce Perfume, quantity sufficient. II. — ^Tannoform 1 drachm Talcum 2 drachms Lycopodium SO grains Use as a dusting powder. Solutions for Penpiriiig Feet.- I. — Balsam Peru 15 minims Formic acid 1 drachm Chloral hydrate 1 drachm Alcohol to make 3 ounces. Apply by means of absorbent cotton. II. — Borjcacid 15 grains Sodium borate 6 drachms Salicylic acid 6 drachms Glycerine 1) ounces Alcohol to make 3 ounces. For local application. FOOTSORES OH CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. FORGING OF STEEL: Sec Steel. FORMALDEHYDE: See aim DLsinfei'UntH, FcmmIs, and Milk. Commercial Formaldehyde. — This ex- tremely poisonous preservative is ob- tained by passing the vapors of wood spirit, in the presence of air, oTer copper heated to reaness. The essential puts of the apparatus emplored are a meUl chamber mto which a feed-tube entr ix and from which 4 parallel copper tuUn or oxidizers discharge by a common exit tube. This chamber is fitted with in- spection apertures, through which thf course of the process mar be watrhnl and controlled. The wood spirit, storrd in a reservoir, falls into a mixer vherr it is volatilized and intimately mixed with air from a chamber which is connerteil with a force pump. The gases aftrr traversing the oxidizer are led into t condensing coil, and the crude formsl- dehyde is discharged into the reerjTcr beneath. The small amount of uncondensed f^ht is then led through a series oi t«n washers. The "formol** thus obtainrtl is a mixture of water, methyl alcohol, and 30 to 40 per cent of formaldehjiir. It is rectified in a still, by which the irrt methyl alcohol is removed and pore for* mol obtained, containing 40 per cent tif formaldehyde, chiefly in the form of thr acetal. Rectification must not be pufthr^ too far, otherwise the formaldehyae uay become polymerized into trioxmethrlrDr. When once oxidation starts, the heat fpro* era ted is sufficient to keep the oxidurn red hot, so that the process works prmrti- cally automatically. Determinatioii of the PrMenoa of For- maldehyde in Solutions.— Lemme makr* use, for this purpose, of the fart tksl formaldehvde, in neutral solutioa* (if sodium sulphite, forms normal bisulphitr salts, setting free a corresponding quan- tity of sodium hydrate, that may hr titrated with sulphuric arid and phrntU- phthalein. The sodium sulphite dila- tion has an alkaline reaction low ami phenol phthalein, and must l>e eisc-ti« neutralized with sodium bisulphitr Then to 100 cubic centimeters of thi* solution of 250 grams of sodium sulpbitr (Na,S0,-H7H,0) in 750 grams wslrr. add 5 cubic centimeters of the 8ttsprr1r«l formaldehyde solution. A strong rrd color is instantly producetl. Titrale with normal sulphuric acid until the rt4or disappears. As the exact disappearsiKr of the color is not easily determined. ■ margin of from 0.1 to O.tf cubic renti- meters may be allowed without the rt- actnesa of the reaction being iniurr*!. since 1 cubic centimeter of normal an«i answers to only 0.03 grams of fumiA • drhyde. FORMALIN FOR GRAHI SMUT: See Grain. Digitized by VjOOQ IC FREEZING PREVENTIVES— FROST BITE S6S FRAMES : THEIR PROTECTION FROM FLIES. Since there is great risk of damaging the gilt when trying to remove fly- specks with spirits of wine, it has been found serviceable to cover gilding with a copal varnish. This hardens and will stand rough treatment, and may be re- newed wherever removed. FRAME CLEAimiG: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. FRAME POLISHES: See Polishes. FRAMIHG, PASSE-PARTOUT: See Passe- Partout. FRECKLE LOTIONS: See Cosmetics. FREEZING MIXTURES: See also Refrigeration and Refriger- ants. Freezing Preventives Liquid for Cooling Automobile En- ^nes. — In order to prevent freezing of the jarkct water, when the engine is not in operation in cold weather, solutions are used, notably of glycerine and of calcium chloride (CaCU). The proportions for the former solution are equal parts of water and glycerine, by weight; for the latter, approximately ) gallon of water to 8 pounds of CaCU, or a saturated solution at 60» F. This solution (CaCU-|-6H,0) is then mixed with equal parts of water, gallon for gallon. Many persons com- plain that CaCU corrodes the metal parts, out this warning need do no more than urge the automobilist to use only the chemically pure salt, carefully avoiding the "chloride of lime" (CaOCU). A practical manufacturing chemist of wide experience gives this: A saturated solution of common salt is one of the best things to use. It does not affect the metal of the engine, as many other salbi would, and is easily renewed. It will remain fluid down to 0« P., or a little below. Equal parts of glycerine and water is aim good, and has tlie advantage that it will not crystallize in the chambers, or evaporate readily. It is the most con- vrnient solution to use on this account, and may repay the increased cost over iHrine, in the comfort of its use. It needs only the occasional addition of a little water to make it last all winter and leave the machinery clean when it is drawn off. With brine an incrustation of salt as the water evaporates is bound to occur which reduces the efficiency of the solution until it is removed. Water frequently must be added to keep the original volume, and to hold the salt in solution. A solution of calcium chloride is less troublesome so far as crystallizing is concerned, but is said to have a ten- dency to corrode the metals. Anti -Freezing Solution for Automo- bilists. — Mix and filter 4} pounds pure calcium chloride and a gallon of warm water and put the solution in the radia- tor or tank. Replace evaporation with clean water, and leakage with solution. Pure calcium chloride retails at about 8 cents per pound, or can be procured from any wholesale drug store at 5 cents. Anti-Freezinjg;, Non-Corrodye Solu- tion.— A solution for water-jackets on gas engines that will not freeze at any temperature above 20® below zero (F.) may be made by combining 100 parts of water, by weight, with 75 parts of car- bonate potash and 50 parts of glycerine. This solution is non-corrosive and will remain perfectly liquid at all tempera- tures above its congealing point. Anti-Frost Solution.— As an excellent remedy against the freezing of shop win- dows, apply a mixture consisting of 55 parts of glycerine dissolved in 1 ,000 parts of 62 per cent alcohol, containing, to improve the odor, some oil of amber. As soon as the mixture clarifies, it is rubbed over the inner surface of the glass. This treatment, it is claimed, not only prevents the formation of frost, but also stops sweating. Protection of Acetylene Apparatus from Frost.— Alcohol, glycerine, and calcium chloride have been recommend- ed for the protection of acetylene gener- ators from frost. The employment of calcium chloride, which ^ must not be confounded with chloride of lime, appears preferable in all points* of view. A solution of 20 parts of calcium chloride in 80 parts of water congeals only at 5'* F. above zero. But as this temperature does not generally penetrate the genera- tors, it wul answer to use 10 or 15 parts of the chloride for 100 parts of water, which will almost always be sufficient to avoid congelation. Care must be taken not to use sea salt or other alkaline or metallic salts, which deteriorate the metal of the apparatus. FROST BITE. When the skin is as yet unbroken, Hugo Kuhl advises the following: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 864 FROST BITE— FRUIT PRESERVING I. — Carbolized water. . . 4 drachms Nitric acid 1 drop Oil of geranium .... 1 drop Mix. Pencil over the skin and then hold the penciled place near the fire until the skin is quite dry. If the skin is already broken, use the following ointment: II. — Hebra's ointment. . 500 parts Glycerine 100 parts Liquefied carbolic acid 15 parts Mix. Apply to the broken skin occasionally. III. — Camphor 25 parts Iodine, pure 50 parts Olive oil 500 parts ParafBne, solid 450 parts Alcohol, enough. Dissolve the camphor in the oil and the iodine in the least possible amount of alcohol. Melt the parafBne and add the mixed solutions. When homogeneous pour into suitable molds. ,Wrap the pencils in paraffine paper or tin foil, and pack in wooden boxes. By using more or less olive oil the pencils may be made of any desired consistency. IV. — Dissolve 5 parts of camphor in a mixture consisting of 5 parts of ether and 5 parts of alcohol ; then add collodion sufficient to make 100 parts. V. — Dissolve 1 part of thymol in 5 parts of a mixture of ether and alcohol, then add collodion sufficient to make 100 parts. VI. — Carbolic acid 2 parts LfCad ointment. ... 40 parts Lanolin 40 parts Olive oil 20 parU Lavender oil 1} parts VII.— Tannic acid 15 parts Lycopodium 15 parts Lard 80 parts VIII. — Zinc oxide 15 parts Glycerine 45 parts Lanolin 40 parts IX.—Ichthyol 10 parts Resorcin 10 parts Tannic acid 10 parts Distilled water 50 parts Any of these is to be applied about twice a day. FROSTED GLASS: See Glass. FROST PREVEimVE: Sec Freezing Preventives. FROST REMOVERS: See Glass. FRUIT ESSENCES AHD EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts. Fruit Preserving (See also Essences, Extracts, and Prr- serves.) How to Keen Fruit— Aocordiog to experiments of Max de Nansouty, fruit carefully wrapped in silk paper and then buried in dry sand will preserve a fiT»h appearance with a fresh odor or fla\'or, almost indefinitely. It may also be prr* served in dry excelsior, but not pesrijr so well. In stubble or straw fruit roh very quickly, while in shaWngs it mil- dews quickly. In short, wheat-straw fruit often takes on a musty taste and ocJor, even when perfectly dry. Finally, « iien placed on wooden tablets and exposed to the air, most fruit decays rapidly. I.— Crushed Strawberry.— Put up l»y the following process, the fruit retains its natural color and taste, and mav Iw exposed to the air for months, witnoot fermenting: Take fresh, ripe berries, stem them, and rub through a No. 8 sieve, rejecting all soft and green fruit. Add to earb gallon of pulp thus obtained, 8 pounds «jf granulated sugar. Put on the fire and Bring just to a boil, stirring con.und, replaced 24 fire day tilrv weighing 18 pounds, and a higher irm- perature was obtained than with tbr latter. FUKRITURE CLEAHERS: See Cleaning Preparations and MhK- ods. FURNITURE, ITS DECORATIOH: See Wood. FURKrrURE ENAMEL: See Varnishes. FURNITURE POLISHES: See Polishes. FURNITURE WAX: See Waxes. FUSES: See Pyrotechnics. FUSES FOR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS: See Alloys. FUNNELS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GALVANIZED PAPER: See Paper, Metallic. GAMBOGE STAIN: • See Lacquers. GAPES IN POULTRY: See Veterinary Formulas. GARANCINE PROCESS: See Dyes. GARDENS. CHEMICAL: See also Sponges. I. — Put some sand into a fish-glolK *r other suitable glass vessel to the depth i»/ 8 or 3 inches; in this olace a few pircr^ *^ sulphate of copoer, aluminum, and in«n. pour over the whole a solution of sodiun. silicate (water glass). 1 part« and water 8 parts, care being taken not to di Mr- range the chemicals. Let this stand « m'ecK or so, when a dense i^rowth of tK^ silicates of the various bases uird nili )« seen in various colors. Now dupi*'*' Digitized by VjOOQ IC GARDENS, CHEMICAL— GELATIN 869 the solution of the sodium silicate with clear water, by conveyinff a stream of water through a very smaU rubber tube into the vessel. The water will sradu* ally displace the sodium silicate solution. Care must be taken not to disarrange or break down the growth with the stream of water. A little ex peri men tins, ex- perience and expertness will enable the operator to produce a very pretty garden. U. — This is a permanent chemical ffarden« which may be suspended by brass diains with a lamp behind. Prepare a small beaker or jar full of cold saturated solution of Glauber*s salt, and into the solution suspend by means of threads a kidney bean and a non-por- ous body, such as a marbje, stone, glass, etc. Cover the jar, and in a short time there will be seen radiating from the bean small crystals of sulphate of sodium which will increase and give the bean the aspect of a sea urchin, while the non- porous body remains untouched. The bean appears to have a special partiality for the crystals, which is due to the ab- s<>rption of water by the bean, but not of the salt. In this way a supersaturated solution is formed in the immediate neif^hborhood of the bean, and the crys- tals, in forming, attach themselves to its surface. IIL — A popular form of ornamental rrystallization is that obtained by im- mernng a zinc rod in a solution of a lead Mit thus obtaining the "lead tree/' To prepare this, dissolve lead acetate in water, add a few drops of nitric acid, and then suspend the zinc rod in the solution. The lead is precipitated in large and beautiful plates until the solution is ex- hausted or the zinc dissolved. In this rase the action is electro-chemical, the first portions of the lead precipitated forming with the zinc a voltaic arrange- ment of sufficient power to decompose the salt- It is said that by substituting chloride of tin for the lead salt a"tin tree" may be produced, while nitrate of silver under the same conditions would produce a **»ilver tree." In the latter case dis- tilled water should be used to prevent precipitation of the silver by possible iDDpurities contained in ordinary water. GAS FIXTURES: See Brass. GAS FIXTURES, BRONZING OF: See Plating. GAS SOLDERING: Sec Soldering. GAS-STOVES, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GAS TRICK: See Pyrotechnics. GEAR LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. GELATIN: French Gelatin.— Gelatin is derived from two sources, the parings of skins, hides, etc., and from bones. The latter are submitted to the action of dilute hydrochloric acid for several days, which attacks the inorganic matters — car- bonates, phosphates, etc., and leaves the ossein, which is, so to say, an isomer of the skin substance. The skin, parings of hide, etc., gathered from the shambles, butcher shops, etc., are brought into the factory, and if not ready for immediate use are thrown into quicklime, which preserves them for the time being. From the lime, after washing, they pass into dilute acid, which removes the last traces of lime, and are now ready for the treat- ment that is to furnish the pure gelatin. The ossein from bones goes through the same stages of treatment, into lime, washed and laid in dilute acid again. From the acid bath the material goes into baths of water maintained at a temperature not higher than from US'" to 195<> F. The gelatin manufacturer buys from the button-makers and manufacturers of knife handles and bone articles gen- erally, those parts of the bone that they cannot use, some of which are pieces 8 inches long by a half inch thick. Bones gathered by the ragpickers fur- nish the strongest glue. The parings of skin, hide, etc., are from those portions of bullock hides, calf skins, etc., tnat cannot be made use of by the tanner, the heads, legs, etc. The gelatin made by Coignet for the Pharmacie Central e de France is made from skins procured from the tawers of Paris, who get it directly from the abat- toirs, which is as much as to sav that the material is guaranteed fresh and healthy, since these institutions are under rigid inspection and surveillance of govern- ment inspectors and medical men. There is a j|[elatin or glue, used ex- clusively for joiners, insiae carpenters, and ceiling makers (plafonneura), called rabbit vermicelli^ and derived from rab- bit skins. As the first treatment of these skins is to saturate them with mercury bichloride, it is needless to say the prod- uct is not employed in pharmacy. Digitized by VjOOQ IC S'-rs «•«».- -^ ^":3C -oi •. -^i^-».r - X.7.: ^; str TO BCUOSH: Digitized by VjOOQ IC GLASS 8T1 GDIOBRADB: See Btvenges. GIHG£R ALE AHD GIHGER See Beverages. GIRGER CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. GINGER EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts. Glass Bent Ghus. — This was formerly used for show eases; its use in store fronts is becoming more and more familiar, large plates being bent for this purpose. It is much used in the construction of dwell- ingft, in windows, or rounded corners, and in towers; in coach fronts and in rounded front china closets. Either plain f^IsM or bereled glass may be bent, and to anYcunrc. The number of molds required in a glast-bendin^ establishment is large. The bendmg is done in a kiln. Glass mclU at 2,800^ F. ; the heat employed in bending is 1 ,800^ F. No pyrometer would stand long in that heat, so the heat of the kiln is judged from the color of the flame and other indications. Smaller pieces of glass are put into the molds in the kilns with forks made for the purpose. The great molds used for bending large sheets of glass are mounted on cars, that may be rolled in and out of kilns. The f/iaAs is laid upon the top of the mold or rsYity, and is bent by its own weight. Aft it is softened by the heat it sinks into the mold and so is bent. It may take an hour or two to bend the glass, which i» then left in the kiln from 24 to 36 hours to anneal and cool. Glass of any kind or tise is put into the kilns in its finished state; the great heat to which it is sub- jected does not disturb the polished sur- face. Despite every precaution more or less i^ass is broken in bending. Bent fClsAf costs about 50 per cent more than the flat The use of bent fl^ass is increasing, and there are 4 or 5 (^ass-bending estab- lishments in the United States, of which one b in the East. Colored Glaflf. — R. Zsigmondy has oiade some interesting experiments in coloring glass with metallic sulphides, «uch as molybdenite, and sulphides of antimony, copper, bismuth, and nickel. Tt%U made with batches of 20 to 40 poimds and with a heat not too great, give ffood results as follows: Sand, 65 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda. 5 parts; lime. 9 parte: molybdenite, 8 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, cave a dark reddish-brown glass. In thinner layers this fflass appeared light brownish yellow. Flashed with opal, it became a smutty black brown. Sand, 50 parts; potash, 15 piuls; soda, 5 parts; lime, 9 parts; molybdenite, 1 part; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a yellow glass. Sand, lOparts; potash, 3.8 parts; soda, 0.27 parts; lime, 1.64 parts; molybdenite, 0.08 parts, ^ave a reddish-yellow glass with a fine tinge of red. Sand, 100 parts; potash, 26 parts; soda, 108 ports; lime, 12 parts; sulphide of cop- per, 1.7 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2.8 parts, gave a dark-brown color, varyinj^ from sepia to sienna. In thick lavers it was no longer transparent, but still clear and unclouded. Wnen heated this glass became smutty black brown and clouded. A fine copper red was obtained from sand, 10 parts; potash, 3 parts; lime, 1 .2 parts; soda, 0.25 parts; sulphide of cop- per, 7.5 parts; sulphide of sodium, 10.5 parts; borax, 9.5 parts. Attempts to color with sulphides of antimony and bismuth failed. But the addition of 7 per cent of sulphide of nickel to an Ordinary batch gave a glass of fine amethyst color. Coloring Electric-Light Bulbs and Globes. — Two substances suggest them- selves as excellent vehicles of color, and both water soluble—water glass (po- tassium or sodium silicate) and gelatin. For tinting, water-soluble aniline colors should be tried. The thickness of the solution must be a matter of experimenta- tion. Prior to dipping the globes they should be made as free as possible from all grease, dirt, etc. The gelatin solu- tion should not be so thick that any appreciable layer of it will form on the surface of the glass, and to prevent crackinff, some non-drying material should be added to it, say glycerine. Rose-Tint Glass. — Selenium is now used for coloring glass. Rose-tinted glass is made by adding selenium directly to the ingredients in the melting pot. By mixing first with cadmium sulphide, orange red is produced. This process is stated not to require the reheating of the glass and its immersion in the color- ing mixture, as in the ordinary process of making red glass. CUmNG, DRILLING, GRINDING. AND SHAPING GLASS: To Cut Giass.— I.— Glass may be cut without a diamond. Dip a piece of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 872 GLASS common string in alcohol and squeeze it reasonably drv. Then tie the string tightly around the glass on the line of cutting. Touch a match to the string and let it burn off. The heat of the burning string will weaken the glass in this particular place. While it is hot plunge the glass under water, letting the arm go wellunder to the elbow, so there will be no vibration when the ^lass is struck. With the free hand strike the glass outside the line of cutting, giving a quick, sharp stroke with a stick of wood* a long-bladed knife, or the like, and the cut will be as clean and straight as if made by a regular glass cutter. The same principle may be employed to cut bottles into vases, and to form all sorts of pretty things, such as jewelry boxes, picture panes, trays, small tablets, windows for a doll house, etc. II. — Scratch the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a file or graver; then, having bent a piece of wire into the same shape, heat it red hot and lay it upon the scratch and sink the glass into cold water just deep enough for the water to come almost on a level with its upper surface. It will rarely fail to break perfectly true. To Cut Glass Under Water.— It is possible to cut a sheet of glass roughly to any desired shape with an ordinary pair of scissors, if tne operation be per- formed under water. Of course, a smooth edge cannot be obtained by such means, but it will be found satisfactory. Drilling, Shaping, and Filing Olasa. — Take any good piece of steel wire, file to the sha|>e of a drill, and then hold it in a flame till it is at a dull red heat; then quench in metallic mercury. A piece of good steel, thus treated, will bore through glass almost as easily as through soft brass. In use, lubricate with oil of turpentine in which camphor has been dissolved. When the point of the drill has touched the other side put the glass in water, and proceed with the drilling very slowly, if not possible to do this, reverse the work — turn the glass over and drill, very carefully, from the op- posite side. By proceeding with care you can easily drill three holes through flass ^ inch thick ) of an inch apart, n making the drill be careful not to make | the point and the cutting edges too acute. The drill cuts more slowly, but more safe- ly, when the point and cutting edges are at a low angle. To Make Holes in Thin Glass. - 2} inches in diameter. To Drill Optical Glaa.— A gravr sharpened to a long point is twifttr>i between the fingers, ana greased agair *t the glass, the point being root»Crne«! from time to time with turpentiiM When the hole is finished half way. t}.«- drilling should be commenced from tl «- other side. The starting should be l»r ^un with care, as otherwise the gra»tf IS likelv to slide out and scratch thr Uu% It is advisable to mark the pcitnt of d nil ing with a diamond, and not to a|*fii% too great a pressure when Iwistisif th^ graver. Lubricants for Glass IMDfaif.— I Put garlic, chopped in small ptccn, i* t« spirit of turpentine and agitate the iii..\ Digitized by VjOOQ IC GLASS 878 ture from time to time. Filter at the end of a fortnight, and when ;rou desire to pierce the glass dip your bit or drill into this liquioT taking care to moisten it constantly to prevent the drill, etc., from becoming heated. IL— nace a little alum in acetic acid, dil> your drill into this and put a drop of it on the spot where the glass is to be pierced. OJLDISO GLASS. When it is desired to gild fflass for dfcorative purposes use a solution of irrUtin in hot water, to which an eaual quantity of alcohol has been added. The glass to be gilded is covered with tbis solution and the gold leaf put on «bile wet. A sheet of soft cotton must be pressed and smoothed over the leaf unbl the gelatin below is evenly distrib- uted. This prevents spots in gilding. C areful apportionment of the gelatin is necessary. If too much be used, the gold may become spotted; if too little, the binding may be too weak to allow the i;uld to be polished. The glass should be cleaned thoroughly before gilding. After the gold leaf is put on the whole i« sHowed to dry for 10 or 20 minutes, when the luster of the ([old can be raised by ■ cautious rubbing with cotton. Then another layer of gelatin is spread on with one stroke of a soft brush, and, if espe- nally good work be required, a second layer of gold is put on and covered as before. In this case, however, the gela- tin 1% used hot. After the gilding has brcome perfectly dry the letters or orna- mentation are drawn and the surplus kM around the edges is taken off. The g'Mlng docs not become thoroughly fixed until after several months, and until then ruu^h handling, washing, etc., should be a\oided. The best backing for glass gilding is M«phaltum, with a Tittle lampblack, this to be mixed up with elastic varnish; oiiUide finishing varnish is the best, as tbe addition of this material gives dur- ability. GLASS MAlfUFACTURING: See alio Ceramics. The blue tint of the common poison buttle i. been recommended for polishing pb>M cians' reflectors, show-windows, etc.. to prevent dimming. WUTING ON GLASS: See abo Etching and Inks. Compo«ition for Writing on Glass.- To obtain mat designs on glsss, takr sodium fluoride, 35 parts; potasxiun tui- phate, 7 parts; zinc chloride^ 15 part** hydrochloric acid, 65 parts; dt^tilM water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the smlium fluoride and the potassium sulphatr it» half the water; dissolve the sine cblontlr in the remaining water and add Ibr hydrochloric acid. Preserve these ttiu solutions separately. For use, mil s little of each solution and write on tbr glass with a pen or brush. Ink for Writing on OUms.— Shellac 20 parU Alcohol 150 parts Borax 35 parts Water 250 parts Water-soluble dye sulfineat !> color. Din^olvr the shellac in the alrobiil. Ih'^ borax in the water, and pour the sbrlU- Digitized by VjOOQ IC GLASS— GLAZES 877 solution slowly into that of the borax. Then add the coloring matter previously dissolvcsd in a little water. GLASS AND GLASSWARE CEMEIIT: See Adhesives and Amalgams. GLASS CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth* ods. GLASS, COPPERING, GILDING, AND PLATING: See Plating. GLASS ETCHING: See Etching. GLASS. HOW TO AFFIX SIGN-LET- TERS ON: See Adhesives under Sign- Letter Cements. GLASS, FASTENING METALS ON: See Adhesives. GLASS LETTERING: See Lettering. GLASS LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. GLASS, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT AB- SORBED BY: See Light. GLASS POUSHES: See Polishes. GLASS. SILVERING OF: Sec Mirrors. GLASS SOLDERS: See Solders. GLASS, SOLUBLE, AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives. GLASS, TO AFFIX PAPER ON: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass CemcnU. GLASS, TO SILVER: See Silver. Glazes (See also Ceramics, Enamels, Paints, and Varnishes.) 4Hazes for Cooking Vessels. — Melt a frit of red lead, 22.9 parts (by weight); crystallized boracic acid, 31 parts; enamel soda, 42.4 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; gravel* 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts. According to the character of the clay, tbi» frit is mixed with varying quantities of sand« feldspar and kaohn, in the following manner: Frit 84 84 84 84 Red lead 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Gravel 8 6 8 Feldspar 2 5 8 Kaolin, burnt. 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 Glazes which are produced without addition of red lead to the frit, are pre- pared as follows. Melt a frit of the followine composition: Red lead, 22.9 parts (By weight); boracic acid in crystals, 24.8 parts; enamel soda, S7.1 parts; calcined potash, 6.9 parts; cook- ing salt, 10 parts; chalk, 10 parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts. From the frit the following glazes are prepared: Frit 86.5 86.5 86.5 86.5 Gravel 7 4.5 8 Feldspar 2.5 4 7 Kaolin, burnt. 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 Glaziiig on Size Colors. -j-The essential condition for this work is a well-sized foundation. For the glazing paint, size is likewise used as a binder, but a little dissolved soap is added, of about the strength employed for coating ceilings. Good veining can be done witn this, and a better effect can be produced in execut- ing pieces which are to appear in relief, such as car- touches, masks, knobs, etc., than with the ordinary means. A skill- ful grainer mav also impart to the work the pleasant luster of natural wood. The same glazing method is applicable to colored paintings. If the glazing colors are prepared with wax, dissolved in French turpentine, one may likewise glaze with them on a size-paint ground. ulazing[ tube-oil colors thinned with turpentine and siccative, are also useful for this purpose. For the shadows, asphalt and Van Dyke brown are recom- mended, while the contour may be painted with size-paint. Coatin|r Metallic Surfaces with Glass. — Metallic surfaces may be coated with glass by melting together 125 parts (by weight) of flint-glass fragments, 20 parts of sodium carbonate, and 12 parts of boracic acid. The molten mass is next poured on a hard and cold surface, stone or metal f After it has cooled, it is pow- dered. Make a mixture of 50"* B^. of this powder and sodium silicate (water glass). The metal to be glazed is coated with this and heated in a muffle or any other oven until the mixture melts and can be evenly distributed. This glass coating adheres firmly to iron and steel. Glaze for Bricks. — A glazing color for bricks patented in Germany is a compo- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 878 GLAZES-GLYCERINE sition of 12 parts (by weight) lead; 4 parts litharge; S parts quartzuse sand; 4 parts white argillaceous earth; 2 parts kitchen salt; 2 parts finely crushed glass, and 1 part saltpeter. These ingredients are all reduced to a powder and then mixed with a suitable quantity of water. The color prepared in this manner is said to possess great durability, and to impart a fine luster to the bricks. GLAZES FOR LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations. GLOBES. HOW TO COLOR: See Glass- Coloring. GLOBES, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT ABSORBED BY: See Light. GLOBES^ SILVERING OF: See Mirrors. GLOSS FOR PAPER: See Paper. GLOVE-CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds. GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR RUBBER : See Antiseptics. GLOVES, TESTING: See Rubber. GLUCOSE IN JELLY: See Foods. Glue (Forroulu for Glues and methods of manufacturing Glue will be found under Adhesives.) Rendering Glue Insoluble in Water. — Stuebling finds that the usual mixture of bichromate and glue when used in the ordinary way does not possess the water- proof properties with which it is gener- ally credited. If mixed in the daylight, it sets hard before it can be ai)priea to the surfaces to be glued, and if mixed and applied in the oark room it remains just as soluble as ordinary glue, the light being unable to penetrate the in- terior of the joints. Neither is a mixture of linseed oil and glue of any use for this purpose. Happening to upset a strong .solution of alum — prepared for wood staining— into an adjacent glue pot, he stirred up the two together out of curiosity and left them. Wishing to use the jjlue a fcw^ days later, he tried to thin it down with water, but unsuccess- fully, the glue having set to a waterproof mass. Fresh glue was then mixed with alum solution and used to join two pieces of wood, these resisting the action of the water completely. To Bleach Glue. — Dissolve the glue in water, by heat, and while hot, add a mixture in equal parts of oxalic add aoJ zinc oxide, to an amount equal to about 1 per cent of the glue. After the rolur has been removed, strain through muslin. Method of Purifying Glue.— The i^uf is soaked in cold water and diasolved m s hot 25 per cent solution of niagnesiuD sulphate. The hot solution is filtered, and to the filtrate is added a 25 per cr ot solution of magnesium sulphate cod- taininff 0.5 per cent of hvdrochlonc add (or, if necessary, sulphuric^ acid). S white flocculent precipitate is obtained which is difficult to filter. The re- mainder of the glue in the saline solution is extracted by treatment with magneaiiun sulphate. The viscous matter is washed, then dissolved in hot water, and allowed to cool, a quantity of weak alcohol acid- ulated bv 1 per cent of hydrochloric acid being addea just before the mass solidi- fies. From 2 to 3 parts, by volume, of strong alcohol (methyl or^ ^{') ^'^ then added and the solution filtered* charcoal being used if necessary. The glue is finally precipitated from this solution by neutralizing with ammonia and washing with alcohol or water. To Distinguiah Glue and Other Ad- hesive Agents. — The product to be ex- amined is heated with hvdrofluoric and (50 per cent). If bone glue is present in any reasonaole quantity, an intense odor of butyric acid arises at once, similar to that of Limburser cheese. But if dextrin or gum arabic is present, onlv an odor of dextrine or fluorhydrie acid will be perceptible. Conduct the re- action with small quantities; otberwive the smell will be so strong that it is bard to remove from the room. GLUE CLARIFIER: See Gelatin. Glycerine Recovering (Hvcerine from Soap Boil- er's Lye. — I. — Glycerine is obtained a* a by-product in making soap. For many years the lyes were thrown awsy as waste, but now considerable ouantitir* of glycerine are recovered, wnich are much used in making explosive com* pounds. When a metallic salt or^ one of the alkalies, as caustic soda, is added to tallow, a stearite of the metal^ (comDon soap is stearite of aodtum) is formed, whereby the glycerine is cJiminaled. Digitized by VjOOQ IC GLYCERINE— GOLD 379 This Tftluable by-product is contained in the waste lye, and has formed the sub- ject of several patents. Draw the lye off from the soap-pans; this contains a large Quantity of water, M)me salt and soap ana a small quantity of glycerine, and the great trouble is to concentrate the lye so that the large <|uantity of water is eliminated, some- times 10 to 12 days being occupied in doing this. The soap and salt are easily removed. To remove the soap, run the l^e into a series of tanks alternating in size step- like, so that as the first, which should be the largest, becomes full, the liquor will flow into the second, from that into the third, and so on; bv this arrangement the rosin ous and albuminous matters will settle, and the soap still contained in the lyes will float on the surface, from which it is removed by skimming. After thus freeing the l^e of the solid impurities, convey tne purified lye to the glycerine recovering department (wooden troughs or pipes may be used to do this), and after concentrating by heating it in a steam-jacketed boiler, and allowing it to cool somewhat, ladle out the solid salt that separates, and afterwards con- centrate the lye by allowing it to flow into a tank, but before doing so let the fluid come in cx>ntact with a hot blast of air or superheated steam, whereby the crude discolored glycerine is obtained. This is further purified bv heating with snimal charcoal to decolorize it, then distilling several times in copper stills with superheated steam. Tne chief points to attend to are: (1) The neutral- izing and concentrating* the lye as much as possible and then separating the salts and solid matters; (jt) concentrating the purified lye, and mixing this fluid with oleic acid, oil, tallow, or lard, and heating the mixture to S38® F., in a still, by steam, snd gradually raise the heat to STS"* F.; ($) stirring the liquor while being heated, and allowing the aqueous vapor to es- f*spc, and when thus concentrated, sa- ponifying the liquid with lime to elimi- nste the glycerine; water is at the same time expelled, but this is removed from the glycerine by evaporating the mix- ture. IL — In W. E. Garrigues's patent for the recovering of ^ glycerine from spent Hiaplyea, theliqaia is neutralized with a mineral acid, and after separation of the in^luble fatty acids it is concentrated snd then freed from mineral salts and volslsle fatty acids, and the concentrat- ed glycerine solution treated with an alkaline substance and distilled. Thus the soap lye may be neutralized with sulphuric acid, and aluminum sulphate added to precipitate the insoluble fatty acids. The filtrate from these is con- centrated and the separated mineral salts removed, after which barium chloride is added and then suflicient sulphuric acid to liberate the volatile fatty acids combined with the alkali. These acids are partially enveloped in the barium sulphate, with whicn they can be separated from the liquid by filtration, while the remaining portion can be expelled by evaporating the liquid in a vacuum evaporator. Finally, the solution is treated with sodium carbonate, and the glycerine distilled. Glycerine Lotion. — Glycerine 4 ounces Essence bouquet .... i ounce Water 4 ounces Cochineal coloring, a sufficient quantity. (See also Cosmetics for Glycerine Lotions.) GLYCERHfE APPLICATIONS: See Cosmetics. GLYCERHfE AS A DETERGENT: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GLYCERIN^ PROCESS: See Photography. GLYCERINE SOAP: See Soap. GLYCERINE DEVELOPER: See Photography. GLYCO-THYMOLINE : See Antiseptics. Gold (See also Jewelers' Formulas.) Gold Printing on Oilcloth and Imita- tion Leather. — Oilcloth can very easilj be gilt if the right degree of heat is observed. After the engraving has been put in the press, the latter is heated slightly, so tnat it is still possible to lay the palm of the hand on the heated plate without any unpleasant sensation. Go over the oilcloth with a rag in which a drop of olive ofl has been rubbed up, which gives a greasy film. No priming with white of egg or any other priming agent should be done, since the gold leaf would stick. Avoid sprinkling on gild- ing powder. The gold leaf is applied directly on the oilcloth; then place in the lukewarm press, squeezing it down with Digitized by VjOOQ IC S80 GOLD a quick jerky motion and opening it at once. If the warm plate remains too lonff on the oilcloth, the gold leaf will stick. When the impression is done, the gold leaf is not swept off at once, but the oilcloth is first allowed to cool com- pletely for several minutes, since there IS a possibilitv that it has become sliehtly softened under the influence of the nedt, especially at the borders of the pressed figures, and the gold would stick there if swept off immediately. The printing should be sharp and neat and tne gold glossy. For bronze printing on oilcloth, a preliminary treatment of printing with varnish ground should be given. The bronze is dusted on this varnish. Imitation leather is generally treated in the same manner. The tough paper substance is made to imitate leather perfectly as regards color and press- ing, especially tne^ various sorts ot calf, but the treatment in press gilding differs entirely from that of genuine leather. The stuff does not possess the porous, spongy nature of leather, but on the contrary is very hard, and in the course of manufacture in stained-paper factories is given an almost waterproof coating of color and varnish. Hence the applied ground of white of egg pene- trates but slightly into this substance, and a thin layer of white of egg remains on the surface. The consequence is that in gilding the gold leaf is prone to become attached, the ground of albumen being ouickly dissolved under the action of the neat and put in a soft sticky state even^ in places where there is no en- graving. In order to avoid this the ground is either printed only lukewarm, or this imitation leather is not primed at all, but the gold is applied immediately upon going over the surface with the oilv rag. rrint i^ith a rather hot press, with about the same amount of tieat as is employed for printing shagreen and title paper. A quick jerky printing, avoiding a long pressure of the plate, is necessary. Liquid Gold. — Take an evaporating dish, put into it 880 parts, by weight, of pure gold; then 4,400 parts, by weight, of muriatic acid, and 3,520 parts, by weight, nitric acid; place over a gas flame until the gold is dissolved, and then add to it 22 parts, by weight, of pure tin; when the tin is dissolved add 42 parts, bv weight, of butter of antimonv. L«t all remain over the gas until the mixture begins to thicken. Now put into a glass and test WMth the hydrometer, which should give about 1,800 specific gravity. Pour into a large glass and fill up vith water until the uydrometcr shows i09V: pour all the solution into a cbemicid frnt and add to it 1,760 parts, by wrt^M. balsam of sulphur, stirring well all tbr while, and put it over the gaa again; in an hour it should give, on tt)»tinic, 125^ F.; gradually increase the heat up to 185'' F., when it should be well stirmJ and then left to cool^ alraut 12 boon Pour the waterv fluid into a large vr«v^ and wash the dark-looking roaM 5 or 6 times with hot water; save each lot of water as it contains some portion of fold Remove all moisture from the dark »•«« by rolling on a slab and warming brforr the fire occasionally so as to keep it soft. When quite dry add 2} times its weight of turpentine and put it over a somK flame for about 2 hours; then slightly in- crease the heat for another hour and a half. Allow this to stand about 24 huun. and then take a glazed bowl and spreaij over the bottom of it 1,760 parts h\ weight, of finely powdered bismuth; pour the prepared gold over it in sevenJ places. Now Uike a vessel containing water and place inskle the other ^t^sA containing the gold, and beat it so an t'^ cause the water to boil for 3 houn; sllo« it to remain until settled and pour i>tf the gold from the settlings of the hi» muth, and try it; if not quite right ntt*- tinue the last process with bismuth until good; the bismuth causes the gold to adhere. Preparation of Balaam of Sttlphar.— Take 16 parts oil of turpentine; 2) \^r** spirits of turpentine; 8 parts flour uf sulphur. Place alj in a chemical pot am! h*r from tne heat and thin it with turpentine until about the thickness of treacle, thf'ii warm it a^ain, stirring well; allow it ti> cool until It reaches 45* P., then tr*t it with the hydrometer, and if tpcsihr gravity is not 905 continue the addition «•/ turpentine and warming until cornet, let It thorouffhly cool, then bottle, kcrp- ing it air-tignt. To Purify Biamnth.— Take 6 psrt« bismuth metal. ) part saltpeter. Vl«{t together in a biscuit cup. pour out on ti» a slab, and take away all dirt, then gri-d into a fine powder. To Recover the Gold freon tha Re- maina of the Foregoing Pn>ccai.>-r t all the "watery** solutions into • Un:* vessel and mix with a filtered Mtaral'«! I solution of copperas; this will rsu* Digitized by VjOOQ IC GOLD 881 ft precipitate of pure metallic sold to gradually subside; wash it with cold water and dry in an evaporating dish. All rags and settlings that are thick should he burnt in a crucible until a yellow inass is seen; then take this and dUsolve it in 2 parts muriatic acid and 1 part nitric acid. Let it remain in a porce- lain dish until it begins to thicken, and crystals form on the sides. Add a little nitric acid, and heat until crystals again form. Now take this and mix with cold water, add a solution of copperas to it and allow it to settle; pour off the water, and with fresh water wash till quite free from acid. The gold may then be used aifsin, and if great care is exercised almost one-halt the original quantity may be recovered. The quantities given in the recipe should produce about 13 to 15 parts of the liquid gold. It does not in use require any burnisning, and should be fired at rose- color heat. If desired it can be fluxed with Venice turpentine, oil of lavender, or almonds. Treatment of Brittle Gold.— I.— Add to every 100 parts, by weight, 5 to 8 parts, bv weight, of^cupric chloride and melt un- til the oily layer which forms has disap- peared. Then pour out, and in most cases a perfectly pliable gold will have been obtained, u this should not be the case after the first fusion, rei>eat the oper- ation with the same quantity of cupric chloride. The cupric chloride must be kept in a well-closed bottle, made tight with paraffine, and in a dry place. II. — Pass chlorine gas through the molten gold, bv which treatment most of the gold which has otherwise been set aside as unfit for certain kinds of work may be redeemed. Assaying of Gold. — To determine the presence of gold in ores, etc., mix a kmall quantity of the finely powdered ore in a flask with an equal volume of tincture of iodine, shake repeatedlv and well, and leave in contact about 1 hour, with repeated shaking. Next allow the mixture to deposit and dip a narrow strip of filtering paper into tne solution. Allow the paper to absorb, next to dry; tlicn dip it again into the solution, re- peating this 5 to 6 times, so that the DJtering paper is well saturated and im- pregnated. The strip is now calcined, as it were, and the ashes, if gold is present, show a purple color. The coloring disappears immediately if the H«hes are moistened with bromine water. The same test mav also be modified as follows: Cover tne finely pulverized ore with bromine water, shake well and repeatedly during about 1 hour of the contact, and filter. Now add to the solution stannic protochloride in solution, whereby, in case gold is present, a purple color (gold purple of Cassius) will at once appear, in case the ore to be assayed contains sulphides, it is well to roast the ore previousl^r, and should it contain lime carbonate, it is advisable to calcine the ore before in the presence of ammonium carbonate. Gold Welding.— Gold ma^ be welded together with any metal, if the ri^ht methods are employed, but best with copper. Some recipes for welding agents are nere given. I. — Two parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of green vitriol; 1 part by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of saltpeter; 6 parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of common salt; 1 part bv weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of black manganic oxide or pulverized, and mixed with 48 parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of good welding sand. II. — Filings of the metal to be used in welding are mixed with melted borax in the usual proportion. To be applied in the thickness desired. III. — A mixture of 838 parts of sodium phosphate and 124 parts of boracic acid is used when the metal is at dark-red heat. The metal is then to be brought to a bright-red heat, and ham- mered at the same time. The metal easily softens at a high temperature, and a wooden mallet is best. All substances containing carbon should be removed from the surface, as success depends upon the formation of a fusible copper phos- phate, which dissolves a thin layer of oxide on the surface, and keeps the latter in good condition for welding. To Recover Gold-Leaf Waste.— To re- cover the gold from color waste, gold brushes, rags, etc., they are burned up to ashes. The ashes are leached with boiling water containing hydrochloric acid. The auriferous residuum is then boiled with aqua regia (1 part nitric acid and 3 parts hydrochloric acid), whereby the gold is dissolved and gold chloride results. After filtration and evaporation to dryness the product^ is dissolved in water and precipitated with sulphate of protoxide of iron. The pre- cipitated gold powder is purified with hydrochloric acid. Gold from Add Coloring Baths.— I.— Different lots are to be poured together Digitized by VjOOQ IC 88S GOLD and the gold in theni recovered. The following method is recommended: Dissolve a handful of phosphate of iron in boiling water, to which liquor add the coloring baths, wherebv small particles of gold are precipitated. Then draw off the water, oeing careful not to dissolve the auriferous sediment at the bottom. Free this from all traces of acid by washing with plenty of boiling water; it will require 3 or 4 separate washings, with sufficient time between each to allow the water to cool and the sediment to settle before pouring off the water. Then dry in an iron vesAel by the fire and fuse in a covered skittlepot with a flux. II. — The collected old coloring baths are poured into a sufficiently large pot, an optional quantity of nitro-munatic acid IS added, and the pot is placed over the fire, during which time the fluid is stirred with a wooden stick. It is taken from the fire after a while, diluted largelv with rain water and filtered througn coarse paper. The gold is recovered from the nltered solution with a solution of green vitriol which is stored in air- tight bottles, then freshened with hot water, and finally smelted with borax and a little saltpeter. Parting with Concentrated Sulphuric Add. — It is not necessary scrupulously to observe^ the exact proportion of the gold to the silver. After having prepared the auriferous silver, place it in a quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid contained in a porcelain vessel, and let it come to a violent boil. When the acid has either be- come saturated and will dissolve no more, or when solution is complete, remove the dissolving vessel from the fire, let it cool, and, for the purpose of clarifying, |>our dilute sulphuric acid into the solution. The dissolved silver is next carefully decanted from the gold sediment upon the bottom,^ another portion of con- centrated acid is poured in, and the gold is well boiled agam, as it will still contain traces of silver; this operation may be repeated as often as is deemed necessary. The solution, poured into the glass jars, is well diluted with water, and the silver is then precipitated by placing a sheet of copper in the solution. The precipi- tate is then freshened with hot water, which may also be done by washinff upon the filter; the granulated silver (sulphate of silver) is pressed out in linen, dried and smelted. The freshened gold, after drying, is first smelted with bisulphate of soda, in oriler to convert the last traces of lve it in } a pint of walrr. then add to it in powder < ounce* iJ nitrate of potash: toil the mtxtorr fi»r some time, and afterwards poor it into s shallow vessel to cool and ervstalliie: then to every part of the rrf slallited bsH add 8 ounces of muriatic acid, aad preserve in a bottle for use. Bans' Karts of the above preparation ana *^ ^ oiling water is a gocMl proportion to h^ in dissolving copper, or 1 part by weight Digitized by VjOOQ IC GOLD 883 of nitric acid may be used to 4 |>arts by weight of boiling water as a substitute. GOLD PURPLE. L — The solution of stannous chloride necessary for the preparation of gold purple is produced by aissolving pure tin in pure hydrochloric acid (free from iron), In such a manner that some of the tin re- mains undissolved, and evaporating the solution, into which a piece of tin is laid, to crystallization. n.-— Redpe for Pale Piirjle.— Dis- solve 2 parts by weight of tin in boiling aqua regia, evaporate the solution at a moderate^ heat until it becomes solid, dissolve in distilled water and add 2 parts by weight of a solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) dilute with 9.856 parts by weight of water, stir into the liquid a solution of gold chloride prepared from 0.5 parts by weight of gola and containing no excess ol acid (the latter being brought about by evaporating the solution of gold chloride to dryness and heating for some time to about SiO^ F.). This liquid is dimmed bv the admixture of 50 parts by weight of liauid ammonia which eliminates the purple. The latter is quickly filtered off, wasned out and while still moist rubbed up with the glass paste. This consists of enamel of lead SO parts by weight; quartzose sand, 1 part by weight; red lead, 2 parts by weight; and calcined borax, 1 part by weight, with silver carbonate, 3 parts by weight. III.^Rectpe for Dark Gold Purple.— Gold solution of 0.5 parts by weieht of gold, solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) 7.5 parts by weight; thin with 9,856 parts by weight of water, separate the purple by a few drops of sulphuric acid, wash out the purple and mix same with enamel of lead 10 parts by weight and silver carbonate, 0.5 parts by weight. IV.-'Recipe for Pink Purple.— Gold solution of 1 part by weight of gold; solution of 50 parts by weight of alum in 19,712 parts by weight of water; add 1.5 parts bv weight of stannous chloride so- lution (Mpecmc gravity 1.7) and enough ammonia until no more precipitate is • formed ; mix the washed out precipitate, while still moist, with 70 parts by weight of enamel of lead and 2.5 parts by weight of silver carbonate. According to the composition of the purple various reds are obtained in fusing it on: the latter may still be brightened up by a suitable increa.ne of the flux. To Render Pale Gold Darker.— Take verdigris, 50 parts by weight and very strong vinegar, 100 parts by weight. Dissolve the verdigris in the vinegar, rub the pieces with it well, heat them and dip them in liquid ammonia diluted witn water. Repeat the operation if the de- sired shade does not appear the first time. Rinse with clean water and dry. To Color Gold.— Gilt obiects are im- proved by boiling in the following solu- tion: Saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; cook- ing salt, 1 part by weight; alum, 1 part by weight;^ water, 24 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 1 part by weight (1.12 specific gravity). In order to impart a rich appearance to gilt articles, the fol- lowing paste is applied: Alum, 3 parts by weight; saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; zinc vitriol, 1 part by weight; cooking salt, 1 part by weight; made into a paste with water. Nex^ heat until blacK, on a hot iron plate, wash with water, scratch with vinegar and dry after washing. Gold-Leaf Striping. — To secure a good t'ob of gilding depends largely for its leauty upon the sizing. Take tube chrome yellow ground in oil, thin with wearinff body varnish, and temper it ready for use with turpentine. Apply in the evening with an ox-tail striper, and let it stand until the next morning, when, under ordinary circumstances, it will be ready for the gold leaf, etc. After the gilding is done, let the job stand 24 ours before varnishing. Composition of Aqua Fortis for the Touch-^tone. — Following are the three compositions mostly in use: I. — Nitric acid, 30 parts; hydrochloric acid, 3 parts; distilled water, 20 parts. II.— Nitric acid, 980 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 20 parts by weight. III. — Nitric acid, 123 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 2 parts by weight. To Remove Soft Solder from Gold.— Place the work in spirits of salts (hydro- chloric acid) or remove as much as pos- sible with the scraper, using a gentle heat to remove the solder more easily. Tipping Gold Pens.— Gold pens are usually tipped with iridium. This is done by soldering very small pieces to the points and filing to the proper slmpe. To Recognize Whether an Article is Gilt.— Simply touch the object with a glass rod previously dipped into a solu- tion of bichloride of copper. If the article has been gilt the spot tourholr^ale agent of infection is the threshing machine. For this reason the salr«4 plan is to treat all seed wheat and oats each year. Secure a 40 per cent solution ol formalin (the commercial name for formaldehyde gas held in a water so- lution). Alwut 1 ounce is required foe every 5 bushels of grain to be treated. f I Digitized by Google GRAIN— GREASE ERADICATORS 885 Clean off a space on the barn floor or sweep a clean space on the hard level ground and lay a good-sized canvas down, on which to spread out the wheat. See that the place where the ffrain is to be treated is swept dean and thoroughly sprinkled with the formalin solution before placing the seed grain there. Prepare the formalin solution im* mediately before use, as it is volatile, and if kept may disappear by evapora- tion. Ui^ 4 ounces of formalin for 10 gallons of water. This is sufficient for 600 pounds of grain. Put the solution in a bttfrcl or tiiD, thoroughly mixing. The solution can be applied with the garden sprinkler. Care must be taken to moisten the grain thoroughly. Sprinkle, stir the grain up thoroughly and sprinkle again, until every kernel is wet. .\fter sprinkling, place the grain in s conical pile and cover with horse- blankets, gunny sacks, etc. The smut that does Uie damage lies just under the glume of the oats or on tne basal hairs of the wheat. Covering the treated g[rain holds the ffas from the formalin within the pile, where it comes in contact with the kernels, killing such smut spores as may have survived the previous treat- ment After the grain has remained in a colored pile 2 to 4 hours, spread it out again where the wind can mow over it, to air and dry. As soon as the grain can be taken in the hand without the kernels sticking together, it can be sown in the field. The grain may be treated in the forenoon and seeded in the afternoon. Since this treatment swells the kernels it haiDtens germination and should be done in the spring just before seeding time. While the copper sulphate or blue- tttonc treatment is valuable in killing »mut, the formalin treatment can be given in less time, is applied so easily and is m> effectual that it is recommended A-^t a sure and ready means of killing »rou.t in wheat and oats. GSAnrmo crayons: Sr* Crayons. GRAIHING COLORS: See Pigments. GRAramG WITH PAINT: See Paint GIUINING, PALISANDER: ^ Palisander. GRAPE JUICE* PRESERVATION OF: Sec Wines and Liquors. GRAPE SAUCE: See Ice Creams. GRAPHITE AS A LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. GRASS: See Lawns. GRAVEL WALKS. For cleaning gravel walks any of the following may be used : I. — Gas-tar liquor. II.— Rock salt (cattle salt). III. — Hydrochloric acid. IV. — Sulphuric acid. V. — Fresh limewater. The gas -tar liquor must be poured out a few times in succession, and must not touch the tree roots and borders of the paths. This medium is cheap. Cattle salt must like- wise be thrown out repeatedly. The use of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids is somewhat expensive. iMix 60 parts of water with 10 parts of unslaked lime and 1 part of sulphuric acid in a kettle, and sprinkle the not or cold mixture on the walks by means of a watering pot. If limewater is used alone it must oe fresh — 1 part of unslaked lime in 10 parts of water. GRAVERS: To Prepare Gravers for Bright-Cutting. — Set the gravers after the sharpening on the oilstone on high-grade emery (tripoli) paper. Next, hone them further on the rouge leather, but without tearing threads from it. In this manner the sil- ver and aluminum engravers g[rind their gravers. A subsequent whetting of the graver on the touchstone is not advisable, since it is too easily injured thereby. A graver prepared as described gives excel- lent briffht engraving and never fails. In all bright-cutting the sraver must be highlv polished; but wnen bright- cutting aJuminum a lubricant like coal- oil or vaseline is generally employed with the Dolished tool; a mixture of vaseline and benzine is also used for this purpose. Another formula which may be recom- mended for bright-cutting aluminum is composed of the following ingredients: Mix 4 parts of oil of turpentine and 1 part of rum with 1 ounce of stearine. Immerse the grayer in any of the mix- tures before making the bright-cut. GREASES: See Lubricants. GREASE ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 886 GRINDSTONES— GUMS GREASE PAniTS: See Cosmetics. GREEN, TO DISTINGUISH BLUE FROM, AT NIGHT: See Blue. GREEN GILDING: See PUUng. GRENADES: See Fire Eztinguisliera. GRINDING: See Tool Setting. GRINDER DISK CEMENT, SUBSTI- TUTE FOR: See Adhesives. GRINDSTONES: To Mend Grindstones. —The mending of defective places in grindstones is best done with a mass consisting of earth- wax (so-called stone-pitch), 5 parts, by weight; tar, 1 part; and powdered sand- stone or cement, 3 parts, which is heated to the boiling point and well stirred to- gether. Before pouring in the mass the 'aces to be mended must be heated by e laving red-hot pieces of iron on them. Tne substance is, in a tough state, poured into the hollows of the stone, and the pouring must be continued, when it com- mences to solidify, until even with the surface. Treatment of the Grindstone.— The stone should not be left with the lower part in the water. This will render it brittle at this spot, causing it to wear off more quickly and thus lose its circu- larity. It is best to moisten the stone only when in use, drop by drop from a vessel fixed above it and to keep it quite dry otherwise. If the stone is no longer round, it should be made so again oy turning by means of a piece of gas oipe or careful tnmming, otherwise it wiU com- mence to jump, thus becoming useless. It is important to clean all tools and articles before grinding, carefully re- moving all grease, fat, etc., as the pores of the stone become clogged with those irnpuriticM, which destroy its grain and dimini.sh its strength. Should one side of the grindstone be lighter, this ir- regularity can be equalised by affixing pieces of lead, so as to obtain a uniform motion of the atone. It is exAcntial that the stone ahould be firm on the axis and not move to and fro in the bearings. Grindstone Oil. — Complaints are often heard that grinclMtoncs arc occasionally harder on one side than the other, the softer parts wearing away in hollows. which render grinding difficult, and soon make the stone useless. This defect rsD be remedied completely by means uf boiled linseed oil. When the stone u thoroughly dry, the soft side is turned uppermost, and brushed over with boilrd ou, which sinks into the stone, until the latter is saturated. ^ The operation takr« about 3 to 4 hours in summer. As toon as the oil has dried, the stone may br damped, and used without any further delay. Unlike other similar remcdir«, this one does not prevent the stone from biting properly in the oiled parts* and the life of the stone is considerably leni^th- ened, since it does not have to be dreftM*o so often. GROUNDS FOR GRADIIIIG COLORS: See Pigments. GUMS: (See also Adhesives, under Mucilage*, t Gums, their Solubility in AlooboL - The following table shows the great rmni;r of solubility of the various gums, and of various specimens of the same gun. to 60 per cent alcohol: Acajon 6.04 to 4€.»< Aden 0.60 to <6.90 Egyptian 46.94 Yellow Amrad 46.00 to Si.l6 White Amrad 0.54 to 1.30 Kordofan 1.40 to 6.06 Australian 10.67 to tO.JO Bombay «.06 to 46.U Cape 1.67 to lAS Embavi 45»0« Gedda l.«4 tn 150 Ghatti 31.60 to 70.S< Gheziereh 1.50 to U.16 Halebi 3.70 to «.«» La PlaU 0.65 Mogadore <7.66 East Indian S.«4 to 74>4 Persian 1.74 to 17.34 Senegal 0.56 to 14.30 Substitute for Gum AniUc— DisMdre S50 parts of glue in 1,000 parts of bctilir^ water and heat this glue solution on the water bath with a mixture of about lt» Sirts of barium peroxide of 75 per f^^^t aOt and 5 parts of sulphuric atni (66*) mixed with 115 parU of water, f-r about 24 hours. After the time r.A.* elapsed, pour off from the barium «tit phate, whereby a little sulphamu* a< mI results owing to reduction of the % phuric acid, which has a bleaching a« ti. - and makes the glue somewhat p*'>«r If this solution is mixed, with stim- ^ and dried upon glans platen in the dri \ ^ room, a product which can hardly t*« Digitized by VjOOQ IC GUNPOWDER STAINS— GYPSUM 387 disti&ffuisbed from gum arabic is ob- taio^o. An envelope sealed witb this mucilage cannot be opened by moisten- ing the envelope. The traces of free acid which it contains prevent the in- vasion of bacteria, hence all putrefaction. The adhesive power of the artificial gum is so enormous that the use of cork stoppers is quite excluded, since thej crumble off every time the bottle is opened, so that finally a perfect wreath around the inner neck of the bottle is formed. Onlv metallic or porcelain stoppers should be used. GUM ARABIC, INCREASING ADHE- SION OF: See Adhesives, under Mucilages. GXTM BICHROHATE PROCESS: See Photography. GUM DROPS: See Confectionery. GUM-LAC: See Oil. GUMS USED IN MAKING VARNISH: See Varnishes. GUN BARRELS, TO BLUE : See Steel. GUN BRONZE: See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze. GUN COTTON: See Explosives. GUN LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. GUNPOWDER: See Explosives. GUNPOWDER STAINS. A stain produced by the embedding of grains of gunpowder in the skin is practically the same thing as a tattoo mark. The charcoal of the gunpowder remains unaffected by the fluids of the tissues, and no way is known of bring- ing it into solution there. The on^ method of obliterating such marks is to lake away with them the skin in which they are embedded. This has been accomplished by the application of an electric current, and by the use of caustics. When the destruction of the true skin has^ been accomplished, it becomes a foreign body, ana if the destruction has extended to a sufficient depth, the other foreign body, the color- ing matter which has been tattooed in, may be expected to be cast off with it. Recently pepsin and papain have been pro|>o8ed as applications to remove the cuticle. A glycerole of either is tattooed into the skin over the disfigured part; and it is said that the operation has proved successful. It is scarcely necessarv to say that suppuration is likely to follow such treat- ment, and that there is risk of scarring. In view of this it becomes apparent that any such operation shoula be under- taken only by a surgeon skilled in dermatological practice. An amateur might not only cause the patient suffer- ing without success in removal, but add another disfigurement to the tattooing. Carbolic acid has been applied to small portions of the affected area at a time, with the result that the powder and skin were removed simultaneously and, according to the physician reportinf| the case, with little discomfort to the patient. Rubbing the affected part with moistened ammonium chioriae once or twice a day has been reported as a slow but sure cure. GUTTA-PERCHA. . Gutta-Percha Substitute. ~I.~ A de- coction of birch bark is -first prepared, the external bark bv preference, being evaporated. The tnicK, black residue hardens on exposure to the air, and is said to possess the properties of gutta- percha without developing any cracks. It can be mixed with 50 per cent of India rubber or gutta-percha. The com- pound is said to be cheap, and a good non-conductor of electricity. Whether it possesses all the good qualities of gutta-percha is not known. II. — A new method of making gutta- percha consists of caoutchouc and a rosin soap, th^ latter compounded of 100 parts of rosin, 100 parts of Carnauba wax, and 40 parts of gas-tar, melted together and passed through a sieve. They are heated to about SSd"" to 340'' F., and slowly saponified by stirnng with 75 parts of limewater of specific gravity 1.06. The product is next put into a kneading machine along with an equal quantity of caoutchouc cuttings, and worked in this machine at a tempera- ture of 195® F. or over. When suffi- ciently kneaded, the^ mass can be rolled to render it more uniform. GUTTER CEMENT: See Cement and Putty. GYPSUM: See also Plaster. Method of Hardening Gvpaum and Rendering it Weather-ra>oi.- GypMuni pos.sesses only a moderate degree^ of strength even after complete hardening. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 888 GYPSUM— HAIR PREPARATIONS and pieces are very liable to be broken off.- Various methods have been tried, with a view to removing this defect and increasing the hardness of gypsum. Of these methods, that of Wacnsmuth, for hardening articles made of gypsum and rendering them weather-proof, deserves special notice. All methods of hardening articles made of gypsum have this in common: the gypsum is first deprived of its moisture, and then immersed in a solution of certain salts, such as alum, green vitriol, etc. Articles treated by the methods hitherto in vogue certainly acquire considerable hardness, but are no more capable of resistance to the effects of water than crude gypsum. The object of Wachsmuth's process is not merely to harden the gjrpsum, but to transform it on the surface into insoluble combinations. The process is as fol- lows: The article is first put into the re- auired shape by mechanical means, and tnen deprived of its moisture by heating to Sl^"* to 302'' F. It is then plunged into a heated solution of barium nydrate, in which it is allowed to remain for a longer or shorter time, according to its strength. When this part of the process is complete, the article is smoothed by grinding, etc., and then placed in a solu- tion of about 10 per cent of oxalic acid in water. In a few hours it is taken out, dried, and polished. It then possesses a hardness surpassing that of marble, and is impervious to the action of water. Nor does the polish sustain any injury from contact with water, whereas gypsum articles hardened by the usual methods lose their polish after a few minutes* immersion m water. Articles treated by the method described hftve the natural color of ffypsum, but it is possible to add a color to the gypsum during the hardening process. This is done by pi unfiling the gypsum, after it has been deprived of its moisture, and before the treatment with the barium solution, into a solution of a colored metallic sulphate, such as iron, copper, or chrome sulphate, or into a solution of some colorinf^ matter. Pigments soluble in the barium or oxalic-acid solutions may also he added to the latter. Gypsum mav be hardened and rendered insoluble by ammonium borate as follows: Dissolve boric acid^ in hot water and add sufficient ammonia water to the solution that the borate at first separated is redissolved. The gypsum to be cast is stirred in with this li<|uid, and the mnss I rented in the ordinary way. Articles already cast arc simply washed with the liquid, which i» quickly absorbed. The articles withstand the weather as well as though they were of stone. GYPSUM FLOWEBS: See Flowers. GYPSUMy PAIHT FOR: See Pamt. HAIR FOR MOUnnHG. The microscopist or amateur, who shaves himself, need never resort to the trouble of embedding and cutting hain in the microtome in order to secure rtry thin sections of the hair of the face. U he will first shave himself dooely **with the hair," as the barbers say (i. e.. in the direction of the natural growth of the hair), and afterwards lightly **a^n.«t the hair" (in the opposite directioo to above), he will find in the "scrapings" a multitude of exceedingly thin section «. The technique is very simple. The lath fortunately the subject has not been much studied. One cure is said to be a sulphur lotion made by placing a little sublitnr«l sulphur in water, shaxing well, then al- lowing to settle, and washing thr head every morning with the clear uquid. Sulphur is said to be insoluble in water; yet a sulphur water made a» above indicated has long been in usr as a hair wash. A little glycerine improvr» the preparation, preventing the hair from becoming harsh by repeateti wash- ings. The exfoliated particles of »kin nr "scales" should be removed only wihrn entirely detached from the cuticle. They result from an irritation which i% in- creased by forcible removal, and henr«i endeavors to clean the hair from thrm by combing or brushing it in such a way as to scrape the scalp are liable to We worse than useless. It follow^ that gentle handling of the hair is tmpurtAot when dandruff is present Digitized by VjOOQ IC HAIll PREPARATIONS 389 I. — (*liloral hydrate 8 ounces Hcsorcin 1 ounce Tannin 1 ounce Alcohol 8 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Rose water to make . 4 pints II. — White wax SJ drachms Liquid petrolatum . . S} ounces Ros^ water 1 ounce Borax. 15 grains Precipitated sulphur. 3} drachms Pine-Tar Dandruff Shampoo. — Pine tar. 4 parts Linseed oil 40 parts Heat these to 140^ F.; make solution of potassa, U. S. P., 10 parts, and water, 45 parts; add alcohol, 5 parts, and graouallv add to the heated oils, stirrinff constantly. Continue the heat untu saponified thoroughly; and make up with water to 128 parts. When almost cool, add ol. lavender, ol. orange, and ol. bergamot, of each 2 parts. HAIR-CURLING LIQUIDS. It is impossible to render straight hair curiy without the aid of the iron or paper and other curlers. But it is possible, on the other hand, to make artificial curls more durable and proof against outside influences, such as especially dampness of the air. Below are trustworthy re* cipes: I II Water 70 80 Spirit of wine 30 20 Borax 2 — Tincture of benzoin . . — 3 Perfume ad. lib. ad. lib. HAIR DRESSINGS AND WASHES: DrMsings for the Hair.— 1. — Oil of wintergreen . 20 drops Oil of almond, es- sential 35 drops Oil of rose, ethereal 1 drop Oil of violets 30 drops Tincture of canthar- idcs 50 drops Almond oil 2,000 drops Mix. Hair Embrocation. — II. — Almond oil, sweet . 280 parts Spirit of sal am- moniac 280 parts Spirit of rosemary. . 840 parts Honey water 840 parts Mix. Rub the scalp with it every morning by means of a sponge. Hair Restorer. — III. — Tincture of can- tharides 7 parts Gall tincture 7 parts Musk essence 1 part Carnaine 0.5 part Rectified spirit of wine 28 parts Rose water 140 parts To be used at night. Rosemary Water. — IV. — Rosemary oil 1 J parts Rectified spirit of wine 7 parts Magnesia 7 parts Distilled water 1,000 parts Mix the oil with the spirit of wine and rub up with the magnesia in a mortar; gradually add the water and finally filter. Foamy Scalp Wash. —Mix 2 parts of soap spirit, 1 part of borax-glycerine (1+2), 6 parts of barium, ana 7 parts of orange-flower water. Lanolin Hair Wash.~Extract 4 parts quillaia bark with 36 parts water for several davs, mix the percolate with 4 parts alcohol, and filter after having settled. Agitate 40 parts of the filtrate at a temperature at which wool grease becomes liouid, with 12 parts anhydrous lanolin, and fill up with water to which 15 per cent spirit of wine has been added, to 300 parts. Admixture, such as cin- chona extract, Peru balsam, quinine, tincture of cantharides, bay-oil, am- monium carbonate, menthol, etc., may be made. The result is a yellowish- white, milky liquid, with a cream-like fat layer floating on the top, which is finely distributed by agitating. Birch Water.— Birch water, which has many cosmetic applications, especially as a hair wash or an ingredient in hair washes, may be prepared as follows: Alcohol, 96 per cent . .3,500 parts Water 700 parts Potash soap ' 200 parts Glvcerine 150 parts Oil of birch buds 50 parts Essence of spring flowers 100 parts Chlorophyll, q. s. to color. Mix the water with 700 parts of the alcohol, and in the mixture dissolve the soap. ^ Add the essence of spring flowers and birch oil to the remainder of the alcohol, mix well, and to the mixture add, little by little, and with constant agitation, the soap mixture. Finally Digitized by VjOOQ IC 390 HAIR PREPARATIONS add the glycerine, mix thoroughly, and set aside for 8 days, filter and rolor the filtrate with chloroohyll, to which add a little tincture of sanron. To use, add an equal volume of water to produce a lather. Petroleum Hair Washes. — I.— Deodor- ized pale petroleum, 10 parts; citronella oil, 10 parts; castor oil, 5 parts; spirit of wine, 00 per cent, 50 parts; water, 75 parts. II. — Quinine sulphate, 10 parts; acetic acid, 4 parts; tincture of cantharides, 30 parts; tincture of quinine, 3 parts; spirit of rosemary, 60 parts; balm water, 90 parts; barium, 120 parts; spirit of wine, 150 parts; water, 1,000 parts. III. — Very pure petroleum, 1 part; almond oil, 2 parts. Brilliantine.— I.— Olive oil, 4 parts; glycerine, 3 parts: alcohol, 3 parts; scent as desired. Shake before use. II. — Castor oil, 1 part; alcohol, 2 parts; saffron to dye yellow. Scent as desired. III. — Lard, 7 parts; spermaceti, 7 parts; almond oil, 7 parts; white wax, 1 part. A Cheap Hair Oil.— I.— Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender oil, 15 parts; bergamot oil, 10 parts; and geranium oil, 5 parts. II. — Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender oil, 12 parts; lemon oil, 20 parts; rosemary oil, 5 parts; and geranium oil, 2 parts. HAIR DYES. There is no hair dye which produces a durable coloration; the color becomes ffradually weaker in the course of time. Here are some typical formulas in which a mordant is employed: I. — Nitrate of silver ) ounce Distilled water S ounces Mordant: Sulphuret of potas- sium } ounce • Distilled water 8 ounces II.— (a) Nitrate of silver (ays- tal) 1} ounces Distilled water 12 ounces Ammonia water suf- ficient to make a clear solution. Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the water and add the ammonia water until the precipitate is redissolved. (6) Pyrogallic acid 2 drachms Gallic acid 2 drachm» Cologne water 2 ounces Distuled water 4 ounces III. — Nitrate of silver 20 grains Sulphate of copper. . 2 grains Ammonia, quantity sufficient. Dissolve the salts in 4 ounce of water and add ammonia until the precipitatf which is formed is redissolved. Thro make up to 1 ounce with water. Apply to the hair with a brush. This solobon slowly gives a brown shade. For darker shades, apply a second solution, com- posed of : IV. — Yellow sulphide am- monium 2 drachms Sol ution of a m monia 1 d rach m Distilled water 1 ounce Black Hair Dye without Silver.— V. — Pyrogallic acid .... 3.5 parts Citric acid 0.3 parts Boro-glycerine .... 11 parts Water 100 parts If the dye does not impart the desirrd intensity of color, the amount of pyro- gallic acid may be increased. The wa»b 18 applied evenings, followed in the morn- ing by a weak ammoniacal wash. One Bottle PreparatiofL— VI. — Nitrate of copper , . 360 grains Nitrate of silver. . . 7 ounces Distilled water. ... 60 ounces Water of ammonia, a sufficiency. Dissolve the salts in the water and add the water of ammonia carefully until the precipitate is all redissolved. xhis solu- tion, properlv applied, is said to produce a very blacK color; a lighter shade i» secured by diluting the solution. Cop- per sulphate may be used instead of the nitrate. Brown Hair Dyes.— A large excess t>r ammonia tends to produce a brownish dye. Various shades of brown may l*r produced by increasing the amount of water in the silver solution. It should be remembered that the hair must, pre- viously to treatment, be washed with wmnn water containing sodium carbonate* well rinsed with clear water, and dried. I. — Silver nitrate 480 grains Copper nitrate ... 90 mins Distilled water. . . 8 fiuidoanees Ammonia water, sufficient. Dissolve the two salts in the distalled water and add the ammonia water iinbl the liquid becomes a clear fluid. In using apply to the hair carefttUy Digitized by VjOOQ IC HAIR PREPARATIONS 891 with a tooth-brush, after thoroughly cleansing the hair, and expose the latter to the raya of the sun. II. —Silver nitrate SO parts Copper sulphate, crystals 20 parts Citnc acid 80 parts Distilled water 950 parts Ammonia water, quantity sufficient to dissolve the pre- cipitate first formed. Various shades of brown may be pro- duced by properly diluting the solution before it be applied. Bismuth subni- trate 200 trains Water 2 fluidounces Nitric acid, suffi- cient to dissolve, or about 420 grains Use heat to effect solution. Also: Tartaric acid 150 grains Sodium bicarbon- ate 168 grains Water 82 fluidounces When effervescence of the latter has ceased, mix the cold liquids by pouring the latter into the former with constant stirring. Allow the precipitate to sub- side: transfer it to a filter or strainer, and w&jtb with water until free from the sodium nitrate formed. Chestnut Hair Dye. — Bismuth nitrate. . . 230 grains Tartaric acid 75 grains Water 100 minims Dissolve the acid in the water, and to the solution add the bismuth nitrate and stir until dissolved. Pour the resulting solution into 1 pint of water and collect the magma on a filter. Remove all traces of acid from the masma by repeated- washings with water; tnen dissolve it in: Ammonia water. . 2 fluidrachms And add: Glycerine 20 minims Sodium hyposul- phite 75 grains Water, enough to make 4 fluidounces. HAIR RESTORERS AND TONICS: Falling of tiie Hahr.— After the scalp has been thoroughly cleansed by the thampoo, the followug formula is to be used: SalicjHc acid 1 part Pieapitate of sulphur. 2} parts Bom water 25 parts The patient is directed to part the hair. and then to rub in a small portion of the ointment along the part, working it well into the scalp. Then another part is made parallel to the first, and more oint- ment rubbed in. Thus a series of first, longitudinal, and then transverse parts are made, until the whole scalp has been well anointed. Done in this way, it is not necessarv to smear up the whole shaft of the nair, but only to reach the hair roots and the sebaceous {glands, where the trouble is located. This proc- ess is thoroughly performed for six suc- cessive nights, ana the seventh night an- other shampoo is taken. The eighth night the inunctions are commenced again, and this is continued for six weeks. In almost every case the production of dandruff is checked completely after six weeks' treatment, and the hair, which mtiy have been falling out rapidly before, begins to take firmer root. To be sure, many hairs which are on the point of falling when treatment is begun will fall anyway, and it may even seem for a time as if the treatment were increasing the hair-fall, on account of the mechanical dislodgment of such hairs, but this need never alarm one. After six weeks of such treatment the shampoo may be taken less frequently. Next to dandruff, perhaps, the most common cause of early loss of hair is heredity. In some families all of the male members, or all who resemble one particular ancestor, lose their hair early. Dark-haired families and races, as a rule, become bald earlier than those with light hair. At first thought it would seem as though nothing cowd be done to prevent premature baldness when hered- ity is the cause, but this is a mistake. Careful hvgiene of the scalp will often counterbalance hereditary predisposition for a number of years, and even after the hair has actually begun to fall proper stimulation will, to a certain extent, and for a limited time, often restore to the hair its pristine thickness and strength. Any of the rubefacients may be prescribed for this purpose for daily use, such as croton on, 1} per cent; tincture of can- tharides, 15 per cent; oil of cinnamon, 40 per cent; tincture of capsicum, 15 per cent; oil of mustard, 1 per cent; or any one of a dozen others. Tincture of cap- sicum is one of the best, and for a routine prescription the following has served well: Resorcin 5 parts Tincture capsicum.. 15 parts Castor oil 10 parts Alcohol 100 parts Oil of roses, sufficient. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 399 HAIR PREPARATIONS It is to be recommended that the stim- ulant be changed from time to time, so as not to rely on any one to the exclusion of others. Jaborandi, oxygen gas, qui- nine, and other agents have enjoyed a great reputation as hair-producers for a time, and have then taken their proper position as aids, but not specifics, in re- storing the hair. It IS well known that after many fevers, especially those accompanied by great depression, such as pneumonia, tyi>hoid, puerperal, or scarlet fever, the hair is liable to fall out. This is brought about in a variety of ways: In scarlatina, the hair papilla shares in the general desquamation; in typhoid and the other fevers the baldness may be the result either of the excessive seborrhea, which often accompanies these diseases, or may be caused bv the general lowering of nutrition of the body. Unless the hair- fall be accom|>anied by considerable dandruff (in which case the above-men- tioned treatment should be vigorously employed), the ordinary hygiene of the scalp will result in a restoration of the hair in most cases, but the employment of moderate local stimulation, with the use of good general tonics, will hasten this end. It seems unwise to cut the hair of women short in these cases, be- cause the baldness is practically never complete, and a certam proportion of the nairs will retain firm root. These may be augmented by a switch made of the hair which has fallen out, until the new hair shall have grown lonff enough to do up well. In tnis way all of that oftentimes most annoying short-hair period is avoided. For Falling Hair.— I. — Ilvdrochloric acid 75 parts Alcohol 2,250 parts The lotion is to be applied to the scalp every evening at bedtime. II. — Tincture of cinchona 1 part Tincture of rose- mary 1 part Tincture of jabor- andi 1 part Castor oil 2 parts Rum 10 parts Mix. Jaborandi Scalp Waters for Increasing the Growth of Hair.— First prepare a jaborandi tincture from jaborandi leaves, 200 parts; spirit, 95 per cent, 700 parts; and water, 300 parts. .4fter digesting for a week, squeeze out the leaves and filter the liquid. The hair wash is now prepared as follows: I. — Jaborandi tincture, 1,000 parU; spirit, 05 per cent, 700 parts; water, :$UU parts; glycerine, 150 parts; scent rssemr. 100 parts; color with sugar color. II. — Jaborandi tincture, 1,000 partv; spirit, 95 per cent, 1,500 parts; quiuior tannate, 4 parts; Peru balsam, 20 parl>: essence heliotrope, 50 parts. Dis»ohe the quinine and the Peru balsam in the spirit and then add the jaborandi tinc- ture and the heliotrope essence. Filtrr after a week. Rub into the scalp t«icf a week before retiring. POlfADES: I.— Cinchona Pomade. — Ox marrow 100 drschms Lard ^ 70 drachms Sweet almond oil. ... 17 drachm» Peru balsam 1 drachm Quinine sulphate. . . 1 drachm Clover oil 2 drachm> Rose essence 25 drops II.— Cantharides Pomade.— Ox marrow 300 drachms White wax 30 drachma Mace oil 1 drmrhm Clove oil 1 drachm Rose essence or ge- ranium oil 25 drops Tincture of canthar- ides 8 drachma Knaiid Eau de Qiunine.— The co- stituent of cinchona bark. The abvncr of Quinine from the mixture prohsl'U would not hurt it, as the "tonic effect .^f quinine on the hair is generally reganjt\j as a myth. On the other hand, it has been statcti that this preparation contains: Quinine sulphate. . . 2 parts Tincture of Icrameria 4 parts Tincture of canthar- ides 2 parts Spirit of lavender. . . 10 part* Glycerine 15 part* Alcohol 100 part^ SHAMPOOS: A Hair Shampoo is usually a tincture of odorless soft soap. It is mostlv k'- fumed with lavender and colorra «ith green aniline. Prepared the same a« tr sapon. virid. (U. S. P.), using an inei pen- sive soft soap, that is a good foam pn«- ducer. Directions: Wet the hair wril m warm water and rub in a few tea%p(Min- fuls of the following formulas. No. I i* considered the best: Digitized by VjOOQ IC HAIR PREPARAllONS— HAT WATERPROOFING 898 1 II III IV Parts used Cottonseed oil — 24 26 14 Linseed oil 20 — — — Malaga olive oil .... 20 — — — Caustic potash 9^8 6 S Alcohol 5 4i 5 2 Water SO 26 34 16i Warm the mixed oils on a large water bath, then the potash and water in an- other vessel, heating both to 158° F., and adding the latter hot solution to the hot oil while stirring briskly. Now add and thoroughly mix the alcohol. Stop stir- ring, keeping the heat at 158° F., until the mass becomes clear and a small quan- tity dissolves in boiling water without globules of oil separating. If stirred after the alcohol nas been mixed the soap will be opaque. Set aside for a few days in a warm place before using to make liquid shampoo. Liquid Shampoos. — L — Fluid extract of soap^bark 10 parts Glvcerine 5 parts Cologne water 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Rose water SO parts II. — Soft soap 24 parts Potassium carbon- ate 5 parts Alcohol 48 parts Water enough to make 400 parts Sluunpoo Pastes. — I. — White castile soap, in shavings .... 2 ounces Ammonia water. . 2 fluid ounces Bay rum, or co- logne water. .. . 1 fluidounce Glycerine 1 fluidounce Water 12 fluidounces Dissolve the soap in the water by means of heat; when nearly cold stir in the other ingredients. II. — Castile soap, white. 4 ounces Potassium carbon- ate 1 ounce Water 6 fluidounces Glvcerine 2 fluidounces Ou of lavender flowers 5 drops Oil of bergamot. . . 10 drops To the water add the soap, in shav- ings» and the potassium carbonate, and beat on a water bath until thoroughly softened: add the glycerine and oils. IF oeresaary to reduce to proper consist- ency, more water may be added. Egg Shampoo. — Whites of 2 eggs Water 5 fluidounces Water of ammonia. 3 fluidounces Cologne water i fluidounce Alcohol 4 fluidounces Beat the egg whites to a froth, and add the other ingredients in the order in which they are named, with a thorough mixing after each addition. Imitation Egg Shampoos. — Manv of the egg shampoos are so called from their appearance. They usually con- tain no egg and are merely preparations of perfumed soft soap. Here are some formulas: I. — White castile soap. ... 4 ounces Powdered curd soap.« 2 ounces Potassium carbonate. 1 ounce Honey 1 ounce Make a homogeneous paste by heating with water. II. — Melt 8 J pounds of lard over a salt-water bath and run into it a \ye formed by dissolving 8 ounces of caustic potassa in 1 } pints of water. Stir well until saponincation is effected and per- fume as desired. HAIR, REMOVAL OF, FROM SKINS: See Leather. HAIR REMOVERS: See Depilatories. HAMBURG BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors. HAMMER HARDEinifG: See Steel. HAND CREAMS: See Cosmetics. HANDS, TO REMOVE STAINS FROM THE: See Cleaning Preparations. HARE-LIP OPERATION, ANTISEPTIC PASTE FpR: See Antiseptics. HARNESS DRESSINGS AND PREPA- RATIONS: See Leather Dressings. HARNESS WAX: See Waxes. HAT-CLEANING COMPOUNDS: See Cleaning Compounds. HAT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 894 HATS— HERBARIUM SPECIMENS HATS: Dreiiur Straw Hats.— The plan gen- erally foUowed is that of coating the hats with a solution of varnish in which a suitable aniline dye has dissolved. The following preparations are in use: I. — For dark varnishes prepare a basis consisting of orange shellac, 900 parts; sandarac, 225 parts; Manila copal, 225jparts; castor oil, 55 parts; and wood- spirit, 9,000 parts. To color, add to the foregoing amount alcohol-soluble, coal- tar dves^ as follows: Black, 55 parts of soluble ivor^-black (modified by blue or green). Olive-brown, 15 parts of bril- Rant-green, 55 pHirts of Bismarck brown R, 8 ports of spirit blue. Olive-green, 28 parts of brilliant-green, 28 parts of Bis- marck-brown R. Walnut, 55 parts of Bismarck- brown R, 15 parts of nigrosin. Mahogany, 28 parts of Bismarck-brown R, which may be deepened by a little nigrosin. II. — For light colors prepare a var- nish as follows: Sandarac, 1,850 parts; elemi, 450 parts; rosin, 450 parts; castor oil, 110 parts; wood-spirit, 9,000 parts. For this amount use d^es as follows: Gold, 55 parts of chrysoidin, 55 parts of aniline-yellow. Light green, 55 parts of brilliant-green, 7 puts of aniline-yellow. Blue, 55 parts of spirit blue. Deep blue, 55 jparts of spirit blue, 55 parts of in- dulin. Violet, 28 parts of methyl- violet, SB. Crimson, 55 parts of safranin. Chest- nut, 55 parts of safranin, 15 parts of in- dulin. III. — Shellac 4 ounces Sandarac 1 ounce Gum thus 1 ounce Methyl spirit 1 pint In^ this dissolve aniline dyes of the requisite color, and apply. For white straw, white shellac must be used. To Extract Shellac from Fur Hats.— Use the common solvents, as carbon bisulphide, benzine, wood alcohol, tur- pentine, and so forth, reclaiming the spirit and shellac by a suitable still. HEADACHE REMEDIES: See also Pain Killers. Headache Cologne.— As a mitigant of headache, cologne water of the farina type is refreshing. OU of neroli 6 drachms Oil of rosemary 8 drachms Oil of bergamot S drachms Oil of cedrat 7 drachms Oil of orange peel .... 7 drachms Deodorized alcohol . . 1 gallon To secure a satisfactory product from the foregoing formula it is necessary to look carefully to the quality of the oils. Oil of cedrat is prone to change, and oil of orange peel, if exposed to the atmov phere for a short time, becomes worth- less, and will spoil the other materisls. A delightful combination of the scrtir odor with that of cologne water msT be had by adding to a pint of the foregoiDc 2 drachms of glacial acetic acid. The odor so produced may be more grateful to some invalids than the neroli snJ lemon bouquet. Still another striking variation of the cologne odor, suitable for the use in- dicated, may be made by adding to i pint of cologne water an ounce of am- moniated alcohol. Liquid Headache Remedies.— Acetanilid 60 srains Alcohol 4 fluidrackou Ammonium carbon- ate SO grains Water 2 fluidracbm* Simple elixir to make 2 fluidoanrei Dissolve the acetanilid in the alroh«)l. the ammonium carbonate in the watrr. mix each solution with a portion of the simple elixir, and mix the whole together. HEAT-ntDICATING PAIHT: See Paint. HEAT mSULATION: See Insulation. HEAT, PRICKLY: See Household Formulas. HEAT-RESISTANT LACQUERS: See Lacquers. HEAVES: See Veterinary Formulas. HEDGE MUSTARD. Hedge mustard (erysimum) wsf at one time a popular remedy in Frmnrr for hoarseness, and is still used in countrr districts, but is not often prescribed. Liquid ammonia 10 drops Syrup of erysimum 1 ) ounce* Infusion of lime flowers. S ouoces To be taken at one dose. HERBARIUM SPECIMEIIS, MOUIT* DVG. A matter of first importance, after drying the herbarium specimeaa, i« t*^ poison them, to ore vent the attack* *^ inserts. This is done by brushing thrm over on both sides, using a ctmelVU^r pencil, with a solution of 2 grains U Digitized by VjOOQ IC HERBARIUM SPECIMENS— HECTOGRAPH PADS 395 corrosive sublimate to an ounce of me- thylated spirit. In tropical climates the solution is generally used of twice this stren^h. Tnere are several methods of mountins them. Leaves with a waxy surface ana coriaceous texture are best stitched through the middle after they have been fastened on with an adhesive mixture. Twigs of leguminous trees will often throw off their leaflets in dry- ing. This may» in some measure, be prevented by dipping them in boiling water before drving, or if the leaves are not very riffid, bv using strong pressure at first, witnout tne use of hot water. If the specimens have to be frequently handled* the most satisfactory prepara- tion is Lepage's fish glue, but a mixture of glue ana paste, with carbolic acid added, is used in some larcre herbaria. The disadvantage of using glue, gum, or paste is that it is necessary to have some of the leaves turned over so as to show the under surface of the leaf, and some of the flowers and seeds placed loose in envelopes on the same sheet for purposes of comparison or microscopic exami- nation. Another plan is to use narrow slips of gummed stiff but thin paper, such as very thin parchment paper. These strips are either summed over the stems, etc., and pinchea in round the stem with forceps, or passed through slits made in the sheet and fastened at the back. If the specimens are mounted on cards and protected in glass frames, stitching in the principal parts with gray thread produces a very satisfactory appearance. Hectograph Pads and Inks The hectograph is a gelatin pad used for duplicating letters, etc., by transfer. The pad should have a tough elastic consistencv, similar to that of a printer's roller. Tne letter or sketch to be dupli- cated is written or traced on a sheet of heavy paper with an aniline ink (which has grcikt tinctorial Qualities). When dry this is laid, inkea side down, on the pad and subjected to moderate and uniform pressure for a few minutes. It may then be removed, when a copy of the original will be found on the pad which has absorbed a large quantity of the ink. The blank sheets are laid one by one on the pad, subjected to moderate pressure over the whole surface with a wooden or rubber roller, or with the hand, and lifted off by taking hold of the comers and stripping them gently with an even movement. If this is done tno quickly the composition may be torn. £acb succeeding copy thus made will be a little fainter than its predecessor. From 40 to 60 legible copies ma^ be made. When the operation is finished the surface of the pad should be gone over |[ently with a wet sponge and the remaining ink soaked out. The super- fluous moisture is then carefully wiped off, when the pad will be ready for another operation. The pad or hectograph is essentially a mixture of glue (eelatin) and glycerine. This mixture has tne propert}r of remain- ing soft yet firm for a long time and of absorbing and holding certain coloring matters in such a way as to give them up slowly or in layers, so to speak, on pressure. Such a pad mav be made by melting together 1 part of glue, 2 parts of water and 4 parts of glycerine (all by weight, of course), evaporating some of the water and tempering the mixture with more glue or gtycenne if the season or climate require. The mass when of proper con- sistency, which can be ascertained by cooling a small portion, is poured into a shallow pan and allowed to set. Clean glue must be used or the mixture strained; and air bubbles should be removed by skimming the surface with a piece of card-board or similar appliance. Variations of this formula have been proposed, some of which are appended; I. — Glycerine 12 ounces Gelatin 2 ounces Water 7 J ounces Sugar 2 ounces II.— Water 10 ounces Dextrin 1) ounces Sugar 2 ounces Gelatin 15 ounces Glycerine 15 ounces Zinc oxide 1} ounces III. — Gelatin 10 ounces Water 40 ounces Glycerine 120 ounces Barium sulphate . . 8 ounces The Tokacs patent composition, be- sides the usual ingredients, such as gela- tin, glycerine, sugar, and gum, contains soap, and can therefore be washed off much easier for new use. The smooth- ness of the surface is also increased, without showing more sticking capacity with the first impressions. Hectograph Inks (see also Inks). — The writing to DC copied by means of the hectograph is done on good paper with an aniline ink. Formulas for suitable ones are appended. It is said that more copies can be obtained from writing with the purple ink than with other kinds: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 396 HECTOGRAPH INKS— HORN Purple.— I.— Methyl violet 2 parts Alcohol 2 parts Sugar. 1 part Glycerine 4 parts Water 24 parts Dissolve the violet in the alcohol mixed with the glycerine; dissolve the sugar in the water; mix both solutions. II. — A good purple hectograph ink is made as follows: Dissolve 1 part methyl violet in 8 parts of water and add 1 part of glycerine. Gently warm the solution for an hour, and add, when cool, } part alcohol. Or take methyl violet, I part; water, 7 parts; and glycerine, 2 parts. BUck.— Methyl violet 10 parts Nigrosin «0 parts Glycerine. SO parts Gum arabic 5 parts Alcohol 60 parts Blue.— Resorcin blue M 10 parts Dilute acetic acid .... 1 part Water 85 parts Glycerine 4 parts Alcohol 10 parts Dissolve by heat. Red.— Fuchsin 10 parts Alcohol 10 parts Glycerine 10 parts Water 50 parts Green.— Aniline green, water soluble 15 parts Glycerine 10 parts Water 50 parts Alcohol 10 parts Repairing Hectographs.— Instead of remeiting the hectograph composition, which is not always successful, it is recommended to pour alcohol over the .surface of the cleaned mass and to light it. After solidifying, the surface will be again ready for use. HEMORRHOIDS: See Piles. HERB VUIEGAR: See Vinegar. HIDES: See l/cather. HIDE BODIID: Sec Veterinary Formulas. HIDE^LEAJIIlfG PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. HOARHOUND CAIIDT: See Confectionery. HOARSENESS, CREAM BOH-BORS FOR: See Confectionery. HOARSENESS, REMEDY FOR: See Cough and Cold Mixtures and Tur- pentine. HOG DISEASES AND THEIR REME- DIES: See Veterinary Formulas. HONET: Honey Clarifier.— For S.OOO parts of fresh honey, take 875 parts of water, 130 parts of washed, dried, and pul vented charcoal, 70 parts of powdered chalk, and the whites of S eggs beaten in 90 parts of water. Put the hooey sod the chalk in a vessel capable of contain- ing \ more than the mixture and boil for 8 mmutes; then introduce the charcoal and stir up the whole. Add the whitrs of the e^gs while continuing to stir, sod boil again for 3 minutes, l^ke from the fire, and after allowing the liquid to cool for a quarter of an hour, filter, and to secure a perfectly clear liquid refilter on flannel. Detecting Dyed Honey. ~For the de- tection of artificial yellow dyestuff in honey, treat the aqueous yellow solution with hydrochloric acid, as well us with ammonia; also extract the dyestuff from the acid or ammoniacal solution by Mil- vents, such as alcohol or ether, or con- duct the Arata wool test in the fuHowinK manner: Dissolve 10 parts of hooey in 50 parts o{ water, mix with 10 parts of i 10 per cent potassium-bisulphate solu- tion and boil the woolen thread in this liquid for 10 minutes. HONET WINE: See Mead. HONING: See Whetstones. HOOF SORES: See Veterinary Formulas. HOP BITTER BEER: See Beverages. HOP SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts. HORN: Artificial Horn.— To pref»are artificisl horn from compounds of nitro moving their odor of camphor, the com- Dounds are steeped in forroaldebrde from several hours to «« many ds^s Digitized by VjOOQ IC HORN— HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS 397 according to the thickness of the object treated. When the formaldehyde has penetrated through the mass and dis- solved the camphor, the obiect is taken out of the liquid and driecl. Both the camphor extracted and the formalde- hyde used can be recovered by distilla- tion, and used over again, thus cheapen- ing the operation. Dehomers or Horn Destroyers.— The following are recommended b^ the Board of Agriculture of Great Britain: Clip the hair from the top of the horn when the calf is from 2 to 5 days old. Slightly moisten the end of a stick of caustic potash with water or saliva (or moisten the top of the horn bud) and rub the tip of each horn firmly with the potash for about a quarter of a minute, or until a slight impression has been made on the center of the horn. The horns should be treated in this way from 2 to 4 times at intervals of 5 minutes. If, during the interval of 5 minutes after one or more applications, a little blood ap- pears in tne center of the horn, it will then onlv be necessary to give another very slignt rubbing with the potash. The following directions should be carefully observed: The operation is best performed when the calf is under 5 days old, and should not be attempted after the ninth day. When not in use the caustic potash should be kept in a stoppered glass bottle in a ory place, as it rapidly deteriorates when exposed to the air. One man should hold the calf while an assistant uses the caustic. Roll a piece of tin foil or brown paper round the end of tiie stick of caustic potash, which is held by the fingers, so as not to injure the hand of the operator. Do not moisten the stick too much, or the caustic may spread to the skin around the bom and aestrov the flesh. For the same reason keep tne calf from getting wet for some davs after the operation. Be careful to rub on the center of the bom and not aroimd the side of it. Staining Horns. — A brown stain is given to boms by covering them first with an aoueous solution of potassium ferrocyaniae, drying them, and then treating with a hot dilute solution of copper sulphate. A black stain can be produced in the following manner: After having finely sandpapered the borps, dissolve 50 to 60 grains of nitrate of silver in 1 ounce of distilled water. It will l>e colorless. Dip a small brush in, and oaint the horns wnere they are to be black. When dry, put them where the sun can shine on them, and you will find that they will turn jet black, and may then be polished. To Soften Horn.— -Lay the horn for 10 dajs in a solution of water, 1 part; nitric acid, S parts; wood vinegar, 2 parts; tannin, 5 parts; tartar, 2 parts; and zinc vitriol, 2.5 parts. HORN BLEACHES: See Bone and Ivory. HORN, UNITING GLASS WITH: See Adhesives. HORSES, THE TREATMENT OF THEIR DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulas. Household Formulas How to Lay Galvanized Iron Roofing. — The use of galvanized iron for general roofing work nas increased greatly dur- ing the past few years. It has many features which commend it as a roofing material, but difficulties have been ex- perienced by be^nners as to the proper method of applying it to the roof. The weight of material used is rather heavy to permit of double seaming, but a meth- od has been evolved that is satisfac- tory. Galvanized iron roofing can be put on at low cost, so as to be water-tight and free from buckling at the loints. The method does away with double seaming, and is considered more suitable than the latter for roofing purposes wherever it can be laid on a roof steeper than 1 to 12. Galvanized iron of No. 28 and heavier gauges is used, the sheets being lap- seamed and soldered together in strips in the shop the proper length to apply to the roof. After the sheets are fastened together a l}-inch ed^e is turned up the entire length of one side of the sheet, as indicated in Fig. 1. This operation is FIG. 1 i CLEAT FIG. 2 /let CLSAT. Si FIG. 3 FIG. 4 ± OLEAT FIG. 5 FIG. 6 done with tongs having gauge pins set at the proper point. The second oper- Digitized by VjOOQ IC S98 HOUSEHOLD PORMITLAS ation consists in turning a strip } inch wide toward the sheet, as shown m Fig. 2. This sheet is then laid on the roof, and a cleat about 8 inches lon^ and 1 inch wide, made of galvanized iron, is nailed to the roof close to the sheet and bent over it, as shown in Fig. S. A second sheet having 1} inches turned up is now brought against the first sheet and bent over both sheet and cleat, as shown in Fig. 4. The cleat is then bent backward over the second sheet and cut off close to the roof, as in Fig. 5, after which the seams are drawn together by double seaming tools, as the occasion demands, and slightlv ham- mered with a wooden mallet The fin- ished seam is shown in Fig. 6. It will be seen that the second sheet of galvan- ized iron, cut i inch longer than the first, laps over the former, making a sort of bead which prevents water from driving in. Cleats hold both sheets firmly to the roof and are nailed about 12 inches apart. Roofs of this character, when laid with No. 28 gauge iron, cost very little more than the cheaper grades of tin, and do not have to be painted. Applicatioiis for Prickly Heat— Many applications for this extremely annoying form of urticaria have been suggested and their efficacy strongly urged by the various correspondents of the medical press who propose them, but none of them seem to oe^ generally efficacious. Thus, sodium bicarbonate in strong, aqueous solution, has long been a domes- tic remedy in general use, but it fails probably as often as it succeeds. A weak solution of copper sulphate has also been highly extolled, only to disap- point a very large proportion of those who resort to it And so we might go on citing remedies which may sometimes give relief, but fail in the large proportion of cases. In this trouble, as in almost every other, the idiosjrncrasies of the patient play a great part in the effects pro- duced by any remedy. It is caused, primari!;" bv con^stion of the capillary vessels of tne skin, and anythins that tends to relieve this congestion will give relief, at least temporarily. Among the newer suggestions are the following: Alcohol 8SS parts Ether 833 parts Chloroform SSS parts Menthol 1 part Mix. Directions: Apply occasion- ally with a sponge. Among those things which at least assist one in bearing the affliction is fre* quent change of underwear. The undf r- garments worn during the day shooM never be worn at night. Scratching or rubbing should be avoided where po»- sible. Avoid stimulating food and drinks, especially alcohol, and by all means keep the bowels in a soluble cod- dition. Cleaning and PolisUng Linoleum.— Wash the linoleum with a mixture o^ equal parts of milk and water, wipe drr. and rub in the followinff mixture i} means of a cloth rag: Yellow wax. 3 parts; turpentine oil, 11 parts; vamiah. 5 parts. As a glazing agent a solution of a little yellow wax m turpentine oil i« also recommended. Other polbbing agents are: I. — Palm oil, 1 part; paraffine. 18; ker- osene, 4. II. — Yellow wax, 1 part; camauKa wax, 2; turpentine oil, 10; benzine, 5. Lavatory Deodorant — Sodium bicarbonate. . 5 ounces Alum 5} ounm Potassium bromide... 4 ouoccs Hvdrochloric acid enough. Water enough to make 4 pints. To 8 parts of boiling water add the alum ana then the bicarbonate, intro- duce enough hydrochloric acid to di*^ solve the^ precipitate of aluroinum h}- drate which forms and then add tkt potassium bromide. Add enough water to bring the measure of the finished prod* uct up to 4 pints. Removal of Odors firom Wooden Boxes, Chests, Drawers, etc. — This is done bv varnishins them with a solution of shellac, after the following manner: Make a solution of shellac, 1,000 parts: alcohol, 90 per cent to 05 per cent 1.000 parts; boric acid, 50 parts; castor oil. 50 parts. The shellac u first dissolved io the alcohol and the acid and oil added afterwards. For the first coating u«e 1 part of the solution cut with from 1 to < parts of alcohol, according to the porosity of the wood — the more porous the letf necessity for cutting. ^ When the firrt coat is absorbed and dried in, repeat the application, if the wood is venr porous with the diluted shellac, but if of hard* dense wood, the final coating nav be now put on, using the solution without addition of alcohol. If desired, the sola- tion may be colored with any ol the alcohol soluble aniline colors, xhe shel- lac solution, by the way, may be appbcd to the outside of chests, etc.. and finuhed ofF after the fashion of ''French polish.'* Digitized by VjOOQ IC HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS 899 When used this war, a prior application of 2 coats of linseed oil is advisable. Stencil Marking Ink that will Wash Oat. — Triturate together 1 part of fine «oot and 2 parts of Prussian oiue, with a little glycenne; then add 8 parts of gum arable and enough glycerine to form a thin paste. Washing Fluid.— Take 1 pound sal ftoda, ) pound good stone lime, and 5 quarts of water; boil a short time, let it settle, and pour off the clear fluid into a stone jug, and cork for use; soak the white clothes overnight in simple water, wring out and soap wristbands, collars, snd dirty or stained places. Have the boiler half filled with water just begin- ning to boil, then put in 1 common tea- cupful of fluid, stir and put in your rlothes, and boU for half an hour, then rub lightly through one suds only, and sU is complete. Starch Lustar, — A portion of stearine, the sise of an old*fasiiioned cent, added to starch, } pound, and boiled with it for ^ or S minutes, will add greatly to the beauty of linen, to which it may be ap- plied. To Make Loose Naihi in Walls Rigid.— As soon as a nail driven in the wall be- comes loose and the plastering besins to break, it can be made solid' and firm bv the followinff process: Saturate a bit of wadding wiUi thick dextrin or ^lue; vrsp as much of it around the nail as pMsible and reinsert the latter in the lioie, pressing it home as strongly as poftubie. Remove the excess of «ue or dextrin, wiping it cleanly off with a rag dipped in ciean water; then let dry. The nsii will then be firmly fastened m place. If the loose plastering^ be touched with tbe glue and replaced, it will adhere and remain firm. How to Keep Lunp Burners in Order. —In the oombustipn of coal oil a car- banaceotia residue is left, which attaches itself verv firmly to the metal along the edge of tne burner next the flame. This is especially true of round burners, where the heat of the flame is more in- tense than in flat ones, and the deposit of esrbon, where not frequently removed, toon gets sufficiently heavy to interfere seHously with the movement of the wick op or down.^ The deposit may be »cnped off with a knife blade, but a ipucli more satisfactory process of get- ting rid of it is as follows: Dissolve so- dtum carbonate, 1 part* in 5 or 6 parts of vater, and in this boil the burner for 5 minutes or so. When taken out the burner will look like a new one, and acts like one, provided that the apparatus for raising and lowering the wick nas not previously been bent and twisted by at- tempting to force the wick past rough deposits. To Remove the Odor from Pasteboard. — Draw the pasteboard through a 3 per cent solution of viscose in water. The pasteboard must be calendered after dry- ing. To Remove Woody Odor— To get rid of that frequently disagreeable smell in old chests, drawers, etc., paint the sur- face over with the following mixture: Acetic ether 100 parts Formaldehyde 6 parts Acid, carbolic 4 parts Tincture of eucalyp- tus leaves 60 parts Mix. After applying the mixture ex- pose the article to the open air in the sun- light. To Keep Flies Out of a House. — Never allow a speck of food to remain uncov- ered in dining room or pantry any length of time after meals. Never leave rem- nants of food exposed that you intend for cat or hens. Feed at once or cover their food up a distance from the house. Let nothing decay near the house. Keep your dining room and pantry windows open a few inches most of the time. Darken your room and pantry when not in use. If there should oe anv flies the^ will go to the window when the room is darkened, where they are easily caught, killed, or brushed out. An Easy Way to Wash a Heavy Com- fortable.— Examine the comfortable, and if you find soiled spots soap them and scrub with a small brush. Hang the comfortable on a strong line and turn the hose on. When one side is washed turn and wash the other. The water forces its way through cotton and cover- ing, making the comfortable as light and fluffy as when new. Squeeze the corners and ends as dry as possible. • Preservation of Carpets.— Lay sheets of brown paper under the carpet. This gives a soft feeling to the foot, and by diminishing the wear adds longer life to the carpet; at the same time it tends to keep away the air and renders the apart* ments warm. To Do Away with Wiping Dishes.— Make a rack by putting a shelf over the kitchen sink, slanting it so that the water Digitized by VjOOQ IC 400 HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS will drain off into the sink. Put a lattice railing about 6 inches high at the front and ends of the shelf so tnat dishes can be set against it on their edges without falling out. Have 2 pans of hot water. Wash the dishes in one and rinse them in the other. Set them on edge in the rack and leave until dry. A Conyenient Table.— Ten common-sized eggs weigh 1 pound. Soft butter, the size of an egg, weighs 1 ounce. One pint of coffee and of sugar weighs 12 ounces. One quart of sifted flour (well heaped) weighs 1 pound. One pint of best brown sugar weighs 12 ounces. How to Make a Cellar Waterproof. — The old wall surface should be roughened and perfectly cleaned before plastering is commenced. It may be advisable to put the first coat on not thicker than } inch, and after this has set it may be cut and roughened by a pointing trowel. Then apply a second )-inch coat and finish this to an even and smooth sur- face. Proportion of plaster: One-half part slaked lime, 1 part Portland ce- ment, part fine, sharp sand, to be mixed well and applied instantly. Removing Old Wall Paper.— Some paoer hangers remove old paper from walls by first dampening it with water in which a little baking soda has been dis- solved, the surface being then gone over with a ''scraper'* or other tool. How- over, the principle object of an^ method is to soften the old paste. This may be readily accomplished by first wetting a section of the old paper with cold or tepid water, .using a orush, repeating the wetting until the paper and paste are soaked through, when the paper may easily be pulled off, or, if too tender, may be scraped with any instrument of a chisel form shoved between the paper and the w^all. The wall should then be washed with clean water, this operation being materially assisted by wetting the wall ahead of the washing. Stained Ceilings.— Take unslaked white lime, dilute with alcohol, and paint the spots with it. When the spots are dry — which will be soon, as the alcohol evapo- rates^ and the lime forms a sort of in- sulating; layer — one can proceed painting with size color, and the spots will not show through again. To Overcome Odors in Freshly Papered Rooms. — After the windows and doors of such rooms have been closed, brinit in red-hot coal and strew on this several handfuls of juniper berries. About M hours later open all windows and d pared from rubber nose. The wallii to DC laid dry are first to be thoroughlr cleaned by brushing and rubbing off; then the caoutchouc size, which has Urn previouslv made liouid bv heating, is ap- }>lied with a broad brusn in a uniform ayer — about 8 to 12 inches higher tb4n the wall appears damp — and finali> paper is pasted over the glue when thf latter is still sticky. The paper will at once adhere veiy firmly. Or else, «ppl» the liquefied irlue in a uniform la^rr upon paper (wall paper, caoutchouc paprr. etc.). Upon this, size paint ma^ be ap- plied, or it may be covered with wall paper or plaster. If the caoutchouc size is put on «ith the necessary care — i. e., it all damp spotii are covered with it — the wail « laid dry for the future, and no peeling *'^ of the paint or the wall paper needs ti> \^ apprehended. In cellars, protect it >n from dampness can be had in a iikf manner, as the caoutchouc glue adhrrr> equally well to all surfaces, whethrr stone, glass, metal, or wood. II. —The walls must be well deanrtj before painting. If the plaster shon-.i be worn and permeated with saJtprtf*^ in places it should be renewed *n«i smoothed. These clean surface* sn coated twice with a water-fflafts sulutt«in. 1.1, using a brush and allowed to tin well. Then the^ are painted S tin)r< with the following mixture: Di»*«J*** 100 parts, by weight, of mastic in li* parts of absolute alcohol; potir 1.0t solution of 50 parts of ammonia in i^' parts of alcohol (50 per cent), stir Wf'*. and subsequently^ aad the mastic t^tU- tion and stand aside warm, stirrini: ilil'- gently. After 5 minutes take swar from the fire and painting may be rov- menced. Before a fresh appliestion. however, the solution should be ivmof rd. When this coating has dried complH«^ ly it is covered with oil or varnish psi^ t. preferably the latter. In the sane put»- ner the exudation of so-called saltpHrr Digitized by VjOOQ IC HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS— HYDROMETER 401 in fresh masonry or on the exterior of lu^adrji, etc., may he prevented, size ptiint or lime paint being employed in- stead of the oil-varnish paint. New walls which are to be painted will give off no more saltpeter atter 2 or S appli- cations of the ismglass solution, so tiiat the colors of the wall paper will not be injured cither. Stains caused bv smoke, sout, etc., on ceilings of rooms, kitchens, or corridors which are difficult to cover up with size paint, mav also be com- pletely isolatea by applying the warm t^ingla.ss solution 2 or S times. The she paint is, of course, put on only after complete drying of the ceilings. To Protect Papered Walls from Ver- min.— It is not infremient that when the wall paper becomes aefective or loose in papered rooms, vermin, bed bugs, ants, etc., will breed behind it. In order to prevent this evil a little colocynth powder should l>e added to the paste used for hanging the paper, in the proportion of 50 or 60 parts for 3,000 parts. Care of Refrigerators. —See that the »ifle.^ or wails of all refrigerators are oc- rasionally scoured with soap, or soap and slaked lime. Dost Preventers. — Against the bene- ficial effects to be observed in the use of mocit preparations we must place the following bad effects: The great smooth- nesis and sliprperiness of the boards dur- ing the first few days after every appli- eaiion of the dressing, which forbids the uie of the latter on steps, floors of gymna- sia, dancing floors, etc. The fact that the oil or grease penetrates the soles of the lMM>ts or shoes, the henas of ladies' dresses, and thinffs accidentally falling to the floor arc soued and spotted. Be- J»iilfs these there is, especially during the first few days after application, the dirty dark coloration whicn the boards take on after protracted use of the oils. Finally, there is the considerable cost of any process, especially for smaller rooms and apartments. In schoolrooms and railroad waiting rooms and other places much freouented by children and others wearing snoes set with iron, the boards soon become smooth from wear, and for 8uch places the process is not suited. According to other sources of infor- mation, these evil tendencies of the appli- cation vanish altogether, or are reduced to a minimum, if (1) entirely fresh, or at least, not rancid oils be used; (2) if, after Vttch oiling, a few days be allowed to eUpse before using the chamber or hall, •ou finally (3), if resort is not had to costly foreign special preparations, but German goods, procurable at wholesale in any Quantity, and at very low figures. The last advice (to use low-priced preparations) seems sensible since accord- ing to recent experiments, none of the oils experimented upon possess any es- pecial advantages over the others. An overwhelming majority of the laboratories for examination have given a verdict in favor of oil as a dust-sup- pressing application for floors, and have expressed a desire to see it in universal use. The following is a suggestion put forth for the use of various preparations: This dust-absorbing agent has for its object to take up the dust in sweeping floors, etc., and to prevent its develop- ment. The production is as follows: Mix in an intimate manner 12 parts, by weight, of mineral sperm oil with 88 parts, by weight, of Koman or Portland cement, adding a few drops of mirbane oil. Upon stirring a uniform paste forms at first, which then passes into a greasy, sandy mass. This mass is sprinkled upon the surface to be swept ancf cleaned ot dust, next going over it with a broom or similar object in the customary man- ner, at which operation the dust will mix with the mass. The preparation can be used repeatedly. HUCKLEBERRY VINEGAR: See Vinegar. HUNYADI WATER: See Water. HYDROCmNON DEVELOPER: See Photography. HYDROGEN, AMALGAMS AS A SOURCE OF NASCENT: See Amalgams. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AS A PRE- SERVATIVE: See Preserving. HYDROMETER AND ITS USE. Fill the tall cylinder or test glass with the spirit to be tested and see that it is of the proper temperature (60® F.). Should the thermometer indicate a hif|her tem- perature wrap the cylinder in cloths which have been dipped in cold water until the temperature falls to the required degree. If too low a temperature is indicated, reverse the process, using warm instead of cold applications. When 60® is reached note the specific ffravity on the floating hydrometer. Have Uie cylinder filled to tne top and look Bcrass the top of the liquid at the mark on the hydrometer. This is to preclude an Digitized by VjOOQ IC 402 HYGROMETERS— ICE incorrect reading by possible refraction in the glass cylinder. HYGROHETERS AND HY6R0- SCOPES: Paper Hygrometers. — Paper hygrom- eters are made by saturating white blot- ting paper with the following liquid and then nanging up to dry: Cobalt chloride 1 ounce Sodium chloride } ounce Calcium chloride 75 grains Acacia } ounce Water 8 ounces The amount of moisture in the atmos- phere is roughly indicated by the chang- ing color of the papers, as follows: Rose red rain Pale red ver^ moist Bluish red moist Lavender blue .... nearlv dry Blue very dry Colored Hygroscopes. — These instru- ments are often composed of a flower or a figure, of light muslin or paper, im- mersed in one of the following solutions: I.— Cobalt chloride. ... 1 part Gelatin 10 parts Water 100 parts The normal coloring is pink; this color changes into violet in medium humid weather and into blue in very dry weather. 11. — Cupric chloride. . . 1 part Gelatin 10 parts Water 100 parts The color is yellow in dry weather. III. —Cobalt chloride 1 part Gelatin 20 parts Nickel oxide 75 parts Cupric chloride. ... 25 parts Water «00 parts The color is green in dry weather. HYOSCYAMUS, AHTIDOTE TO: See Atropine. HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA: Sec Photography. ICE: See also Refrigeration. Measuring the Weight of Ice. — A close estimate of the weight of ice can be reached bv multiplying together the length, breadth, and thickness of the block in inches, and dividing the product by SO. This will be very closely the weight in pounds. Thus, if a block is 10x10x9. the proiluct is 900, and this divided by 30 gives 30 pounds as correct weight. A block 10 x 10 x 6 weighs in pounds. This simple method can U easily applied, and^ it may serve to re- move unjust suspicions, or to detect short weight. To Keep Ice in Small Qtumtitiet.— To keep ice from melting, attention is called to an old preserving method. The ii*r is cracked with a nammer between i layers of a strong cloth. Tie over a com- mon unglazed flower-pot, holding about 2 to 4 quarts and placed upon a porrr- lain dish, a piece of white flannel in such a manner that it is turned down foDDrl- like into the interior of the pot without touching the bottom. Placed in Xlm flannel funnel the cracked ice keeps fur days. ICE FLOWERS. Make a 2 per cent solution of the be»t clear gelatin in distilled water, filter, and flood the filtrate over any surface wbich it is desired to ornament. Drain off slightly, and if the weather is sufl^cientlv cold, put the plate, as neariy level as pos- sible, out into the cold air to freese. Id freezing, water is abstracted from the colloidal portion, which latter then as- sumes an efflorescent form* little flowers, with exuberant, graceful curves of cry*- tals, showing up as foliage, from all over the surface. ^ To preserve in permanent form all that is necessary is to flood them with absolute alcohol. This treatment removes the ice, thus leaving a lasting framework of gelatin which may be preserved indefinitely. In order to do this, as soon as the gelatin has become ouite dr^ it should l^ either varnished, no wed with an alcoholic solution of dear shellac, or the gelatin may be rendered insoluble by contact, for a few moment** with a solution of potassium bichromale, and subsequent exposure to sunlight ICING: See Household Formulas. IMOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography. INCENSE: ^ See Fumigants. INCRUSTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Boiler Compounds. INDIGO: See Dyes. INFANT POODS: See Foods. nfFLUENZA IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. Digitized by VjOOQIC IGNITING COMPOSITION— INKS 408 IHK ERABICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- imJs. IGHimfG COMPOSITION. Eight parts of powdered manganese, 10 parts of amorpnous phosphorus, and 5 parts of glue. The glue is soaked in water, dissolved in the heat, and the manganese and the phosphorus stirred in, so (hat a thinly liquid paste results, which u applied by means of a brush. Allow to cj^ well. This, being free from sul- phur, can be applied on match-boxes. Inks BLUEPSHIT IRKS. I. — For red-writing fluids for blue- prints, take a piece of common washing »«>da the sise of* an ordinary bean,^ and dissolve it in 4 tablespoonfuls of ordinarv rrd-writing ink, to make a red fluid. To keep it from spreading too much, use s fine pen to apply it with, and write fast M as not to aOow too much of the fluid to ^et on the paper, for it will continue esting until it is dry. II. — For red and white solutions for writing on blueprints, dissolve a crystal of oxuate of potash about the size of a pea in an ink-bottle full of water. This win give white lines on blueprints; other potash solutions are yellowisn. If this snows a tendencv to run, owing to too great strength, add more water and thicken slight^ with mucilage. Mix thif with red or any other colored ink rbout half and half, and writing may be ilnne on the blueprints in colors corre- sponding to the inKs used. III. — Add to a small bottle of water enough washing soda to make a dear white line, then add enough gum arabic to it to prevent spreading and making niiCged lines. To make red lines dip the pro in red ink and then add a little of the solution by means of the quill. IV. — For white ink, grind zinc oxide fine on marble and incorporate with it n mucilage made with gum tragacanth. Thin a little for use. Add a little oil of cloves to prevent mold, and shake from timr to time. V. — A fluid which is as (;ood^ as any for writing white on blueprints is made cif equal parts of sal soda and water. VI.-»Miz equal parts of borax and water. Both these fluids, V and VI, must be tued vith a fine-pointed pen; a pen with a biuol point will not work well. DRAWING INKS: Blue Ruling Ink.— Good vitriol, 4 ounces; indi^jo, 1 ounce. Pulverize the indigo, add it to the vitriol, and let it stand exposed to the air for 6 days, or until dissolved; then fill the pots with chalk, add fresh gall, ) gill, boiling it before use. Black Ruling Ink.— Take good black ink, and add gall as for blue. Do not cork it, as this prevents it from turning black. Carbon Ink. — Dissolve real India ink in common black ink, or add a small quantity of lampblack previously heated to redness, and ground perfectly smooth, with a small portion of the ink. Carmine. — The ordinary solution of carmine in ammonia water, after a short time in contact with steel, becomes black- ish red, but an ink may be made that will retain its brilliant carmine color to the last by the following process, given by Dingier: Triturate 1 part of pure car- mine with 15 parts of acetate of ammonia solution, with an equal quantity of dis- tilled water in a porcelain mortar, and allow the whole to stand for some time. In this way, a portion of the alumina, which is combined with the carmine dye, is taken up by the acetic acid of the am- monia salt, and separates as a precipi- tate, while the pure pigment of tne cochineal remains^ dissolved in the half- saturated ammonia. It is now filtered and a few drops of pure white sugar syrup added to tnicken it. A solution of gum arabic cannot be used to thicken it, since the ink still contains some acetic acid, which would coagulate the bas- sorine, one of the constituents of the gum. Liquid Indelible Drawing Ink.— Dis- solve, by boiling, 2 parts of blond (golden yellow) shellac in 1.6 parts, by weight, of sal ammoniac, 16°, with 10 parts, by weight, of distilled water, and filter the solution through a woolen cloth. Now dissolve or grind 0.5 parts, by weight, of shellac solution with 0.01 part, by weight, of carbon black. Also dissolve .03 parts of nigrosin in 0.4 parts of distilled water and pour both solutions together. The mixture is allowed to settle for 2 days and the ready ink is drawn off from the sediment. GLASS, CELLULOID, AND METAL m&S: See also Etching. Most inks for glass will also write on celluloid and the metals. The following Digitized by VjOOQ IC 404 INKS I and II are the most widely known recipes: I. — In 500 parts of water dissolve S6 parts of sodium fluoride and 7 parts of sodium sulphate. In another vessel dissolve in tne same amount of water 14 parts of zinc chloride and to the solution add 56 parts of concentrated hydro- chloric acid. To use, mix eoual vol- umes of the two solutions and add a little India ink; or, in the absence of this, rub up a little lampblack with it. It is scarcely necessary to say that the mix- ture should not be put in glass containers, unless they, are well coated internally with parafiine, wax, gutta-percha, or some similar material. To avoid the inconvenience of keeping the solutions in separate bottles, mix them and preserve in a rubber bottle. A quill pen is best to use in writing with this preparation, but metallic pens may be used, if quite clean and new. II. — In 150 parts of alcohol dissolve 20 parts of rosin, and add to this, drop bv drop, stirring continuously, a solution of 35 parts of borax in 250 parts of water. This being accomplished, dissolve in the solution sufficient methylene blue to give it the desired tint. Ink for Writing on Glazed Cardboard. — The following are especially recom- mended for use on celluloid: I. — Dissolve 4 drachms of brown shellac in 4 ounces of alcohol. Dissolve 7 drachms of borax in 6 ounces of dis- tilled water. Pour the first solution slowly into the second and carefully mix them, after which add 12 grains of aniline dye of the desired color. Violet, blue, green, red, yellow, orange, or black aniline dyes can be used. Such inks may be used for writing on bottles, and the glass may be cleaned with water without the inscription being impaired. II. — Ferric chloride .... 10 parts Tannin 15 parts Acetone 100 parts Dissolve the ferric chloride in a por- tion of the acetone and the tannin in the residue, and mix the solutions. III. — Dissolve a tar dyestuff of the desired color in anhydrous acetic acid. Indelible Inki lor Glass or Metal.— Schobel recommends the following inks for marking articles of glass, glass slips for microscopy, reagent flasks, etc., in black: I. —Sodium silicate 1 to 2 parts Liquid India ink. ... 1 part For white: II. — Sodium water glass 3 to 4 parts Chinese white 1 part Instead of Chinese white, a sufficirot amount of the so-called permatM^nt white (barium sulphate) may be uf kept air-tight The writing in either ck>r is not attacked by any reagent used in microscopical technique but may Ix readily scraped away with a knife. Tb« slips or other articles should be as nrir chemically dean as possible, before st- tempting to write on them. According to Schuh, a mixture of « shellac solution and whiting or precii>i- tated chalk answers very well for marL- ing glass. Any color may be mixed « i' t> the chalk. If the glass is thoroucbl} cleaned with alcohol oj* ether, eitlirr a quill pen or a camel's-hair pencil (or a fresh, clean steel pen) may bie used. Ink on Marble. — Ink marks on marblr may be removed with a paste made b> dissolving an ounce of oxalic acid and half an ounce of butter of antimonr in a Sint of rain water, and adding samrient our to form a thin paste. Applj* thi& ti> the stains with a brush; allow it to re- main on 8 or 4 days and then wash it ulT. Make a second application, if necessarj. Perpetual Ink. — I. — Pitch, S poum)^: melt over the fire, and add of lampblack. } pound; mix well. II. — Trinidad aspbaltum and oil of turpentine, equal parts. Used io a melted state to fill in the letters on iota}*- stones, marbles, etc. Without artuai violence, it will endure as long th lU stone itself. Ink for Steel Tbols. — Have a rahhr^ stamp made with white letters on a bla< i ground. Make up an ink to use with tbu stamp, as follows: Ordinary rosin, ) pound: lard oiL I tablespoonful; lampblack, 2 tablespo«>n< f uls; turpentine, 2 tablespoonful*. M ' ■! the rosin, and stir in the other ingredif'tit* in the order ffiven. When the ink » rtii** it should look like ordinary printers* io^ Spread a little of this ink over thr piu and ink the rubber stamp as ttsnal* sod press it on the clean steel — saw bladf. for instance. Have a rope of soft pott? . and make a border of putty arouod tU stamped design as close up to the Irttr'r* ing as possible, so that no portion of tfar steel inside the ring of putty is eip**^ but the lettering. Then pour into tbr putty ring the etching mixture, coinp««**d of 1 ounce of nitric acid, 1 ounce of aiuri- Digitized by VjOOQ IC INKS 405 atic add, and 12 ounces of water. Allow it to rest for only a minute, draw off the acid with a glass or rubber syringe, and soak up the last trace of acid with a moist sponge. Take off the putty, and wipe off the design with potash solution first, and then with turpentine, and the job is done. Writing on Ivory, Glass, etc.— Nitrate of silver, 3 parts; gum arabic, 20 parts; distilled water, 30 parts. Dissolve the gum arabic in two-thirds of the water, and the nitrate of silver in the other third. Mix and add the desired color. Writing on Zinc (see also Horti- cultural Inks). — Take 1 part sulphate of tt)pper (copper vitriol), 1 part chloride of potassium, both dissolved in S5 parts water. With this blue liquid, writing or drawing may be done with a common »teel pen upou zinc which has been polished bright with emery paper. After the writing is done the plates are put in water and left in it for some time, then taken out and dried. The writing will remain intact as long as the zinc. If the writing or drawing should be brown, 1 part sulphate of iron (green titriol) is added to the above solution. The chemicals are dissolved in warm water and the latter must be cold before it can be used. GOLD nnc. I.— The best gold ink is made by rub- bing u{> ffold leaf as thoroughly as pos- sible witn a little honev. The honey is then washed away with water, and the finely powdered gold leaf left is mixed to tW consistency of a writing ink with weak ;um water. Everything depends upon the fineness of the gold powder, i. e., upon the diligence with which it has been worked with the honey. Precipitated ffuld is finer than can be got by any rub- bing, but its color is wronj^, being dark brown. The above gold ink should be used with a quill pen. II. — An imitation gold or bronze ink 19 composed by grinding 1,000 parts of powdered bronze of handsome color with a varnish prepared by boiling to- f^^tber 500 parts of nut oil, 200 parts of garlic, 500 parts of cocoanutoil, 100 parts of Naples yellow, and as much of sienna. BORTICULTURAL INK. I.— Chlorate of platinum, J ounce; *oft water, 1 pint. Dis.HoIve and prc- ♦f-'ve it in glass. ^ Used with a clean ll'iill to write on zinc labels. It almost ioimedlately turns black, and cunnot be removed by washing. The addition of gum and lampblack, as recommended in certain books, is unnecessary, and even prejudicial to the quality of the ink. II. — Verdigris and sal ammoniac, of each } ounce; levigated lampblack, i ounce; common vinegar, { pint; mix thoroughly. Used as the last, for either zinc, iron, or steel. III. — Blue vitriol, 1 ounce; sal am- moniac, § ounce (both in powder) ; vine- gar, i pint; dissolve. A little lamp- black or vermilion may be added, but it is not necessary. Use No. I, for iron, tin, or steel plate. INDELIBLE INKS. These are also frequently called water- proof, incorrodible, or indestructible inks. They are employed for writing labels on bottles containing strong acids and alkaline solutions. They may be employed with stamps, types or stencil plates, by which greater neatness will be secured than can oe obtained with either a brush or pen. The following is a superior prepara- tion for laundry use: Aniline oil 85 parts Potassium chlorate. . . 5 parts Distilled water 44 parts Hydrochloric acid, pure (sj>ecific grav- ity, 1.124) 68 parts Copper chloride, pure 6 parts Mix the aniline oil, potassium chlor- ate, and 26 parts of the water and heat in a capacious vessel, on the water bath, at a temperature of from 175° to 195° F., until the chlorate is entirely dissolved, then add one-half of the hydrochloric and continue the heat until the mixture begins to take on a darker color. Dis- solve the copper chloride in the residue of the water, add the remaining hydro- chloric acid to the solution, and add the whole to the liquid on the water bath, and heat the mixture until it acquires a fine red-violet color. Pour into a flask with a well-fitting ground-glass stopper, close tightly and set aside for several days, or until it ceases to throw down a precipitate. When this is the case, pour off tne clear liquid into smaller (one drachm or a drachm and a half) con- tainers. This ink must be used with a quill pen, and is especially good for linen or cotton fabrics, nut does not answer so well for silk or woolen goods. When first used, it appears as a pale red, but on washing with soap or alkalies, or on exposure to Digitized by VjOOQ IC 406 INKS the air, becomes a deep, dead black. The following is a modification of the foregoing: Blue Indelible Ink.— This ink has the reputation of resisting not only water and oil, but alcohol, oxalic acid, alkalies, the chlorides, etc. It is prepared as fol- lows: Dissolve 4 parts of gum lac in 36 parts of boiling water carrying 2 narts of borax. Filter and set aside. Now dissolve 2 parts of gum arabic in 4 parts of water and add the solution to the filtrate. Finally, after the solution is <)uite cold, add 2 parts of powdered indigo and dissolve by agitation. Let stand for several hours, then decant, and put in small bottles. Red Indelible Inks.— By proceeding according to the following formula, an intense purple-red color may be pro- duced on fabrics, which is indelible in the customary sense of the word: 1. — Sodium carbonate . . 8 drachms Gum arabic 3 drachms Water 12 drachms 2. — Platinic chloride. ... 1 drachm Distilled water 2 ounces 3. — Stannous chloride. . . 1 drachm Distilled water 4 drachms Moisten the place to be written upon with No. 1 and rub a warm iron over it until dry; then write with No. 2, and, when dry, moisten with No. 3. An intense and beautiful purple-red color is porduced in this way. A very rich purple color — the purple of Cassias — may be produced b}[ substituting a solu- tion of j^old chloride for the platinic chloride in the above formula. Crimson Indelible Ink.— The following formula makes an indelible crimson ink: Stiver nitrate 50 parts Sodium carbonate, crystal 75 parts Tartaric acid 16 parts Carmine 1 part Ammonia water, strongest 288 parts Su^ar, white, crystal- lized 36 parts Gum arabic, pow- dered 60 parts Distilled water, quantity sufficient to make 400 parts pisMolve the silver nitrate and the sodium carbonate separatrly, each in a porti<»n of the tions as follows: 1. — Chloride of gold and sodium 1 part Water 10 parts Gum 2 parts 2. — Oxalic acid 1 part Water S parts Gum 2 parts The cloth or stuff to be written on should be moistened with liquid No. i Let dry, and then write upon the prr- pared place with liquid No. 1, u^n% preferably a quill pen. Pass a hot irou over the mark, pressing heavily. INDIA, CHm A, OR JAPAN INK. Ink by these names is liased on lamp- black, and prepared in various wajv Manv makes flow less easilv from tlir pen than other inks, and are leas dursl>J<' than ink that writes paler and aftemarii* turns black. The ink is usually unfittrxl for steel pens, but applies well with a brush. I. — Lampblack (finest) is gronnii to a paste with very weak liquor •*( potassa, and this paste is tlien diffuM^I through water slightly alkaliaed with |»»- tassa, after which it is collected, washed with clean water, and drieiJ; the dr> powder is next levigated to a smotith. stiff paste, with a stronij filtered deciK^- tion of carrageen or Irish mosa, or attar of rose with the sugar oe- fore dissolving it in the hot water. II. — A solid blue ink, or marking paste, to be used with a brush for sten- ciling, is made as follows: Shellac, 2 ounces; borax, 2 ounces; water, 25 ounces; gum arable, 2 ounces; and ul- tramarine, sufficient. Boil the borax and shellac in some of the water till they are dissolved, and withdraw from the fire. When the solution has become cold, add the rest of the 25 ounces of water, and the ultramarine. When it is to be used with the stencil, it must be made thicker than when it is to be applied with a marking brush. III. — In a suitable kettle mix well, stirring constantly, 50 parts of liauid logwood extract (80 per cent) witn 3 parts of spirit previously mingled with 1 part of hydrochloric acid, maintaining a temperature of 68® F. Dissolve 5 parts of potassium chromate in 15 parts of boiling water; to this add 10 parts of hydrochloric acid, and pour this mixture, after raising the temperature to about 86* F., very slowly and with constant stirring into the kettle. Then heat the whole to 185® F. This mass, which has now assumed the nature of an extract, is stirred a little longer, and next 15 parts of dextrin mixed with 10 parts of fine white earth (white bole) are added. The whole is well stirred throuj^hout. Transfer the mass from the kettle into a crusher, where it is thoroughly worked through. PRIHTIN6 nncs. Black i>rinting inks owe their color to finely divided carbon made from lamp- black, pine- wood, rosin oil, etc., ac- cording to the quality of the ink desired. The finest inks are made from flame- lampblack. There are, however, cer- tain re<)uirements made of all printing inks alike, and these are as follows: The ink must be a thick and homoge- neous liquid, it must contain no solid matter but finely divided carbon, and every drop when examined microscopic- ally must appear as a clear liquid con- taining black grains uniformly distrib- ut«l. The consistency of a printing ink must be such that it passes on to the printing rollers at the proper rate. It will be obvious that various consistencies are demanded according to the nature of the machine used by the printer. For a rotary machine wnich pnnts many thou- sands of copies an hour a much thinnfr ink will be necessary than that requirrd for art printing or for slow presses. As regards color, ordinary printing ink should be a pure black. For econom;** sake, however, newspaper printers often use an ink so diluted that it does not Uftl deep black, but a grayish black, c^pe- ciallv in large type. The question of the time that the ink takes to dry on the paper is a very impor- tant one, especially with ink used for printing newspapers which are foldcnj and piled at one operation. If then (he ink does not dry very quickly, the wh much that it becomes illegible in plan v Although it is essential to have a quirk drying ink for this purpose, it is datifr^ ous to go too far, for a too quicklv dr>in{! ink would make the paper stick to the forms and tear it. A last condition whi< h must be fulfilled by a good printing; ink is that it must be easy of removal from the type, which has to be used again. No one composition will answer e^rrr purpose and a number of different ioki are reouired. Makers of printing ink« are obliged, therefore, to work from de- finite recipes so as to be able to turn out exactly the same ink a^in and afsin They make newspaper ink for tx^Uzy presses, book-printing inks, balf-tfur inks, art inks, etc. As the recipes h«vp been attained only by long, laborious, and costly experiments, it is obtiottslbA! the makers are not disposed to commu- nicate them, and the recipes that arr offered and published muKt be looked upon with caution, as many of them «rr of little or no value. In the rrripr« ((iven below for printing inks, the onl> intention is to give hints of the genrril composition, and the practical man vD easily discover what« if any, alterabon« have to be made in the Kcipe for l»i* special purpose. Many different materials for this man- ufacture are ^ven in recipes, so mani. in fact, that it is impossible to disnivrr what use they are in the ink. The fol- lowing is a list of the articles rommonl* in use for the manufacture of priotini; ink: Boiled linseed oil, boiled without driers. Rosin oil from the dry distillation (4 rosin. Rosin itself, especially Americaa psix rosin. Digitized by VjOOQ IC INKS 409 •IN sionally ordinary soap. Lampblack and various other pig- men ta. By the most time-honored method, liusced oil was very slowly heated over an opan 6re until it ignited. It was allowed to burn for a time and then ex- tinguished by putting a lid on the pot. In this way a liquid was obtained of a dark brown or olack color with par- ticles of carbon, and with a consistency varying with the period of heating, being thicker, the longer the heating was con- tinued.^ If necessarv, the liquid was then thinned with unboiled, or only verv slightly boiled, linseed oil. Lampblack in the proper quantity was added and the mixture was finally rubbed up on a stone in small quantities at a time to make it uniform. Fn?*<"g the Linseed Oil. — This process, although it goes by the name of Doiline, 1% not so in the proper sense of the word, but a beatinjg; havmg for its object an initial oxidation of the oil, so that it will dry better. Linseed oil is a type of the drving oils, those which when exposed in thm coats to the air absorb large quan- tities of oxygen and are thereby coa- verted into tough, solid sheets having riroperties very similar to those of soft ndia ru bber. The process goes on much faster with the aid of heat than at the or- dinary temperature, and the rate at which the boiled oil will dry in the ink can be exactly regulated by heating it for a longer or shorter time. Prolonged heating gives an oil which will dry very quickly on exposure in thin coats to the air. the shorter the heating the more slowly will the ink afterwards made with the ofl dry. Linseed oil must always be boiled in resaels where it has plenty of room, as the oil soon swells up and it begins to de- compose so energetically at a particular t«^mperature that there is considerable ri%k of its boiling over and catching fire. Various contrivances have been thought out for boiling large quantities of the oil with safety, such as pans with an outlet pipe in the side, through which the oil escapes when it rises too high instead of over the edge of the pan, and fires built on a trolley running on rails, so that they can at once be moved from under the pan if there is any probability of the Utter boiling over. The best apoaratus lor preparing thickened linseed oil is andoabtedly one in which the oil offers a xtry large surface to the air, and on that account requires to be moderately heated only. The oil soon becomes very thick under these conditions and if necessary can be diluted to any required consist- ency with unboiled oil. In boiling linseed oil down to the proper thickness by the old method there are two points demanding special atten- tion. One is the liability of the oil to boil over, and the other consists in the devel- opment of large quantities of vapor, most- ly of acroleine, which have a most power- ful and disagreeable smell, and an intense action upon the eyes. The attendant must be protected from these fumes, and the boiling must therefore be done where there is a strong draught to take the fumes as fast as they are produced. There are various contrivances to cope with boiling over. Savage's Printing Ink. — Pure balsam of copaiba, 9 ounces; lampblack, 3 ounces; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drachms; drachms; Indian red, } ounce; yellow soap, 3 ounces. Mix, and grind to the utmost smoothness. Toning Black Inks. -^Printers' inks consisting solely of purified lampblack and vehicle give, of course, impressions which are pure black. It is, nowever, well known that a black which has to a practiced eye a tinge of blue in it looks much better than a pure black. To make such an ink many makers mix the lampblack with a blue pigment, which is added in very fine powder before the first grinding. Prussian blue is the pigment usually chosen and gives very attractive results. Prussian blue is, however, not a remarkable stable substance, and is very apt to turn brown from the forma- tion of ferric oxide. Hence an ink made with Prussian blue, although it may look very fine at first, often assumes a dull brown hue in the course of time. Ex- cellent substitutes for Prussian blue are to be found in the Induline blues. These are very fast dyes, and inks tinted with them do not change color. As pure in- digo is now made artificially and sold at a reasonable price, this extremely fast dye can also be used for tinting inks made with purified lampblack. To Give Dark Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue. — Dissolve 1} i>ounds gum shellac in 1 gallon 65 per cent alcohol or cologne spirits for 24 hours. Then add 14 ounces aniline red. Let it stand a few hours longer, when it will be ready for use. Add this to good blue, blacK, or other dark ink, as needed in quantities to suit, when if carefully done Digitized by VjOOQ IC 410 INKS tbey will be found to have a rich bronze or changeable hue. Quick Dryer for Inks Used on Book- binders' Cases.— Beeswax, 1 ounce; gum arable (dissolved in sufficient acetic acid to make a thin mucilage), { ounce; brown japan, } ounce. Incorporate with 1 pound of good cut ink. iuks for stamp pads. The ink used on vulcanized rubber stamps should be such that when ap- plied to a suitable pad it remains suffi- ciently fluid to adhere to the stamp. At the same time the fluidity shoulcl cease bv the time the stamp is pressed upon an absorbing surface such as paper. For- merly these inks were made by rubbing up pigments in fat to a paste. Such inks can hardly be prevented, however, from making impressions surrounded by a fretLsy mark caused by the fat spreading in the pores of the paper. Now, most stamping inks are made without grease and a properly prepared stamping ink contains nothing but glvcerine and coal- tar dye. As nearly all these dyes dis- solve in hot jilycerine the process of manufacture is simple enough. The dye, fuchsine, methyl violet, water blue, emerald green, etc., is put into a thin porcelain dish over which concentrated glycerine is poured, and the whole is heated to nearly ^IS"" F. with consUnt stirring. It is important to use no more glycerine than is necessary to keep the dye dissolved when the ink is cold. If the mass turns gritty on cooling it must be heated up with more glycerine till solution is perfect. In deajing with coal-tar d:^es insoluble in glycerine, or nearly so, dissolve them first in the least possible ouantity of strong, hot alcohol. Then add the glyc- erine and heat till the spirit is evapo- rated. To see whether the ink is properly made spread some of it on a strip of cloth and try it with a rubber stamp. On paper, the separate letters must be quite snarp and distinct. If they run at the edges there is too much glycerine in the ink and more dye must be added lo it.^ If, on the contrary, the impres- sion is indistinct and weak, the ink is too thick and must be diluted by carefully adding glycerine. Aniline colors are usually employed as the tinting agents. The following is a typical formula, the product being a black ink: I. — Nigrosin 8 parts Water 16 parts Alcohol 15 parts Glycerine 70 parts Dissolve the nigrosin in the alcohol, add the glycerine previously mixed with the water, and rub well together. Nigrosin is a term appued to several compounds of the same series which differ in solubility. In the place of these compounds it is probable that a mixture would answer to produce black as suggested bv Hans Wilder for making writing ink. His formula for the mil- ture is: II.— Methyl violet S parts Bengal green 6 parts Bismarck green 4 parts A quantity of this mixture should he taken equivalent to the amount of nigTt» sin directed. These colors are frwiy soluble in water, and yield a deep grrtn- ish-black solution. The aniline compound known ms brilliant green answers in place of Beng^J ereen. As to the permanency of culur i»{ this or any aniline ink, no guarantee it offered. There are comparatively fcv coloring substances that can be a^n- sidered permanent even in a qualified sense. Among these, charcoal take« a foremost place. Lampblack remaint indefinitely unaltered. This« groanti ver^ finely with glvcerine, would rirl«l an ink which would perhafM prove Wrv- iceable in stamping; but it would hr liable to rub off to a greater extent thao soluble colors which penetrate the pap«-r more or less. Perhaps caslnr oU would prove a better vehicle for insoluble oJor- ing matters. Almost any aniline ct4%*t may be substituted for nigroain b the foregoing formula, and blue, ipeen, rrd« purple, and other inks obUined. In- soluble pigments might also be made fo answer as suggested for lampblack. The following is said to be a cusihion that will give color permaneiUly. It consists of a box filled with an el««tir composition, saturated with a suilaMr color. The cushion fulfils its purfMMr f»«r years without beinjj^ renewed, always c\»n- tains sufficient moisture, which i» drawn from the atmosphere, and continue* In act as a color stamp cushion so long a» a remnant of the mass or compo«iti« 'H remains in the box or receptacle. Tfai* cushion or pad is too soft to be aeir-*Qp> porting, but should be held in a l«»w, fUt pan, and have a permanent doth oovrr III. — The composition eonsiata perf- erably of 1 part gelatin, 1 part water. 6 parts glvcerine. and 6 parts cx4«inug matter. A suitable black color cma he Digitized by VjOOQ IC INKS 411 made from the following materials : One pftrt gelatin glue, 8 parts lampblack, aniline black, or a suitable quantity of logwood extract, 10 parts of glycerine, 1 part absolute alcohol, 2 parts water, I j>art Venetian soap, i part salicylic sad. For red, blue, or violet: One part Kristin glue, 2 parts aniline of desired rolor, I part absolute alcohol, 10 parts (Hycerine, 1 part Venetian soap, and i part salicylic acid. The following are additional recipes used for this purpose: ly. — Mix and dissolve 2 to 4 drachms Aniline violet, 15 ounces alcohol, 15 ounces glycerine. The solution is poured no the cushion and rubbed in with s brush. The general method of pre- paring the pad is to swell the gelatin with cold water, then boil and add the glycerine, etc. V.—Mix well 16 pounds of hot lin- seed Oil, 8 ounces of powdered indigo, or a like quantity of Berlin blue, and 8 pounds of lampblack. For ordinary M^-stamping an ink without the indigo might be used. ^ By substituting ultra- marine or Prussian blue for the lamp- black, a blue "ink" or paint would rrsult. Inks for Hand Stampa. — As an excip- irni for oily inks, a mixture of castor oil and crude oleic acid, in parts varying according to the coloring material useo, i% admirable. The following are ex- aniplea: Black. — Oil soluble nigrosin and crude olric acid in e<^ual parts. Add 7 to 8 parts of castor oil. Red. — Oil soluble aniline red, 2 parts; crude oleic acid, 3 parts; castor oil, from SO to 60 parts, according to the in- tensity of color desired. Red. — Dissolve J ounce of carmine in i ounces strong water of ammonia, and add 1 drachm of glycerine and } ounce dr&trin. Blue. — Rub 1 ounce Prussian blue with enough water to make a perfectly smooth paite; then add 1 ounce dextrin, incor- porate it wdl, and finally add sufficient water to bring it to the proper consis- tency. Blm^. — Oil soluble aniline blue, 1 part; '^nxde oleic acid, 2 parts; castor oil, 80 to Sie partj. VioUt. — Alcohol, 15 ounces; glycer- ine, 15 ounces; aniline violet, 2 to 4 •irachiDs. Mix, dissolve, pour the solu- tion on the cushion, and dab on with a )irii%h. Color Stamps for Rou^h Paper.— It has hitherto been impossible to get a satisfactory application for printing with rubber stamps on rough paper. Fatty vehicles are necessary for such paper, and they injure the India rubber. It is said, however, that if the rubber is first soaked in a solution of glue, and then in one of tannin, or bichromate of potash, it becomes impervious to the oils or fats. Gum arabic can be substituted for the glue. IndeUble Hand-Stamp Ink.— I. — Copper sulphate 20 parts Aniline chlorate .... 20 parts Rub up separately to a fine powder, then carefull;^ mix, and add 10 parts of dextrin and incorporate. Add 5 parts of glycerine and rub up, adding water, a little at a time, until a homogeneous viscid mass is obtained. An aniline color is produced in the material, which boiling does not destroy. II. — Sodium carbonate . . 22 parts Glycerine 85 parts Gum arabic, in pow- der... 20 parts Silver nitrate 11 parts Ammonia water. ... 20 parts Venetian turpentine 10 parts Triturate the carbonate of sodium, gum arabic, and glycerine together. In a separate flask dissolve the silver nitrate in the ammonia water, mix the solution with the triturate, and heat to boiling, when the turpentine is to be added, witn constant stirring. After stamping, ex- pose to the sunlight or use a not iron. The quantity of glycerine may be varied to suit circumstances. White Stamping Ink for Embroidery. — Zinc white 2 drachms Mucilage 1 drachm Water 6 drachms Triturate the zinc white with a small quantity of water till quite smooth, then add the mucilage and the remainder of the water. STEHciL nncs. I. — Dissolve 1 ounce of gum arabic in 6 ounces water, and strain. This is the mucilage. For Black Color use drop black, powdered, and ground with the mucilage to extreme fineness; for Blue^ ultramarine is used in the same manner; for Oreen, emerald green: for White, flake white; for Red, vermilion, lake, or carmine; for Yellow, chrome vellow. When ground too thick they are thinned Digitized by VjOOQ IC 412 INKS with a little water. Apply with a small brush. II. — Triturate together 1 pint pine soot and 2 pints Prussian blue witti a little glycerine, then add 3 pints gum arable and sufficient glycerine to form a thin paste. Blue Stencil Inks.— The basis of the stencil inks commonly used varies to some extent, some preferring a mixture of pigments with oils, and others a watery shellac basis. The basis: I. — Shellac 2 ounces Borax 1 } ounces Water 10 ounces Boil together until 10 ounces of solu- tion is obtained. The coloring: Prussian blue 1 ounce China clav } ounce Powdered acacia ... } ounce Mix thoroughly and gradually incor- porate the shellac solution. II. — Prussian blue 2 ounces Lampblack 1 ounce Gum arabic 3 ounces Glycerine, sufficient. Triturate together the dry powders and then make into a suitable paste with glycerine. Indelible Stencil Inks.— I.— Varnish such as is used for ordinary printing ink, 1 pound; black sulphuret of mercury, 1 pound; nitrate of silver, 1 ounce; sul- phate of iron, 1 ounce; lampblack, 2 tablespoonfuls. Grind all well together; thin with spirits turpentine as desired. II. — Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; lampblack, 1 part; sugar, 4 parts; all in fine powder and triturated to a paste in a little water. III. — Nitrate of silver, } ounce; water, ) ounce. Dissolve, add as much of the strongest liquor of ammonia as will dissolve the precipitate formed on its first addition. Then add of mucilage, 14 drachms, and a little sap green, syrup of buckthorn, or finely powdered indif^o, to color. This turns black on being held near the fire, or touched with a hot " iron. SYBfPATHETIC INKS: Table of Substances Used in Uaking Sympathetic Inks.— For writing and for bringing out the writing: Cobalt chloride, heat. Cobalt acetate and a little saltpeter, heat. Cobalt chloride and nickel rhlonil<' mixed, heat. Nitric acid, heat Sulphuric acid. heat. Sooium chloride, heat. Saltpeter, heat. Copper sulphate and ammonium chloride, heat. Silver nitrate, sunlight. Gold trichloride, sunlight. Ferric sulphate, infusion of gallnuto or ferrocyanide of potassium. Copper sulphate, ferrocyanide of potassium. Lead vinegar, hydrogen sulphide. Mercuric nitrate, hydrogen sttlphii potassium iodide), the writing beron^'-* blue, and disappears under the BcU»n of a solution of hyposulphite of i***'-^ (1 in 1,000). II. — Characters written with a »'aL solution of the soluble chloride of pl'i' num or iridium become black when iU paper is submitted to mercurial Tsp»r This ink ma^ l>e used for marking linrr. as it is indelible. III. — Sulphate of copper in very dilut<' solution will produce an invisible writini; which may be turned light blue by v«jM»r» of ammonia. IV. — Soluble compounds of antiin«'p» will become red by hydrogen sulphttlr vapor. V. — Soluble compounds of arv * and of peroxide of tin will become yril«>« by the same vapor. VI, — An acid solution of iron rhio- *' is dOuted until the writing it inu« • ' when dry. This writing has the iirt>p- erty of becoming red by sulphtKT&nii)' vapors (arising from the action ^4 *'*• phuric acid on potassium sulphocTsn - in a long-necked flasks and it dinp(M^>*' Digitized by VjOOQ IC INKS 41S by ammonia, and may alternately be made to appear and disappear by these two vapors. VII. — Write with a solution of paraf- 6ne in benzol. When the solvent has fvaporated, the paraffine is invisible, but becomes visible on being dusted with lampblack or powdered graphite or »moldng over a candle flame. VIII. — Dissolve 1 part of a lead salt, 0.1 part of uranium acetate, and the same quantity of bismuth citrate in 100 parts of water. Then add, drop by drop, a itulution of sal ammoniac until the whole becomes transparent. Afterwards, mix with a few drops of gum arabic. To reveal the characters traced with this ink, expose them to the fumes of sulphuric acid, which turns them immediately to a dark brown. The characters fade away ID a few minutes, but can be renewed by a slight washing with very dilute nitric acid. TYPEWRITER RIBBON INKS. I. — Take vaseline (petrolatum) of high boiling point, melt it on a water bath or .%l<)w fire, and incorporate by constant utirring as much lamp or powdered drop black as it will take up without becom- ing granular. If the vaseline Remains in excess, the print is liable to have a freasy outline; if the color is in excess, the print will not be clear. Remove the mixture from the fire, and while it is cooling mix equal parts of petroleuxn, lienzine, and rectified oil of turpentine, in which dissolve the fatty ink, introduced in small portions, by constant agitation. The volatile solvents should be in such (quantity that the fluid ink is of the con- sistence of fresh oil paint. One secret of success lies in the proper application of the ink to the ribbon. Wind the ribbon on a piece of cardboard, spread on a table several lavers of newspaper, then unwind the riboon in such lengths as may be most convenient, and lav it flat on the paper. Apply the ink, after agi- tation, Dv means of a soft brush, and rub it well into the interstices of the rib- Ihih with a toothbrush. Hardly any ink ihould remain vi.<}ible on the surface. For colored inks use Prussian blue, red lead, etc., and especially the aniline colors. n. — Aniline black } ounce Pure alcohol 15 ounces Concentrated glycer- ine 15 ounces Dissolve the aniline black in the alco- hol, and add the glycerine. Ink as be- fore. The aniline inks containing glyc- erine are copying inks. III. — Alcohol 2 ounces Aniline color { ounce Water 2 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol and add the water and glycerine. IV. — Castor oil 2 ounces Cassia oil } ounce Carbolic acid } ounce Warm them together and add 1 ounce of aniline color. Iqdelible typewriter inks may be made by using lampblack in place of the aniline, mixing it with soft petrolatum and dissolving the cooled mass in a mixture of equal parts of ben- zine and turpentine. COLORING AGENTS: Red.— I. — Bordeaux red, O. S. 15 parts Aniline red, O. S. . . . 15 parts Crude oleic acid .... 45 parts Castor oil enough to make 1,000 parts Rub the colors up with the oleic acid, add the oil, warming the whole to 100^' to 110° F. (not higher), under constant stirring. If the color is not sufliciently intense for your purposes, rub up a trifle more of it with oleic acid, and add it to the ink. By a little experimentation you can get an ink exactly to your desire in the matter. Blue-Black.— II. — Aniline black, O. S.. 5 parts Oleic acid, crude 5 parts Castor oil, quantity sufficient to 100 parts. Violet.— III. — Aniline violet, O. S.. 8 parts Crude oleic acid .... 5 parts Castor oil, quantity sufficient to 100 parts. The penetration of the ink ^ may be increased ad libit um by the addition of a few drops of absolute alcohol, or, better, of benzol. Reinking. — For rcinking ribbons use the following recipe for black: One ounce aniline black; 15 ounces pure grain alcohol; 15 ounces concentrated glyc- erine. Dissolve the aniline black in the alcohol and then add the glycerine. For blue use Prussian blue, and for red use red lead instead of the aniline black. This ink is also good for rubber stamp pads. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 414 INKS WRITING IHKS. The common writing fluids de(>end mostly upon galls, logwood, or aniline for coloring. There are literally thou- sands of formulas. A few of the most re- liable have been gathered together here: I. — Aleppo galls (well bruised), 4 ounces; clean soft water, 1 quart; mac- erate in a clean corked bottle for 10 days or a fortnight or longer, with fre- quent agitation; then add of gum arabic (dissolved in a wineglassful of water), 1} ounces; lump sugar, } ounce. Mix well, and afterwards further add of sulphate of iron (green copperas crushed small), 1} ounces. Agitate occasionally for 2 or 8 days, when the ink may be decanted for use, but is better if the whole is left to digest together for 2 or 3 weeks. When time is an object, the whole of the ingredients may at once be put into a bottle, and the latter agitated daily until the ink is made; and Boiling water instead of cold water may be em- ployed. Product, 1 quart of excellent ink, writinff pale at first, but soon turn- ing intensely black. II. — Aleppo galls (bruised), 12 pounds; soft water, 6 gallons. Boil in a copper vessel for 1 hour, adding more water to make up for the portion lost bv evap- oration; strain, ana again boil the gaHs with water, 4 gallons, for ) hour; strain off the liquor, and boil a third time with water, 2} gallons, and strain. Mix the several liquors, and while still hot add of green copperas (coarselv pow- dered), 4} pounds; gum arabic (oruiscd small), 4 pounds. Agitate until dis- solved, and after defecation strain through a hair sieve, and keep in a bunged cask for use. Product, 12 gallons. III. — Aleppo galls (bruised), 14 pounds; gum, 5 pounds. ^ Put them in a small cask, and add boiling soft water, 15 gallons. Allow the whole to macer- ate, with frequent agitation, for a fort- night, then further add of green cop- peras, 5 pounds, dissolved in water, 7 pints. Again mix well, and agitate the whole once daily for 2 or 3 weeks. , Prod- uct, 15 gallons. Brown Ink.— I.— To make brown ink, use for coloring a strong decoction of catechu; the shade may be varied by the cautious addition of a little weak solution of bichromate of potash. II. — A strong decoction of logwood, with a very little bichromate of potash. Blue Ink.— To make blue ink, sub- stitute for the black coloring sulphate of indigo and dilute it with water till it pro- duces the required color. Anticorrotive or Asiatic Ink.— I.— Galls, 4 pounds; logwood, 2 oonnds; pomegranate peel, 2 pounds; soft water, 5 gallons. Boil as usual; then add lu the strained, decanted cold liquor, 1 pound of gum arabic, lump suiBar or i candy, J pound; dissolved in water, 3 pints. Product, 4} gallons. Writes pale, out flows well from the pen« and aoon darkens. II. — Bruised galls, 14 pounds; ^m. 5 pounds. Put them in a small rasL, and add of boiling water, 15 ^llou^ Allow the whole to macerate, with fre- quent agitation, for 2 weeks, thm further add green copperas, 5 pounds, dissolved in 7 pints water. Again mix well, and agitate the whole daily for 2 nr 3 weeks. Blue-Black Ink.— Blue Aleppo galU (free from insect perforations), 4 i ouD«*r«. bruised cloves, 1 drachm; cold wstrr. 40 ounces; purified sulphate of imo. 1) ounces; pure sulphuric acid «l»y measure), 85 minims; sulphate of in- digo (in the form of a paste), which should be neutral, or nearly so, 1 onnc^. The weights used are avoirdupois, and the measures apothecaries*. Place the galls, then bruised with the cloves, in a 50-ounce bottle, pour upon them the water, and digest, often daily shaking for a fortnight Then filter through paper in another 50-ounce bottle. Ct«*i out also the refuse galls, and wring out of it the remaining liquid through a strong, clean linen or cotton doth, into the filter, in order that aa little as poaaiUIr may be lost. Next put in the iron, dis- solve completelv, and filter through paper. Then tne acid, and aintatr briskly. Lastly, the indigo, and tk«»r> oughly mix by shaking. Pass the wh«*lr through paper; just filter out of onr Im»C- tie into another until the opctmtiun i« finished. Note. — No gum or sugar is proprr and on no account must the aHti br omitted. When intended for «»pying. 5) ounces of galls is the Quantity. On the large scale this fine ina Im nimcJe b* percolation. Colored Inks.— Inks of varioua rtf4«*r« may be made from a strong decoclihuric acid, 66^ B. 10.5 parts Aniline blue 1 .5 parts Carbolic acid 0.5 parts Mirobalan extract to make 1,000 parts. This ink when first used has a bluish tint, afterwards becoming black. ASzarioe Green. — In 100 parts of aquetms extract of gall apples dissolve: Iron sulphate 80 parts Copper sulphate 0.5 parts Sulpnuric acid 2 parts Sugar. . 8 parts Wood vinegar, recti- fied 50 parts Indigo carmine 30 parts Copying Ink for Copying Without a Press. — An ordinary thm-paper copying book may be iised, and the copying done by transferrence. It is only necessary to place the page of writing m the letter book, just as one would use a leaf of blot- ting paper. The superfluous ink that would go into the blotting paper ffoes on to the leaf of the letter book, and show- ing through the thin paper gives on the otner side of the leaf a perfect transcript of the letter. Any excess of ink on the page, either of the letter or of the copy- ing paper, is removed by placing a sheet of Diotting paper between them, and run- ning one's nand firmly over the whole in the ordinary manner. This ready tran- scription is accomplished by using ink which dries slowly. Obviously the ink must dry sufficiently slowly for the characters at the top of a pa^e of writing to remain wet when the last line is being written, while it must dry sufficiently to preclude any chance of the copied page beinff smeared while subsequent pages are oeing covered. The drying must also be sufficiently rapid to prevent the characters "setting off," as printers term it, from one page on to another after folding. The formula for the requisite ink is very simple: Reduce by evaporation 10 volumes of any good ink to 6, then add 4 volumes of glycerine. Or manufacture some ink of nearly double strength, and add to any Siiantity of it nearly an equal volume of ^ ycerine. Gold Ink. — Mosaic gold, 2 parts; gum * arabic, 1 part; rubbed up to a proper condition. Green Ink. — A good, bright green, aniline ink may be made as follows: Aniline green (solu- ble) 2 parts Glycerine 16 parts Alcohol 112 parts Mucilage of gum ara- bic 4 parts Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol, and add the other ingredients. Most of the gum arabic precipitates, but according to the author of the formula (Nelson) it has the effect of rendering the ink slow- flowing enough to write with. Filter. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 416 INKS Hectograph Inks (see also Hectograph). — I.— BUck.— Methyl violet, 10 parts; nigrosin, «0 parts; glycerine, 30 parts; gum arable, 5 parts; alcohol, 60 parts. II.--Bliie.— Resorcin blue M, 10 parts. Dissolve by means of heat in a mix- ture of: Dilute acetic acid ... 1 part Distilled water 85 parts Glycerine 4 parts Alcohol, 00 per cent . . 10 parts III. —Green. — Aniline green, water solution, 15 parts; glycerine, 10 parts; Water, 50 parts; alcohol, 10 parts. Paste Ink to Write with Water.— I.— Black. ^Take 4 parts of bichromate of potash, pulverized, and mixed with 25 parts of acetic acid; 50 parts of liquid extract of logwood; } part of picric acid; 10 parts of pulverized sal sorrel; 10 parts of mucilage; and i P^rt of citrate of iron, and mix well. Tne liquid extract of logwood is prepared by mixing 3 parts of an extract of common commercial qual- ity with 2 parts of water. n.— Red. — Take 1 part of red aniline mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid; 5 parts of citric acid, and 25 parts of mucilage, all well mixed. For use, mix 1 part of the paste with 16 parts of water. III.— Blue.— Take 2 parts of aniline blue mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid; 5 parts of citric acid, and 40 parts of mucilage, all well mixed. For use, mix 1 part of the paste with 8 parts of water. IV.— Violet.— Use the same ingre- dients in the same proportions as blue, with the difference tnat violet aniline is used instead of blue aniline. v.— Green.— Take 1 part of aniline bl»!*; 3 parts of picric acid, mixed with ^ 10 parts of acetic acid; 8 parts of citric *acid, and 80 parts of mucilage. For use, 1 part of this paste is mix^ with 8 parts of water. VI.-<:opying.— Take 6 parts of pul- venzed bichromate of potash, mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid and 240 parts of liquid extract of logwood, and add a pulverized mixture of 35 partd of alum, 20 parts of sal sorrel, and 20 parts mucilage. Mix well. For use, 1 part of this paste is mixed with 4 parts of hot water. Purple Ink. — I. — A strong decoction of lo((wood. to which a little alum or chloride of tin has been added. II. (Normandy). —To 12 pounds of Campeachy wood add as many gallons of boiling water. Four the solutioii through a funnel with a strainer made of coarse flannel, or 1 pound of hydrate, or acetate of deutoxiae of copper finely powdered (having at the bottom of the funnel a piece of sponge); then add immediately 14 pounds of alum, and for every 340 gallons of liquid add M) pounds of gum arable or gum Senegal. Let these remain for 3 or 4 days, and « beautiful purple color wOl be produced. Red Ink. ^-Brazil wood, ground. 4 ounces; white wine vinegar, hot, 1 1 ptot^ Digest in a glass or a well-tinned copper or enamel saucepan, until the next daj; then gently simmer for half an hour, adding toward the end gum arable and alum, of each, } ounce. Inks for Shading Pen.— The essrntidl feature in the ink for use with a shading pen is simply the addition of a sufficient quantity of acacia or other mucilaginous substance to impart a proper degree of consistency to the ink. A mixture of i parts of mucilage of acacia with 8 of ink ffives about the required consistencT. The following formulas will probably be found useful: I. — Water-soluble nigro- sin I part Water 9 parts Mucilage acacia. ... I part II.— Paris violet 2 parts Water 6 parts Mucilage acacia. ... 2 parts III.— Methvl violet I part Distilled water 7 parts Mucilage acacia. ... 2 parts IV. — Bordeaux red 3 parts Alcohol 2 parts Water 20 parts Mucilage acacia. ... 2 parts V. — Rosaniline acetate . . 2 parts Alcohol 1 part Water 10 part* Mucilage acacia .... 2 partt Silver Ink. — I, — Triturate in « morttr equal parts of silver foil and sulphate <*f potassa, until reduced to a fine povdrr: then wash the salt out, and mix the rr^i- due with a mucilage of equal parts »«f gum arable water. II.— Make as gold ink. but use «il*er leaf or silver bronae powder. III.— Oxide of sine 30 grains Mucilage 1 ounce Spirit of wine 40 drops Suver bronxe 3 drachm'* Rub together, until perfectly smmu).. Digitized by VjOOQ IC INKS— INSECT srrEs 417 the cine and mucilage, then add the spirit of wine and silver bronze and make up the quantity to 2 ounces with water. Violet Ink.— I.— For 2 gallons, heat i ^Is of alcohol on a water bath. Add to the alcohol 2 ounces of violet aniline, and stir till dissolved; then add the mix- ture to 2 gallons of boiling water; mix well, and it is ready for use. Smaller quantities in proportion. II.— Another good violet ink is made hy dissolving some violet aniline in water to which some alcohol has been added. It takes very little aniline to make a large quantity of the ink. White Ink (for other White Inks see Blueprint Inks).— So-called white inks are, properly speaking, white paints, as a white solution cannot be made. A paint 5uitable for use as an "ink" may be made by grinding zinc oxide very fine on a slab with a UtUe tragacanth mucilage, and then thinning to the required consistency to flow from the pen. The mixture re- nuires shaking or stirring from time to time to keep the pigment from separating. The "ink" may te preserved by adding a little oil of cloves or other antiseptic to prevent decomposition of the mucilage. White marks mav sometimes be made on colored papers by the application of acids or alkalies. The result, of course, depends on the nature of the coloring matter in each instance, and any "ink' of this kind would be efficacious or other- wise, according to the coloring present in the paper. Yellow Ink. — I. — Gamboge (in coarse powder), 1 ounce; hot water, 5 ounces. Diiitsolve, and when cold, add of spirit, I ounce. II. — Boil French berries, J pound, and alum, 1 ounce, in rain water, 1 quart, for \ an hour, or longer, then strain and dissolve in the hot liquor gum arabic, 1 ounce. Waterproof Ink (see also Indelible Inks).— Any ordinary ink majr be made waterproof by mixing with it a little ordinary glue. After waterproofing ink in this way it is possible to wash draw- ings with soap and water, if necessary, without the ink running at all. White Stamping Ink.— Zinc white 2 drachms White precipitate .... 5 grains Mucilage 1 drachm Water 0 drachms Triturate the zinc white with a small quantity of water till quite smooth, then add the mucilage and the remainder of the water. mK FOR THE LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations. INK FOR LEATHER FINISHERS: See Leather. INKS FOR TYPEWRITERS: Sec Typewriter Ribbons. INK FOR WRITING ON GLASS: See Etching and -Glass. INK GUM REMEDY: See Rust Preventives. INLAYING BY ELECTROLYSIS. See also Electro-etching, under Etching. The process consists in engraving the design oy means of the sand-blast and stencils on the surface of the article. The design or pattern is rendered con- ductive and upon this conductive surface a precipitate of gold, silver, platinum, etc., is applied, and fills up the hollows. Subsequently the surface is ground smooth. Insect Bites REMEDIES FOR INSECT BITES. I. — Carbolic acid 15 grains Glycerine 2 drachms Rose water 4 ounces II. — Salicylic acid 15 grains Collodion 2) drachms Spirit of ammonia . . 5} drachms HI. — Fluid extract rhus* toxicodendron.... 1 drachm Water 8 ounces IV. — Ipecac, in powder.. 1 drachm Alcohol 1 ounce Ether 1 ounce v.— Betanaphthol 30 grains Camphor . . 30 grains Lanolin cold cream . 1 ounce VI. — Spirit of sal ammoniac, whose favorable action upon fresh insect bites is universally known, is often unavail- able. A simple means to alleviate the pain and swelling due to such bites, when still fresh, is cigar ashes. Place a little ashes upon the part stung, add a drop of water — in case of need beer, wine, or cof- fee may be used instead— and rub the resulting paste thoroughly into the skin. It is preierable to use fresh ashes of tobacco, because the recent heat offers sufficient guarantee for absolute freedom from impurities. The action of the to- bacco ashes is due to the presence of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 418 INSECTICroES potassium carbonate, which, like spirit of sal ammoniac, deadens the effect of the small quantities of acid (formic acid, etc.) which have been introduced into the small wound by the biting insect. Insecticides (See also Petroleum.) The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas for Exterminating Houa.ehold Insects.— Re- cent successful applications of hydro- cyanic acid ^as for the extermination of insects infecting greenhouse plants have suggested the use of the same remedy for household pests. It is now an established fact that 1} grains of 08 per cent pure cyanide of potassium volatilized in a cubic foot of space, will, if allowed to remain for a period of not less than 3 hours, kill all roaches and similar in- sects. It may be stated that a dwelling, office, warehouse, or any building may be economicallv cleared of all pests, provided that the local conditions will permit the use of this gas. It probably would be dangerous to fumigate a building where groceries, dried fruits, meats, or prepared food materials of any kind are stored. Air containing more than 25 per cent of the gas is inflam- mable: therefore it would be well to put out all fire in an inclosure before fumi- gating. Hydrocyanic acid, in all its forms, is one of the most violent poisons known, and no neglect should attend its use. There is probably no sure remedy for its effects after it has once entered the blood of any of the higher animals. When cyanide of potassium is being used it should never be allowed to come in contact with the skin, and even a slight odor of the gas should be avoided. Should the operator have any cut or break in the skin of the hands or face it should be carefully covered with court- plaster to prevent the gas coming in con- tact with the flesh, or a small particle of the solid compound getting into the cut might cause death by poisoning in a few minutes' time. Hydrocyanic acid gas should not be used in closely built apartments with single walls between, as more or less of the gas will penetrate a brick wall. An inexpe- rienced person should never use cyanide of potassium for any purpose, and if it be found practicable to treat buildings in general for the extermination of insects, the work should be done only under the direction of competent officials. Ex- periments have shown that a smaller dose and a shorter period of exposure arc required to kill mice than for roaches aniJ household insects generally, and it read- ily follows that the larger animals and human beings would be more quickly overcome than mice, since a smaller supply of pure air would be required to sustain life in mice, and small openings are more numerous than large ones. The materials employed and the meth- od of procedure are as follows: After ascertaining the cubic content of the inclosure, provide a glass or stoneware (not metal) vessel of 2 to 4 gallons capiir- ity for each 5,000 cubic feet of sjmce to be fumigated. Distribute the jars ac- cording to the space, and run a smooth cord from each jar to a common point near an outside door where they may all be fastened; support the cord above the jar by means of the back of a chair or other convenient object in such a position that when the load of cvanide ot potsv Slum is attached it will hang directJT over the center of the iar. Next weijcfa out upon a piece of soft paper about IT ounces of 98 per cent pure cyanide of potassium, using a large pair of forcep* tor handling the lumps; wrap up sod place in a paper bag and tie to the end of the cord over the jar. After the load for each jar has been similarly provided, it is well to test the working of the cords to see that they do not catch or bind. Then remove the jar a short distance from under the load of cyanide and place in it a little more than a quart of water, to which slowly add I J pints of commer- cial sulphuric acid, stirring freely. The action of the acid will bring the temper- ature of the combination almost to the boiling point. Replace the iars l>encath the baes of cyaniae, spreAding a largv sheet of heavy paper on the floor to catch any acid that may possibly fly over the edge of the jar when the cyanide i» dropped, or as a result of the violent chemical action which follows. Clo*r all outside openings and open up the interior of the apartment as much m possible, in order that the full strength of the {^as may reach the hiding places of the insects. See that all entrances are locked or guarded on the outside to pre- vent persons entering: then leave the building, releasing the cords as you r* The gas will all be given off in a fc« minutes, and should remain in the building at least S hours. When the sulphuric acid comes in contact with the cyanide of potA%«uin the result is the formation of sulphate i>f potash, which remains in the jar. and thr hydrocyanic acid is liberated and n- Digitized by VjOOQ IC INSECTICIDES 419 capes into the air. The chemical action is M> violent as to cause a sputterinff, and frequently particles of the acia are thrown over the sides of the jar; this may be prevented by supporting a sheet of stiff paper over the jar by means of a hole in the center, through which the cord supporting the cvanide of potassium is passed, so Uiat wnen the cord is re- leased the paper will descend with the cvanide ana remain at rest on the top of tfie jar, but will not prevent the easv descent of the cyanide into the acicl. The weight of this paper will in no way interfere with the escape of the ^as. At the end of the time required for fumigation, the windows and doors should be opened from the outside and the gas allowed to escape before anyone enters the building. A general cleaning should follow, as the insects leave their hiding places and, dyinff on the floors, are easuy swept up and burned. The sulphate of potash remaining in the jars is poisonous and should be immediately buried and the jars themselves filled with earth or ashes. No food that has remained during fumigation should be used, and thorough ventilation should be maintained for several hours. After one of these experiments it was noted that ice water wiiich had remained in a closed cooler had taken up the gas, and had both the odor and taste of cyanide. For dwellings one fumigation each J ear would be sufficient, but for storage ouses it may be necessary to make an application everv 8 or 4 months to keep them entirely free from insect pests. The cost of materials for one application is about 50 cents for each 5,000 cubic feet of space to be treated. The cyanide of potassium can be purchased at about S5 cents per pound, and the commercial sulphuric acid at about 4 cents per pound. The strength of the dose may be in- creased and the time of exposure some- what shortened, but this mcreases the cost and does not do the work so thor- oughly. In no case, however, should the dose remain less than 1 hour. The application of this method of rontxollini^ household insects and pests generally is to be found in checking the aest to use; unlike a powder, or even a paste, it will follow down a crack into remote places where bugs hide, and will prevent their escape, and it will also kill the eggs and nits. The following sub- stances are the most employed, and are probably the best: Kerosene, turpentine, benzine, carbolic acid, corrosive subli- nMte solution, oil pennyroyal, and strong solution of soap. Here are several good formulas that can be depended upon: I. — Oil of pennyroyal ... 1 drachm Turpentine.^ 8 ounces Kerosene oil, enough to make 1 gallon. Put up in 8-ounce botties as a bedbug exterminator. O. — Oil of eucalyptus .. . 1 drachm Eucalyptus leaves... 1 ounce Benzine. 2 ounces Turpentine 2 ounces Kerosene enough to make 16 ounces. Mix the turpentine, benzine, and kerosene oil, and macerate the eucalyp- tus leaves in it for 24 hours; then strain and make up the measure to 1 pint, hav- ing 6r8t added the oil of eucalyptus. FLY-KILLERS. A fly poison that is harmless to man may be made from quassia wood as fol- lows: Quassia 1,000 parts Molasses 150 parts Alcohol 60 parts Water 6,750 parts Macerate the quassia in 500 parts of water for 24 hours, boil for half an hour, set aside for 24 hours, then press out the liquid. Mix this with the molasses and evaporate to 200 parts. Add the alcohol and the remaining 750 parts of water, and without filtering, saturate absorbent paper with it. This being set out on a plate with a little water attracts the flies, which are kUled by partaking of the liquid. Sticky Preparations. — I. — Rosin. 150 parts Linseed oO 60 parts Honey 18 parts Melt the rosin and oil together and stir in the honey. II. — Rapeseed oil 70 parts Rosin SO parts Mix and melt together. III. — Rosin 60 parts Linseed oil S8 parts Yellow wax 2 parts IV.— Rosin. 10 parts Turpentine 6 parts Rapeseed oil 6 parts Honey 1 part Sprinkling Powders for Flies. — I. — liong peppers, pow- derea 6 parts Quassia wood, pow- dered 6 parts Sugar, powdered .... 10 parts Mix, moisten the mixture with 4 parts of alcohol, dry, and again powder. Aeep the powder in closely stoppered jars, tak- ing out a sufficient quantity as desired. II. — Orris root, powdered 4 parts Starch, powdered 15 parts Eucalyptol 1 part Mix. Keep in a closely stoppered jar or box. Strew in places affected by flies. Fly Essences. — I.— Eucalyptol 10 parts Bergamot oil 3 parts Acetic ether 10 parts Cologne water 50 parts Alconol, 90 per cent. 100 parts Mix. One part of this "essence" is Digitized by VjOOQ IC 422 INSECTICIDES to be added to 10 parts of water and sprayed around the rooms frequently. II. — Eucalyptol 10 parts Acetic ether 5 parts Cologne water 40 parts Tincture of insect powder (1 :5) 50 parts REMEDIES AGAmST HUMAN PARA- SITES: By weight I. — Yellow wax 85 parts Spermaceti 60 parts Sweet oil 500 parts Melt and add: Boiling distilled water 150 parts After cooling add: Clove oil 2 parts Thyme oil S parts Eucalyptus oil ... . 4 parts II. — Bay oil, pressed . . . 100 parts Acetic etner 12 parts Clove oil 4 parts Eucalyptus oil 3 parts For Head Lice in Children. —One of the best remedies is a vinegar of sabadilla. This is prepared as follows: Sabadilla seed, 5 parts; alcohol, 5 parts; acetic acid, 0 parts; and water, 36 parts. Macerate for 3 days, express and niter. The direc- tions are: Moisten the scalp and hair thoroughly at bedtime, binding a cloth around the head, and let remain over- night. If there are any sore spots on the scalp, these should be well greased l)e- fore applying the vinegar. To Exterminate Mites. —Mix together 10 parts of naphthalene, 10 parts of phenic acid, 5 parts of camphor, 5 parts of lemon oil, 2 parts of thyme oil, 2 parts of oil of lavender, and 2 parts of the oil of juniper, in 500 parts of pure alcohol. Vermin Killer.— Sabadilla, powder.. 2 av. ounces Acetic acid J fluidounce Wood alcohol 2 fluidounces Water sufficient to make 16 fluid ounces. Mix the acetic acid with 14 fluidounces of water and boil the sabadilla in this mixture for 5 to 10 minutes, and when nearlv cold add the alcohol, let stand, and decant the clear solution and bottle. Directions: Shake the bottle and apply to the affected parts night and morning. nfSEcnciBEs for plants. Two formulas for insecticides with especial reference to vermin which attack plants: I. —Kerosene 2 gallons Common soap } pound Water 1 gallo,, Heat the solution of soap, add it boil- ing hot to the kerosene and chum until it forms a perfect emulsion. For une upon scale insects it is diluted with 9 parts of water; upon other ordinary insects with 15 parts of water, and upon soft insects, like plant lice, with from ^ to 25 parts of water. For lice, etc., which attack the roots of vines and trees the following is recom- mended: II. — Caustic soda 5 pounds Rosin 40 pounds Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soda in 4 ffallons of water, bv the aid of heat, add the rosin and after it is dissolved and while boiling add. slowly, enough water to make 50 gallons. For use, 1 part of this mixture is diluted with 10 parts of water and about 5 gal- lons of the product poured into a depres- sion near the root of the vine or tree. For Cochineal Insects.— An emulsion for fumagine (malady of orange trfw caused by the cochineal insect) and olbrr diseases caused by insects is as follows: Dissolve, hot, 4 parts of black soap in 15 parts of hot water. Let cool to 104** F., and pour in 10 parts of ordinanr petroleum, shaking vigorously. Thu« an emulsion of eafe au lait color is ok tained, which may be preserved in- definitely. For employment, each part of the emulsion is diluted, according to circumstances, with from 10 to 20 parts of water. For 'Locusts.— Much trouble is ei- perienced in the Transvaal and Natal with locust pests, the remedies used being either a soap spray, containing I pound ordinary household soap in 5 gallons of water, or arsenite of soda, the latter being issued bv the government for the purpose, and also used for the de^ struction of prickly pear, and as a basU of tick dips. A solution of 1 pound in 10 gallons of water is employed for full- grown insects, and of 1 pound in 20 gallons of water for newly hatcfafcJ one»» 1 pound of su^ar being' added to each pound of arsenite dissolved. The solu< tion sometimes causes sores on the skin, and the natives employed in its use are given grease to rub over themselvea as a measure of protection. An advantage of the arsenite solution over soap is that much less lic^uid need be used. A composition for the destrncttao of pear blignt, which has been patented in Digitized by VjOOQ IC INSECTICIDES 428 the United States, is as follows: Pepper- mint oil, 16 parts; ammonia water, 60 parts; calomel, 30 parts; and linseed oil, 1,000 parts. For Moths and Caterpillars. — I.— Venice turpentine 200 parts Rosin 1,000 parts Turpentine 140 parts Tar 80 parts Lard 500 parts Rape oil 240 parts Taflow ..^OO parts II.— Rosin 50 parts Lard 40 parts Stearine oil 40 parts For Non-liasticatinfi; Insects. — For protection against all n on- masticating and many mandibulate insects, kerosene oil is much used. It is exhibited in the form of emulsion, which may be made as follows: Kerosene 2 gallons Common soap 8 ounces Water 1 gallon Dissolve the soap in the water by the aid of heat, bring to the boiling point, and add the kerosene in portions, agitat- ing well after each addition. This is conveniently done b^ means of the pump to be used for spraymg the mixture. For Scale Insects. — For destroying Arjile insects dilute the cochineal emul- sion (see above) with 9 times its volume i>f water; in the case of most others, ex- cept lice, dilute with 14 volumes, and for the latter with 20 to 25 volumes. For the extermination of scale insects, resinous preparations are also em- ployed, which kill by covering them with an impervious coating. Such a wash may be made as follows: Rosin Si pounds Caustic soda 1 pound Fish oil 8 ounces Water 20 gallons Boil the rosin, soda, and oil with a A mall portion of the water, adding the remainder as solution is effected. For the San Jos6 scale a stronger prepA ration is required, the proportion of water being decreased by half, but such a solution is applied only when the tree is dormant. Scsde Insects on Orange Trees.— Scale inject enemies of orange trees are direct- ly controlled in two ways: (1) By spray- \\\g the infested trees with some liquid rn-^edicide, and (2) by subjecting them to the fumes of hydrocyanic acid gas, com- monly designated as "gassing." The latter method is claimed to be the most effective means known of destrovine scale insects. In practice the methoa con- sists in closing a tree at night with a tent and filling the latter with the poisonous fumes generated by treating refined potassiuna cyanide (98 per cent) with commercial sulphuric acid (66 per cent) and water. Tne treatment should con- tinue from 80 to 40 minutes, the longer time beinff preferable. The^ work is done at nignt to avoid the scalding which follows day applications, at least in bright sunshine. The oily washes are said to be the best for the use by the spraying method. "Kerosene emulsion" is a type of these washes. A formula published by the United States Department of Agricul- ture follows: Kerosene, 2 gallons; whale- oil soap, i pound; water, 1 gallon. The soap is dissolved in hot water, the kero- sene added, and the whole thoroughly emulsified by means of a power pump until a rather heavy, creamy emulsion is Eroduced. The Quantity of soap ma^ e increased if desired. The insecti- cide is applied by spraying the infected tree with an ordinary force pump with spraying nozzle. Coating Against the Plant Louse.— (a) — Mix 75 parts of green soap, 50 Earts of linseed oil, and 25 parts of car- olic acid. Afterwards mix the mass with 15,000 parts of water. (6) Mix 4 parts of carbolic acid with 100 parts water glass. Louse Washes. — Unslaked lime 18 parts Sulphur 9 parts Salt 6.75 parts Mix as follows: A fourth part of the lime is slaked and boiled for } of an hour with the sulphur in 22.6 parts of water. The remainaer of the lime is then slaked and added with the salt to the hot mix- ture. The whole is burned for another half hour or an hour, and then diluted to 358 parts. The fluid is applied luke- warm when the plants are not in active growth. For Slugs on Roses. — Powdered pyrethrum. 8 ounces Powdered colocynth. . 4 ounces Powdered hellebore . . 16 ounces Flea Powder. — Naphthalene 4 ounces Talcum 10 ounces Tobacco dust 2 ounces Digitized by VjOOQ IC 424 INSECT POWDERS To Keep Flaxseed Free from Buss.— As a container use a tin can with a close- fitting top. At the bottom of the can place a small vial of chloroform with a loose-fitting cork stopper. Then pour the flaxseed, whole or ground, into the can, covering the vial. Enough of the chloroform will escape from the vial to kill such in.sect8 as infest the flaxseed. INSECT POWDERS. Pyrethrum, whale oil (in the form of soap), fish oil (in the form of soap), soft soap, paraffine, Prussic acid, Paris green, white lead, sulphur, carbon bisulphide, acorus calamus, camphor, Cayenne pepper, tobacco, snuff, asafetida, white nellebore, eucalyptoK quassia, borax, acetic ether are most important substances used as insecticides, alone, or in combi- nation of two or more of them. The Prussic add and Paris ^reen are dan- gerous poisons and require to be used with extreme care: Insect powder is used for all small in- sects and as a destroyer of roaches. The observations of some experimenters seem to show that the poisonous principle of these flowers is non-volatile, but the most favorable conditions under which to use them are in a room tightly closed and well warmed. There may be two poisonous principles, one of which is vola- tile. Disappointment sometimes arises in their use from getting powder either adulterated, or which has been exposed to the air and consequently lost some of its efficiency. The dust resulting from the use of insect powder sometimes proves irri- tating to the mucous membranes of the one appl vine the powder. This is best avoided oy tne use of a spray atomizer. Persistence in the use of any means is an important element in the work of destroying insects. A j^ven poison may be employed and no visible result follow at first, when in realitv many may have been destroyed, enough being left to de- ceive the observer as to numbers. They multiplv very rapidly, too, it must be remembered, ana vigorous work is re- el ui red to combat this increase. Where tney can easily migrate from one house- holder's premises to those of another, as in city '*flats," it requires constant vi^- lance to keep them down, and entire extermination is scarcely to be expected. The ordinary insect powder on the market is made from pyrethrum car- neum, pyrethrum roseum, and pyrethrum cinerarue- folium. The first two are generally ground together and are com- mercially called Persian insect powder; while the third is commonly oallrd Dalmatian insect powder. These po»- ders are sold in tne stores under many names and in combination with other powders under proprietary names. The powder is obtained by crushing the dried flowers of the pellitory (pyrethrum i. The leaves, too, are often used. They are cultivated in the Caucasus, whence the specific name Caucasicum some^ times used. Pyrethrum belong to the natural order composite, and is do«ely allied to the chrysanthemum. The active principle is not a volatile ofl, as stated by some writers, but a nmn, which can be dissolved out from the dry flowers by means of ether. The leaves also contain this rosin but in smaller proportions than the flowers. Tincture of pvrethrum is made by infusing the drieJ flowers in five times their weight of rectified spirit of wine. Diluted with water it is used as a lotion. Borax powder also makes a ^ery good insectifuge. It appears to be particu- larly effective against the common or kitchen cockroach. Camphor is sometinar* used, and the powdered dried root of acorus calamus, the sweet flag. A mix- ture of white lead with four times iu weight of chalk is also highly recom* mended. The fish -oil soaps used in a powdered form are made from various recipes, of which the following is a typi- cal example: Powdered rosin 2 pound* Caustic soda 8 ounces Fish or whale oil 4 oum-rs Boil together in a gallon of water for at least an hour, replacing some tif the water if required. The following insect-powder ftirmuUjb are perfectly safe to use. In each in- stance insect powder relates tf> either one of the pyrethrum plants powdered. «ir |o a mixture: I. — Insect powder. ... 8 ounces a v. Powdered borax. . 8 ounces a v. Oil of pennyroyal . < fluidrachmf II. — Insect powder. ... 8 ounrm a v. Borax S ounct's av. Sulphur 4 ounoe^i av. Oil of eucalyptus . < fluidrarhtn» This formula is especially goud fi^ cockroaches: III. — Insect powder 14 ounces av. Quassia in fine powder 6 ounces av. White hellebore, powdered ft oonrrs a v. Digitized by VjOOQ IC INSECT POWERS— INSULATION 425 Beetle Powder.— Cocoa powder 4 ounces Starch 8 ounces Borax 87 ounces Mix thoroughly. Remedies Aninst Mosquitoes. --^A rem- edy to keep on mosc]uitoes, etc., is com- posed as follows: Cinnamon oil, 1 part; patchouli on, 1 part; sandal oil, 4 parts; alcohoU 400 parts. This has a pleasant odor. Oil of pennyroyal is commonly used to keep mosquitoes away. Some form of petroleum rubbed on the skin is even more efficient, but unpleasant to use, and if left on long enough will burn the skin. A 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde for mosquito bites gives remarkably quick and good results. It should be applied to the bites as soon as possible with the cork of the bottle, and allowed to dry on. Diluted ammonia is also u»cd to rub on the bites. Roach Ezterminators. — Borax, starch, and co<-oa are said to be the principal in- gredients of some of the roach foods on the market. A formula for a poison of this class is as follows: Borax 37 ounces Starch 9 ounces Cocoa 4 ounces Motli Exterminators. — Cold storage is the most effective means of avoiding the ra vases of moths. Where this is imprac- ticaMe. as in bureau drawers, camphor balls may be scattered about with satis- factory result. The following is also ef- fective: Spanish pepper 100 parts Turpentine oil 50 parts Camphor S5 parts Clove oil 10 parts .\lcobol, 96 per cent. 900 parts Cut the Spanish pepper into little bits, and pour over them the alcohol and oil of turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days, then decant, and nress out. To the liquid thus obtained add the camphor and Hove oiU let stand a few days, then filter anri fill into suitable bottles. To use, inibilie bits of bibulous paper in the liquid and put them in the folds of clothing to be protected. Protectiiig StufFed Furniture from Moths. — The stuffing, no matter whether coiudsting of tow. hair, or fiber, as well a4 the crivertng, should be coated with a 10 per cent solution of sulphur in carbon sulphide. The carbon sulphide dis- solves the sulphur so as to cause a very fine division and to penetrate the fibers completely. Powder to Keep Moths Away.— Qoves 2 ounces Cinnamon 2 ounces Mace 2 ounces Black pepper 2 ounces Orris root 2 ounces Powder coarsely and mix well together. Book-Worms. — When these insects infest books they are most difficult to deal with, as the ordinary destructive agents injuriously affect the paper of the book. The books should be well beaten and exposed to the sun, and a rag moist- ened with formalin passed through the binding and the covers where possible. In other cases the bottom edge of the binding should be moistened with forma- lin before putting on the shelves, so that formaldehyde vapor can be diffused. INSECT POWDERS: See Insecticides. INSECT TRAP. Into a china wash-basin, half filled with water, pour a glass of beer; cover the basin with a newspaper, in the center of which a small round hole is cut. Place it so that the edges of the paper lie on the floor and the nole is over the center of the basin. At night beetles and other in- sects, attracted by the smell of beer, climb the paper and fall through the hole into the liquid. INSTRUMENT ALLOYS: See Alloys. INSTRUMENT CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. INSTRUMENT LACQUER: See Lacquers. Insulation ELECTRIC INSULATION: TTngiilaring Vamishes. — For earth cables and exposed strong current wires: I.— Melt 2 parts of asphalt together with 0.4 parts of sulphur, add 5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, unseed oil or cotton- seed oil, keep at 820*' F. for 6 hours; next pour in oil of turpentine as required. II.— Maintain 3 parts of elaterite with 2 parts of linseed-oii varnish at 392° F. for 5 to 6 hours; next melt 3 parts of asphalt, pour both substances together, and again maintain the temperature of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 4S6 INSULATION 99^" F. for 8 to 4 hours, and then add 1 part of lins6ed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine as required. III. — Insulatinff Varnish for Dynamos and Conduits with Low Ten8ion.-^hellac, 4 parts; sandarac, 2 parts; linoleic acid, 2 parts; alcohol, 15 parts. IV. — An insulating material which contains no caoutchouc is made bv dis- solving natural or coal-tar asphalt in wood oil, adding sulphur and vulcanizing at 572*" F. The mixture of asphalt and wood oil mav also be vulcanized with chloride of sulphur by the ordinary proc- ess used for caoutchouc. Before vul- canizing, a solution of rubber scraps in naphthalene is sometimes added and the naphthalene expelled by a current of steam. Substitutes for hard rubber are made of natural or artificial asphalt com- bined with heavy oU of tar and talc or infusorial earth. Most of the insulating materials ad- vertised under alluring names consist of asphalt combined with rosin, tar, and an inert powder such as clav or asbestos. Some contain n-aphite, which is a good conductor and therefore a very unde- sirable ingredient in an insulator. INSULATION AGAINST HEAT. An asbestos jacket is the usual insu- lator for boilers, steam pi pes, etc. The thicker the covering around the steam- pipe, the more heat is retained. A chief reouirement for such protective mass is that it contains air in fine chan- nels, so that there is no connection with the dosed-in air. Most substances suitable for insulating are such that they can only with difficulty be used for a protective mass. The most ordinary way is to mix infusorial earth, kieselguhr, slag-wool, hair, ground cork, etc., with loam or clay, so that this plastic mass may be applied moist on the pipes. In using such substances care snould be taken carefully to clean and heat the surfaces to be covered. The mass for the first coating is made into a paste by gradual addition of water ana put on thick with a brush. After drymg each time a further coating is applied. This is repeated until the desired thickness is reached. The last layer put on is rubbed smooth with the flat hand. Finally, strips of linen are wound around, which is coated with tar or oil paint as a protection ajsfainst outside injuries. Cork stones consist of crushed cork with a mineral binding agent, and are sold pressed into various shapes. Leather Waste Insulation. -> Portions of leather, such as the fibers of sole leather of any size and form, are 6r»t rendered soft The surface is then carded or the surface fibers scratched or raised in such a manner that when ser- eral pieces are pressed together their surface fibers adnere, and a compart, durable piece of leather is producni. The carding can be done by an ordinarj batting machine, the action of which i\ so regulated that not only are the pietYi of leather softened, but the fibers on their surfaces raised. The structure i4 the separate pieces of leather remains essentially unaltered. The raised fibrn give the appearance of a furrv substance to the leather. The batted pieces <>f leather are well mixed with paste or some suitable gum, either in or out»idr of the machine, and are then put into specially shaped troughs, where they arr pressed together into layers of the re- quired size and thickness. The separate pieces of leather adhere and are mattH together. ^ An agglutinant, if accessible, wul contribute materially to the strenj^th and durability of the product Thr layers are dried, rolled, and are tbm ready for use. The pieces need n^d be packed together promiscuously. If larger portions of waste can be securetl. the separate pieces can be arranged one upon another in rows. The larger piei^t^ can also be used for the top and bottom of a leather pad, the midole portion of which consists of smaller pieces. INSULATION AGAINST MOISTURE, WBATHER, ETC. ^ Experiments have shown that with tbr aid oi red lead a very serviceable, rr*i*t- ive, and weatherproof insulation roatrriAl may be produced from inferior fibers. !•• take the place, in many casra« of gutta- percha and other substances em^owO for insulating purposes, and partintlaH* to effect the permanent insulation *^ aerial conductors exposed to the artxto of the weather. Hackethal used for thr purpose any vegetable fiber which U wrapped around the conducton to l<^ insulated. The fiber is then satuiatt^i with liouid red lead. The latter is ar- complisned in the proportion of I to 3 parts of red lead, b)r weight, to I part b« weight, of linseed oil, by the hot or c(»l«J process, by mere immersion or untirr pressure. All the three subsUnt^v fiber, oil, and red lead, possess in them- selves a certain insulating capacity, but none of them is alone of utility for *ule. — Put the article in a weak solution of triple gofd chloride and then into direct sunshine. Red. — For a different shade of red (from the first (^ven), place the article for a short time m water weakly acidified with nitric acid and then in a solution of cochineal in ammonia. Yellow. — Leave for several hours in a solution of lead acetate, rinse and dry. When quite dry place in a solution of potassium chromate. To Color Billiard Balls Red.— Fiery Red. — Wash the article first in a solution of carbonate of soda, then plunge for a few seconds in a bath of equal parts of water and nitric acid. Remove, ritiMP in running water; then put in an alcoholic solution of fuchnne and let it remain until it is the required color. Cherry lied. — Clean by washing in the Mi>dium carbonate solution, rinse and lay in a t per cent solution of tin chloride, for a few moments* then boil in a solution of logwood. Finally lay in a solution of potassium carbonate until it assumes the proceed same as in etching on metal sn case, of sulphuric acid, 1 part, to whi'-li 5 to 6 parts of water are added. It art.'* very quicklv. The lines turn a deep black. If brown lines are denired, di*»- solve 1 part of silver nitrate in 5 part« «>f water, etch for a short time, ana eipov the article for a few hours to the light, until the desif^n turns brown. Sety often etchings in ivory are gilded. For this purpose, fill the etched patteni^ accurately with siccatives, using a writ- ing pen, dry, and dab on gold leaf After a few hours remove the supeHloou« gold with wadding, and the design «iil e nicely gilded. Etched ivory arliHr^ present a very handsome appearance if they are first covered with a auvery glif^««« the design being gilded afterwards. Fi>r the former purpose the etched object t« laid in the above described solution «>{ silver nitrate until it has acc|uire mouthed bottle or jar that can be rt>*- ered. and steep the ivory in this uotil it partially loses its opacity; then wa^ the ivory in rold. Mift water and dry. wIkh the ivory will be found soft and flexil4c. Digitized by VjOOQ IC IVORY 429 It regains its hardness in course of time when freely exposed to air, althouj^h its flexibility can be restored by immersing the ivory in hot water. Another softening fluid is prepared by mixing I ounce of spirit of niter with 6 ounces of water and steeping the ivory in the fluid for 4 or 5 days. Hardened Ivory.— To restore the hard- ness to ivory that has been softened by the above methods, wrap it in a sheet of n hite writing paper, cover it with dry de- crepitated salt, and let it remain thus covered for 24 hours. The decrepitated H.ilt is prepared by strewing common kitchen salt on a plate or dish and stand- ing same before a fierce fire, when the Halt loses its crystalline appearance and assumes a dense opaque whiteness. IMITATIOir IVORY: See also Casein and Plaster. Manufacture of Compounds Imitating Ivory, Shell, etc. — Casein, as known, roav act the part of an acid and combine nith bases to form caseinates or caseates; amone these compounds, caseinates of potash, of soda, and of ammonia are the (inly ones soluble in water; all the others are insoluble and may be readily pre- pared by double decomposition. Thus, utr example, to obtain caseinate of alumina, it is sufficient to add to a solu- tion of casein in caustic soda a solution of sulphate of alumina; an insoluble pri*cipitate of casein, or caseinate of alumina, is instantly formed. This pre- cipitate ought to be freed from the sul- phate of soda (formed by double de- romposition) by means of prolonged wasning. When pure, ordinary cellulose may be Incorporated with it by this orocess, pro- ducing a new compound, cheaper tnan pure cellulose, although possessing the same properties, and capable of replacing it in all its applications. According to the results desired, in transparencv, cf>Ior, hardness, etc., the most suitable ca!«einate should be selected. Thus, if a tran«lucent compound is to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina yields the best. If a white compound is desired, the case- inate of zinc or of magnesia should be chf jMJii and for colored products the case- inates of iron, copper, and nickel will give varied tints. The process employed for the new products, with a base of celluloid and caseinate, is as follows: On one hand cn^ein is dissolved in a solution of caus- tic soda noo of water for 10 to 25 of soda)t and this liquid is filtered, to sepa- rate the matters not dissolved and the immirities. On the other hand, a salt (of the base of which tlie caseinate is desired) is dis- solved, and the solution filtered. It is well not to operate on too concentrated a solution. The two solutions are mixed in a reservoir furnished with a mechan- ical stirrer, in order to obtain the insol- uble caseinate precipitate in as finely divided a state as possible. This precip- itate should be washed thoroughly so as to free it from the soda salt formed by double decomposition, but on account of its gummy or pasty state, this washing presents certain difficulties, and should be done carefully. After the washing it should be freed from the greater part of water contained by draining, followed by drying, or energetic pressing; then it is washed in alcohol, dried or pressed again, and is readv to be incorporated in the mass of the celluloid. For the latter immersion and washing, it has been found that an addition of 1 to 5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it renders^ the mass more plastic, and facilitates the operation of mixing. This may be conducted in a mixing apparatus; but, in practice, it is found preferable to effect it with a rolling mill, operated as follows: The nitro-cellulose is introduced in the plastic state, and moistened with a solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50 parts of camphor in 50 to 70 parts of alcohol for 100 parts of nitro-cellulose) as it is practiced m celluloid factories. This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose is placed in a rolling mill, the cylinders of which are slightly heated at the same time as the caseinate, prepared as above; then the whole mass is worked by the cylinders until the mixture of the two is perfectly homogeneous, and the final mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out in leaves in the same wav as practiced for pure celluloid. These leaves are placed in hydraulic presses, where they are com- Eressed, first hot, then cold, and the lock thus formed is afterwards cut into leaves of the thickness desired. These leaves are dried in an apparatus in the same way as ordinary celluloid. The product resembles celluloid, and has all Its properties. At 195*» to glS** F. it be- comes quite plastic, and is easily molded. It may be sawed, filed, turned, and carved without difficulty, and takes on a superb polish. It burns less readily than celluloid, and its combustibility diminishes in proportion as the per- centage of caseinate increases: finally, the cost price is less than that of celluloid. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 430 IVOKY^FEWELERS' FOUMITLAS and by using a large proportion of case- inate, products may be manufactured at an extremely low cost. IVORY AND BONE BLEACHES. If simply diity, scrub with soap and tepid water, using an old tooth or nail brush for the purpose. Grease stains may be sometimes removed by applying a paste of chalk or whiting and Denzol, covering the article so that the benzol may not dry too rapidly. Carbon disulphide (the purified article^ may be used in place of benzol. When dry, rub off with a stiff brush. If not removed with the first application, repeat the process. Deli- cately carved articles that show a ten- dency to brittleness should be soaked for a short time in dilute phosphoric acid before anv attempt to clean them is made. This renders the minuter portions almost ductile, and prevents their breaking un- der cleaning. The large scratched brush should be treated as follows: If the scratches are deep, the surface may be carefully rubbed down to the depth of the scratch, using the finest emery cloth, until the depth is nearly reached, then substituting crocus cloth. To restore the polish nothing is supe- rior to the genuine German putz pomade, following by rubbing first with chamois and finishing off with soft old silk. The more "elbow grease*' put into the rub- bing the easier the task, as the heat gen- erated by friction seems to lend a sort of ductility to the surface. To remove the yellow hue due to age, proceed as follows: Make a little tripod with wire, to hold the object a few inches above a little vessel containing lime chloride moistened with hydrochloric acid; put the object on the stand, cover the wliole with a bell glass, and expose to direct sunlight. When bleached, remove and wash in a solution of sodium bicarbonate, rinse in clear water and dry. F^ike mother-of-pearl, ivory is readily cleaned by dipping in a bath of oxygen- ized water or immersing for 15 minutes in spirits of turpentine, and subsequently exposing to the sun for 3 or 4 days. For a simple cleaning of smooth articles, w^ash them in hot water, in which there has been previously dissolved 100 parts (by weight) of bicarbonate of soda per 1,000 parts of water. To clean carved ivory make a paste of verv fine, damp sawdust, and put on this tne juice of I or 2 lemons, according to the article to be treated. Now apply a layer of this saw- dust on the ivory, and when drv brush it off and rub the object with a chamois. IVORY TESTS. Manjr years ago an article was intro- duced in the industrial world which in contradistinction^ to the genuine animal ivory, has its origin in the vegetable king- dom, being derived from the nut of a palm-like shrub called phytelephajima- crocarpa, whose fruit reaches the Mze of an apple. This- fruit has a very wbitr. exceedingly hard kernel which can lie worked like ivory. A hundred of the4« fruits only costing about $1, their uv offers great advantages. Worked on the lathe this ivory can be passed off •< the genuine article, it being so much like it that it is often sold at the same prirr. It can also be colored just like geouiof ivory. To distinguish the two varieties of ivory, the following method may l>e employed: Concentrated sulphuric and applied to vegetable ivory will cau^ie a pink coloring in about 10 or M mintiteii. which can be removed again b^ wa.4hine with water. Applied on genuine ivort. this acid does not affei*t it in any niannrr. IVORY BLACK: See Bone Black. IVORY CEMENT: See Adhesives. IVORY GILDING: See Plating. IVORY POLISHES: See Polishes. JAPAN BLACK: See Paints. JAPANNING AND JAPAN TINNIHG: See Varnishes. JASMINE MILK: See Cosmetics. JELLY (FRUIT) EXTRACT: See Essences and ExtracU. JEWELERS' CEMENTS: See Adhesives. JEWELERS' CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. Jewelers' Formulas (See also (iems. Gold, and W*atchmaien Recipes.) Coloring Gold Jewelrr. —Folio vine ^^ several recipes for coloring: Saltpetrr. 40 parts; alum, 30 parts; sea salt, 3U parts; or. liquid ammonia, 100 part*, sea salt, 9 parts; water, 100 parts. Hnt without allowing to boil and pluttr* Digitized by VjOOQ IC JEWELERS^ FORMULAS 481 Ibe objecta into it for 2 or 3 minutes, «timnff constantly; rinse in alum water and then in clean water. Another rfripe: Calcium bromide, 100 parts; brumine, 5 parts. Place the articles in this solution, with stirring, for 2 to 3 miuutes; next wash in a solution of hvposulphite of sodium and rinse in rfran water. Another: Verdigris, 30 fnrU; sea salt, 30 parts; blood stone, iO parts; sal ammoniac, 30 parts; alum, o parts. Grind all and stir with strong vinegar; or, verdigris, 100 parts; hydro- thlorate of ammonia, 100 parts; salt- EHer, 65 parts; copper filings, 40 parts, ray all and mix with strong vinegar. To ^Hden a Jewel Hole.— Chuck the hole in a lathe with cement. Place a spirit lamp underneath to prevent the crment from hardening. Hold the pointed bit aja^inst the hole, while the lathe is running, until the hole is true, when the lamp should be removed. The hroach to widen the hole should be made itf copper, of the required size and shape, And the point, after being oiled, should he rolled in diamond dust until it is entirely covered. The diamond dust ohould then be beaten in with a burnish- er, using very light blows so as not to bruise tne broach. After the hole is « idened as desired, it requires polishing with a broach made of ivory and used with oil and the finest diamond dust, l«M>sr, not driven into the broach. To Clean Jet Jewelry,— Reduce bread rnimbs into small particles, and intro- duce into all the curves and hollows of thtr jewelry, while rubbing with a flannel. Coloring Common Gold. — In coloring enUJ below 18 carat, the following mix- ttire may be used with success, and if pAn^ully employed, even 12 carat gold rii^y be colored by it: Take nitrate of (Hitassa (saltpeter), 4 parts, by weight; -liioi, 2 parts; and common salt, 2j>arts. A 'Id sufficient warm water to mix the ? «j j^redients into a thin paste; place the n.iTture in a small pipkin or crucible And allow to boil. Tne article to be <-o|ffred should be suspended by a wire ««i>d dipped into the mixture, where it -.. *uld remain from 10 to 20 minutes. i h ^ article should then be removed and m »*ll rinsed in hot water, when it must be «« rn tch brushed, again rinsed and re- turned to the coloring salts for a few /ri^nutes; it is then to be again rinsed in ■ >t water, scratch brushed, and finally •r limbed with soap and hot water, rinsed t.i hot water, and^ placed in boxwood -Awdust. The object being merely to remove the alloy, as soon as the article has acquired the proper color of fine gold it mav be consiaered sufficiently acted upon by the above mixture. The color- ing salts should not be used for gold of a lower standard than 12 carat, and, even for this quality of gold, some care must be taken when the articles are of a very slight make. Shades of Red, etc., on Matt Gold Bijouterie. — For the production of the red and other shades on matt ^old arti- cles, the so-called gold varnishes are employed, which consist of shellac dis- solved in alcohol and are colored with gum rosins. Thus a handsome golden yellow is obtained from shellac, 35 parts; seed-lac, 36 parts; dragon's blood, 50 parts; gamboge, 50 parts; dissolved in 400 parts of alcohol; the clear solution is decanted and mixed with 75 parts of Venice turpentine. By changing the amounts of the coloring rosins, snades from bright gold yellow to copper color are obtained, 'fne varnish is aoplied evenly and after drying is wiped on irom the raised portions of the article^ by means of a pad of wadding dipped into alcohol, whereby a handsome patina- tion effect is produced, since the lacquer remains in the cavities. Chased articles are simply rubbed with earth colors ? ground into a paste with turpentine oil, or which purpose burnt sienna, fine ochers of a golaen color, golden yellow, and various snades of green are employed. I.— Yellow wax 82 parts Red bole 3 parts Crystallized verdi- gris 2 parts Alum 2 parts II. — Yellow wax 95 parts Red bole 64 parts Colcothar 2 parts Crystallized verdi- gris 32 parts Copper ashes 20 parts Zinc vitriol 32 parts Green vitriol 16 parts Borax 1 part The wax is melted and the finely pow- dered chemicals are stirred in, in rota- tion. If the gilt bronze goods are to obtain a lustrous orange shade, apply a mixture of ferric oxide, alum, cooking salt, and vinegar in the heated articles by means of a brush, heating to about 266® F. until the shade commences to turn black and water sprinkled on will evaporate with a hissing sound, then cool in water, dip in a mixture of 1 part of nitric acid with 40 parts of water, rinse Digitized by VjOOQ IC 432 JEWELERS^ JX3RMULAS thoroughly, dry, and polish. For the production of a pale-gold shade use a wax preparation consisting of: III.— Yellow wax 19 parts Zinc Titriol 10 parts Burnt borax S parts Green-gold color is produced by a mix- ture of: I v.— Saltpeter . .* 6 parts Green Titriol i parts Zinc Titriol 1 part Alum 1 part To Matt Gilt Articles.— If it i» desired to niatt gilt articles partly or entirelj^, the portions which are to remain burnished are coTcred with a mixture of chalk, sugar, and mucilage, heating until this *'stopping-off*' covering shows a black color. On the places not covered apply a matting powder consisting of: Saltpeter 40 parts Alum 25 parts Cooking salt 35 parts Heat the objects to« about OOS"" F., whereby the powder is melted and ac- ?uires the consistency of a thin paste, n case of too high a temperature de- composition will set in. To Find the Number of Carats.— To find the number of carats of gold in an object, first weigh the gold and mix with seven times its weight in silver. This allov is beaten into thin leaves, and nitric acid is added; this dissolves the silver and copper. The remainder (gold) is then fused and weif^hed; by comparing the first and last weights the numoer of carats of pure gold is found. To check repeat several times. Add Test for Gold.— The ordinary ready method of ascertaining whether a piece of jewelry is made of gold consists in touching it with a ^lass stopper wetted with nitric acid, which leaves gold un- touched, but colors base alloys blue from the formation of nitrate of copper. Imitation Diamonds. — I. — Minium, 75 parts (by weight) ; washed white sand, 50 parts; calcined potash, 18 parts; cal- cined borax, 6 parts; b>oxide of arsenic, 1 part. The sand must be washed in hydrochloric acid and then several times in clean water. The specific gravity of this crystal ^lass is almost the same as that of the diamond. II. — Washed white sand, 100 parts (by weight): minium, S5 parts: calcined pot- ash, 25 parts; calcined borax, 20 parts; nitrate of potash (crystals), 10 parts: peroxide of manganese, 5 parts. The sand must be wasned as above stated. . — This »ub»tanceeon^:»t« of crystallized boron, the basis of b«>rax By melting 100 parts of boracir arid simI 80 parts of aluminum rrrstal^ i« oti- tained tbe so-called bort. which r\en attacks diamond. The diamantiDe n( commerce is not so hard. To Kefine Board S«recpin^-Th«* residue resultiDg from a jobbing jr«- der^s busineu, such as board sverpir c* and other residuum, which is continiullf accumulating and which invariahly it>D* sists of aO mixed <|ualitie!S of staodjni. may have the precious metals rrroirfo therefrom in a very simple manner, i^ follows: Collect the residue and bum it in an iron ladle or pan. until all grra^r or other organic matter is destrovr«l. When cool mix with \ part soda-ash. and melt in a day crucible* When the iurt.»i is thoroughly mdted it will leave tfar fiuv and sink to the bottom of the cninhi* : at this stage the flux assumes thaapprar- a nee of a thin fluid, and then is the Umt^ to withdraw the pot from the fire. Tbr metal in the crucible — but not the flui - may now be poured into a vessd of % atrr. stirring the water in a circular dirrrtjon while tne metal is being poured in. « ki« b causes it to form into small grains, aiji<»- solve the grains in a mixture of nitnr acid and water in equal quantities. It takes about four times the quantitr of liquid as metal to dissolve. ^ The ir<*l«l remains undissolved in this mixture, aini may be recovered by filtering or dr<-ant- ing the liquid above it in the dissolviris vessel; it is then dried, mixed with a Iittk flux, and melted in the usual manner, whereupon pure gold will be obtained. To recover the silver, dilute the solutroo which has been withdrawn from tfaegi>Jd with six times its bulk of water, and add by degrees small quantities of 6DrU powdered common salt, and thU «iil throw down the silver into a white, cunlj powder of chloride of silver. Cootiixae to add salt until no cloudiness is obsencd in the solution, when the water abn^r the sediment may be poured off; tihou!d likewise act upon the metal, partlj by this affinity or chemical attrac- tion, and p«rtly^ by cohesive force, to unite the connections soundlv and firmly together. Solders should tnerefore be prepared suitable to the work in hand, if a good and lasting job is to be made. It should always be borne in mind that the higher the fusing point of the gold allov — and this can oe made to vary consid- erably, even with any specified quality — the harder solder must be used, for. in tfitf* ca»e of a more fusible mixture of gold, the latter would melt before the solder and cause the work to be destroyed. A very good formula for the first, or ordi- nary, 22-carat alloy is this: dwts. grs. Fine gold 1 0 Fine silver 0 8 Fine copper 0 2 1 6 This mixture will answer all the many purposes of the jobber; for soldering nigh quality gold wares that come for repairs, particularly wedding rin^, it wul be found admirably suited. If an easier solder is wanted, and such is very often the case with jobbing jjewelers, es- pecially where several solderings have to oe accomplished, it is as well to have at hand a solder which will not disturb the previous soldering places, for if this is not prevented a very simple job is made very difficult, and a lot of time and patience wholly wasted. To guard against a thing of this kind the following solder may be employed on the top of the previous one: dwts. grs. Fine gold 1 0 Fine silver 0 8 Yellow brass 0 ft I 5 This solder is of the same value as the {>revious one, but its melting point is ower, and it will be found useful for many purposes that can be turned to gooci account in a jobbing jeweler's business. JEWELERS' ALLOYS: See also Alloys and Solders. i8-Carat Gold for Rings. — Gold coin, 19} grains; pure copper, 3 grains; pure silver, 1 } grains. Cheap Gold, la Carat. — Gold coin, 25 grains; pure copper, 13} grains; pure silver, 7} grains. Very Cheap 4-Carat Gold. — Copper, 18 parts; gold, 4 parts; silver, 2 parts. Imitations of Gold.— I.^Platina, 4 pennyweights; pure copper, 2) penny- weights; sheet zinc, 1 pennyweight; block tin. 1} pennyweights: pure lead, 1 } pennyweight. If tnis snould be found too hard or brittle for practical use, remelting the composition with a little sal ammoniac will generally render it malleable as desired. II.— Platina, 2 parts: silver. 1 part; copper. 3 parts. These compositions, when properly prepared so nearly resem- ble pure gold that it is very difficult to Digitized by VjOOQ IC 434 JEWELERS' FORMULAS distinguish them therefrom. A little powdered charcoal, mixed with metals while melting, will be found of service. Best Oreide of Gold. — Pure copper, 4 ounces; sheet zinc, 1} ounces; magnesia, { ounce; sal ammoniac, H ounce; quick- lime, -fg ounce; cream tartar, { ounce. First melt the copper at as low a tem- perature as it wilr melt; then add the zinc, and afterwards the other articles in powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt these metals. Bushing Alloy for Pivot Holes, etc.— Gold coin, S pennyweights; silver, I pennyweight, 20 grains; copper, 3 pen- nyweights, 20 grains; paUadium, 1 pennyweight. Tne best composition known for the purpose named. Gold Solder for 14- to i6-Cantt Work. — Gold coin, 1 pennyweight; pure silver, 0 grains; pure copper, 6 grains; brass, 8 grains. Darker Solder.— Gold coin, 1 penny- weight; pure copper, 8 grains; pure silver, 5 grains; brass, 2 grains. Melt together in charcoal fire. Solder for Gold.— Gold, 6 penny- weights; silver, 1 pennyweight; copper, 2 pennyweights. Soft Gold Solder.— Gold, 4 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part. Solders for Silver (for the use of jewelers). — Fine silver, 19 pennvweights; copper, 1 pennyweight; sheet brass, 10 pennyweights. White Solder for Silver. —Silver, 1 ounce; tin, 1 ounce. Stiver Solder for Plated Metal.— Fine silver, 1 ounce; brass, 10 pennyweights. Solders for Gold.— I.— Silver. 7 parU; copper, 1 part; with borax. II.— Gold, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; cop- per, 1 part. III. — Gold, 3 parts; silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part; zinc, J part. For ^ver.— Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part; with borax: or, silver, 4 parts; brass, 3 parts; zinc, -^ part; with borax. Gold Solders (see also Solders).— I.— Copper. 24.24 parts; silver, 27.57 parts; gold, 48.19 parts. II.— Enaxnel Solder.— Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 67.93 parts. III.— Copper, 26.55 parts; zinc, 6.25 I parts; silver, 31.25 parts; gold, 36 parts. . IV.— Enamel Solder.— Silver, 19.57 1 parts; gold. 80.43 parts. | Solder for 22-Carat Gold.— Gold of ii carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2 grains: copper, 1 grain. For i8-Carat Gold.— Gold of is carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2 grains; copper, 1 grain. For Cheaper Gold. —I. —Gold, I pennj- wei^ht; silver, 10 grains; copper, 8 grains. II. — Fine gold, 1 pennyweight; silver. 1 pennyweight; copper, 1 pennyweight Silver Solders (see also Solders).-!. (Hard.) — Copper, 30 parts; zinc, Wxj parts; silver, 57.15 parts. II.— Copper, 23.33 parts; sine, 10put%; silver, 66.67 parts. III. — Copper, 26.66 parts; zinr. 10 parts; silver, 63.34 parts. IV. (Soft.)— Copper, 14.75 parU; linc. 8.50 parts; silver, 77.05 parts. v.— Copper, 22.34 parU: zinc. lO.*** parts; silver, 67.18 parts. VI.— Tin, 63 parU; lead, S7 parU FOR SILVERSMITHS: I.— Sterling Silver.— Fine silver. 11 ounces, 2 pennyweights: fine copper. 1^ pennyweignts. II.— Eoual to Sterling.— Fine silver. 1 ounce; nne copper, 1 pennyweight, M grains. III. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper. 5 pennyweights. rV. — Common Silver for Chains. — Fine silver, 6 pennyweights; fine copper. 4 pennyweights. v.— Solder.— Fine silver, 16 peooT- weights; fine copper, 12 grains; pm brass, 8 pennyweights, 12 grains. VI.— Alloy for Plating.— Fine wivrr, 1 ounce; fine copper, 10 pennyweigfatv VII.— SUver Solder.— Fine silver. I ounce; pin brass, 10 penny weigh t»; pure spelter, 2 pennyweignts. VIII.— Copper Solder for PUting.- Fine silver, 10 pennyweights: fine nip- per, 10 pennyweights. IX.— -Common Silver Solder.— Fior silver, 10 ounces; pin brass, 6 ounrrv 12 pennyweights; spelter, 12 prnov- weignts. X.— Silver Solder for Knamriing. - Fine silver, 14 pennyweights; fine ('»*p- per. 8 pennyweights. XI.— For Filling Signet Rinci.-riBe silver. 10 ounces; fine copper, t ouorr. 16 pennyweights; fine pin braM. 4 ounces, 12 pennyweights; spelter. \i pennyweights. Digitized by VjOOQ IC JEWELERS' FORMULAS 435 XII.— Sflver Solder for Gold Plating. — Pine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 5 pennyweights; pin brass, 5 pennyweights. XIII. — Mercury Solder. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights; bar tin. 2 pennyweights. XIV. — Imitation Silver. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; nickel, 1 ounce, 11 grains; fine copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains. XV. — Pine silver, 3 ounces; nickel, 1 ounce, 11 pennyweights; fine copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains; spelter, 10 penny- weights. XVI.— Fine Silver Solder for Filigree Work. — Fine silver, 4 pennyweights, 6 grains; pin brass, 1 pennyweight. Bismttth Solder. — Bismuth, 3 ounces; lead. S ounces, 18 pennyweights; tin, 5 ounces, 6 pennyweights. BRASS: L— Yellow Brass for Turning. — (Com- mon article.) — Copper, 20 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 4 ounces. II. — Copper, 32 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 1 pound. III. — ^Red Brass Free, for Turning. — Copper, 100 pounds; zinc, 50 pounds; leaa, 10 pounas; antimony, 44 ounces. IV.— Best Red Brass for Fine Cast- ings.— Copper, 24 pounds; zinc, 5 pounds; bismuth, 1 ounce. V. — ^Red Tombac. —Copper, 1 0 pounds ; zinc, 1 pound. VI. — ^Tombac — Copper, 16 pounds; tin, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound. VII.— Brass for Heavy Castixigs.— Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. VIII.— Malleable Brass.— Copper, 70.10 parts; zinc, 29.90 parts. IX. — Superior Malleable Brass.— Cop- per. 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts. X. — ^Birafls. — Copper, 78 parts; zinc, teTparU. XI. — Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 35 parts. XII. — Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 parts. XIII. — Gmnan Brass. — Copper, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound. XI V. —Watchmakers' Brass. —Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts. XV.— Brass for Wire.— Copper, 34 parts: calamine. 66 parts. XVI.— Brass for Tubes.— Copper, 2 porta; zinc, 1 part. XVII.— Birafls for Heavy Work.— Copper, 100 parts; tin, 15 parts; zinc, 15 parts. XVIII.— Copper, 112 parts; tin, 13 parts; zinc, 1 part. XIX.— Tombac or Red Brass.— Cop- per, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part. XX. — Brass. — Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc, 1 part. XXI. — Buttonmakers' Fine Brass. — Brass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. XXII. — Buttonmakers' Common Brass. — Button brass, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part. Mix. XXIII.— Mallet's Brass.— Copper, 25.4 parts; zinc, 74.6 parts. Used to pre- serve iron from oxidizing. XXIV.— Best Brass for Clocks.— Rose copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 parts; lead, 1 part. GOLD ALLOTS: See also Gold Alloys, under Alloys. Gold of 22 carats fine being so little used is intentionally omitted. I.— Gold of i8 Carats, Yellow Tint. — Gold, 15 pennyweights; silver, 2 pen- nyweights, 18 grains; copper, 2 penny- weights, 6 grains. II.— Gold of i8 Carats. Red Tint.— Gold, 15 pennyweights; silver, 1 penny- weight, 18 grains; copper, 3 penny- weights, 6 grains. III.— Spring Gold of i6 Carats.— Gold, 1 ounce, 16 pennyweights; silver, 6 pennyweights; copper, 12 penny- weights. This when drawn or rolled very hard makes springs little inferior to steel. IV.— Jewelers' Fine Gold, Yellow Tint, i6 Carats Nearly. — Gold, 1 ounce; silver, 7 pennyweights; copper, 5 penny- weights. v.— Gold of Red Tint, i6 Carats.— Gold, 1 ounce; silver, 2 pennyweights; copper, 8 pennyweights. Sterling Gold Alloys.— I.— Fine gold, 18 pennyweights, 12 grains; fine silver, 1 pennyweight; fine copper, 12 grains. II.— Dry Colored Gold Alloys, 17 Carat. — Fme gold, 15 pennyweights; fine silver, 1 pennyweight, 10 grains; fine copper, 4 pennyweights, 17 grains. III.— 18 Carat.— Fine gold, 1 ounce; fine silver, 4 pennyweights, 10 grains; fine copper, 2 pennyweights, 5 grains. IV. — 18 Carat. — Fine gold, 15 penny- weights; fine silver, 2 pennyweights, 4 grams; fine copper, 2 pennyweights, 19 grains. V. — 18 Carat. — Fine gold, 18 penny- weights; fine silver, 2 pennyweights, 18 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 486 JEWELERS^ FORMULAS— KEROSENE DEODORIZER grains; fine copper, 3 pennyweights, 18 grains. VI,— IQ Carat.— Fine gold, 1 ounce; fine silver, 2 pennyweights, 6 grains; fine copper, 3 pennyweights, 12 grains. VII. — ao Caxat. — Fine gold, I ounce; fine silver, 2 pennyweights; fine copper, 2 pennyweights, 4 grams. VIII.— 32 Carat,— Fine gold, 18 pen- nyweights; fine silver, 12 g[rains; fine cop- per, 1 pennyweight, 3 grains. IX.— Gold Solder for the Foregoing Alloys. — Take of the alloyed gold you are using. 1 pennyweight; fine silver, 0 grains. X.— Alloy for Dry Colored Ringp.— Fine gold, 1 ounce; fine silver, 4 penny- weights, 6 grains; fine copper, 4 penny- weights, 6 grains. XI. — Solder. — Scrap gold, 2 ounces; fine silver, 3 pennyweights; fine copper, 3 pennyweights. XII.— Dry Colored Scrap Reduced to 358. Gold. — Colored scrap, 1 ounce, 9 pennyweights, 12 grains; nne silver, 2 pen nv weights; fine copper, 17 penny- weights, 12 grains; spelter, 4 penny- weights. To Quickly Remove a Ring from a Swollen Finger. — If the ring is of gold, pull the fo^s of the swollen muscles apart, so that it can be seen, then drop on it a little absolute alcohol and place the finger in a bowl of metallic mercury. In a very few minutes the ring will snap apart, if the ring is of brass, scrape the surface slightly, or put on a few drops of a solution of oxalic acid, or even strong vinegar, let remain in contact for a moment or two, then put into the mer- cury, and the result wiU be as before. Soldering a Jeweled Ring.— In order to prevent the burstinf^ of the jewels of a ring while the latter is being soldered, cut a juicy potato into halves and make a hollow m both portions in which the part of the ring having iewels may fit exactly. Wrap the jeweled portion in soft paper, place it m the hollow, and bind up the closed potato with binding wire. Now solder with easy-flowing gold solder, the potato being held in the band. Another method is to fill a small crucible with wet sand, bury the jeweled portion in the sand, and solder in the usual way. JEWELRY, TO CLEAH: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. JUNIPER CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. JUniPER SOAP: See Soap. Kalsomine Sodium carbonate.. . 8 parts Linseed oil 82 parts Hot water 8 parts White glue 12 parU Whiting 160 parts Dissolve the sodium carbonate in tkr hot water, add the oil and aapoiiifir bi heating and agitation. Cover the glur, broken into small piec^, with n>M water and let soak overnight In tkr morning pour the whole on a slout oinr of stuff and let the residual water arein off, getting rid of as much as possible \*f slightly twisting the doth. Throw thr swelled glue into a capsule^ put on tbr water bath, and heat g[ently until it » melted. Add the saponified oil and oait well; remove from tfie bath, and stir is the whiting, a little at a time, addiu[^H«>c water as it becomes necessary. xfUm the whiting ia all stirred in« continur adding hot water, until a liquid 'u oi*- tainedthat flows freely from the kal«*>- miniug brush. The addition of a little soluble blur to the mixture increases the intensity uf tbf white. Sizing Walla for Kaltonrine.— A «-<' to coat over "hot walls** for the reception of the kalsomine is made by tt«ioit shellac, 1 part; sal soda, ) part I'ut these ingredients in } gallon of water ami dissolve oy steady heat. .Another «m «♦ made of glue sise prepared in the n*M»i way, and alum. To } pound of whiter glue add ) pound of alum, dissolving tbr alum in hot water before adding at to tkr glue size. KARATS, TO FIND RUMBER OP: See Jewelers' Formulas. KERAmCS: See Ceramics. KERIT: See Rubber. KEROCLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. KEROSENE DEODORIZER: See also Benzine, Oils, and PHru- leum* Various processes have been rrrom- mended for maftking the o obtained with brilliant aniline green d ion, 1 gallon; puve violet aniline, 1 p4iund. Mix, stand away for a few da^s to allow the aniline to cfissolve and stir frrq uently, taking care to bung down •»ri>urely, as the collodion is a volatile t liquid, then strain and bottle off. It is applied with a brush, dries rapidly, and diK*9 not rub off or peal. Celluloid Lacquer. — -Dissolve uncol- <»re in the solvent, and after vigor- *ni% })baking, the bottle is allowed to stand •quietly for the undissolved portion to settle, V hen the clear, supernatant fluid is l>oured off. The latter may be imme- diately used; it yields a colorless gloss v la<l Jtlon of any coloring matter which is H^Juble in methylated spirit, such as cochineal, saffron, the aniline dyes, etc. Filter through fine cambric, and to this filtered solution add brown shellac in flakes in the proportion of 4 to 5 ounces of shellac to each pint of methylated spirit. Shake once a day for about 8 days. If too thick it may be thinned b^ adding more colored spirit or plain spirit as required, and any lighter shade can be obtained bv mixing with plain lacquer mixed in tne above proportions. Lac- quer works best in a warm, dry place, and the process is improved by slightly warming the articles, which must be absolutely free from grease, dirt, or moisture. The best results are ob- tained by applying many coats of thin, light-colored lacouer, each coat to be thoroughly dry before applving the next. Apply with a soft camel s-hair brush; it is oetter to use too small a brush than too large. When complete, warm the articles for a few seconds before a clear fire; the hotter the better; if too hot, however, the colors will fade. This makes the lacquer adhere firmly, es- pecially to metallic surfaces. Aniline green works very well. Lacquer for Copper. — A lacquer which to a certain degree resists heat and acid liquids, but not alkaline ones, is obtained by heating fine, thickly liquid amber varnish, whereby it is rendered sufficiently liquid to be applied with the brush. The copper article is coated with this and left to stand until the lac- quer has dried perfectly. Next, the object is heated until the lacquer com- mences to smoke and turns brown. If the operation is repeated twice, a coating is finally obtained, which, as regards resisting qualities to acid bodies, excels even enamel, but which is strongly at- tacked even by weakly alkaline liquids. Ebony Lacquer. — The ebony lacquer recommended bv the well-known Eng- lish authority, Mr. H. C. Standage, con- sists of } ounce aniline hydrocnloride, i ounce alcohol, 1 part sulphate of cop- per, 100 parts of water. Tne aniline dye IS dissolved in the alcohol and the copper sulphate in the water. The wood is nrst coated with the copper sulphate solution, and after this coating has been given plenty of time to dry the aniline salt tincture is applied. Shortly the copper salt absorbed by the wood will react on the aniline hydrochloride, developing a deep, rich black which acids or alkalies are powerless to destroy. Coat with shellac and give a French polish, thus bringing the cbonv finish up to a durable and unsurpassed luster. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 440 LACQUERS GOLD LACQUERS: I. — ^Por Bxaasmune. — A gold lacquer to improve the natural color of brassware is prepared from 16 parts gum lac, 4 parts dragon's blood, and 1 part curcuma powder (ussolved in S20 parts spirits of wine in the warmth ana filtered weU. The articles must be thoroughly cleaned bjr burning, finding, or turning either dull or burnished, and then coated with a thin layer of the above mixture, applied with a soft hair brush or a pad oi wad- ding. If the obiects are colored the lacquer must be laid on by stippling. Should the color be too dark, it may be lightened by reduction with a little spirit until the correct shade is produced. The most suitable temperature for the metal during the work is about the warmth of the hand; if too hot or too cold, the lac- quer may smear, and will then have to be taken off again with spirit or hot potash lye, the goods beins dried in sawdust or recleaned as at first, before applving the lacquer again. Round articles may be fixed in the lathe and the lacquer laid on with a pad of wadding. In order to color brassware, a solution of SO parts caustic soda; 10 parts cupric carbonate; 200 parts water (or 200 parts ammonia neutralized by acetic acid); 100 parts verdigris, and 60 parts sal ammoniac is employed, into which the warmed articles are dipped. After having dried they are coated with color- less shellac varnish. II.— For Tin, — Transparent gold lac- quer for tin (all colors) mav be made as follows: Take i pint of alcohol, add 1 ounce gum shellac; i ounce turmeric; 1 } ounce red sanders. Set the vessel in a warm olace and shake frequently for half a aay. Then strain off the liouor, rinse the bottle and return it, corlcins tightly for use. When this is used, it must be applied to the work freel]^ and flowed on full, or if the work admits it, it mav be dipped. One or more coats may be given as the color is required light or Clark. For rose color substitute } ounce of finelv ground lake in place of the turmeric. For blue, substitute Prus- sian blue. For purple, add a little of the blue to the turmeric. For Bottle Caps, etc, — I. — Gum gutta 10 parts Shellac 100 parts Turpentine 10 parts Alcohol 450 parts II. — Gum gutta 40 parts Dragon's blood 5 parts Alcoliolic extract of sandalwood 5 parts Sandarac 15 paiti Venice turpentine. . . t5 parts Alcohol, 95 percent. 900 parts Mix and dissolve by the aid of a geotle heat. liquid Bottle Lac — Into a half-nlloo bottle put 8 ounces of shellac, and pour over it 1) pints of alcohol of 94 percmt. and 2} ounces of sulphuric ether. lA stand, with occasional shaking, until ihe shellac is melted, and then adJ 4 oaocr^ of thick turpentine and ) ounce of bonr acid. Shake until dissolved. To color. use the aniline colors soluble in alcoho}— for red, cosine; blue, phenol blue; blark, negrosin; green, aniline ^reen; vuM, methyl violet, etc. If it is desirrd to have the lac opaque, add 8 oancrt •>( fulverized steatite, but remember to eep the lac constantly stirred vbiir usinff, as otherwise the steatite falU W the bottom. Lithogzmphic Lacquer. — DissolTe M parts, bv weight, of red lithol R or G lu paste of 17 per cent, in 150 part^ hj weiff ht, of hot water. Boil for i min utr v shaking with 12.5 parts, by weight, of barium chloride. Dissolve in i5 parts by weight, of water. Add to the muturr 100 parts, by weight, of aluminum h}- drate of about 4 per cent* Cool, filtrr. and dry. Lacquer for Microsoopes, Methfrnst- teal Instnunents, etc — Pulrerixe \w parts, by weight, turmeric root, corrr it with 1,700 Darts alcohol, digest in » warm place lor 24 hours, and Uien filtrr Dissolve 80 parts dragon's blood, m) parts sandarac, 80 parts gum elemi. 3o parts gum gutta, and 70 parts seed Ib*^ put in a retort with 250 plarts povdrrr>i glass, pour over them the colored sl<~*»* ol first made, and hasten solution hj warming in the sand or water bati.. When completely dissolved, filter. To Fix Alcoholic Lacquers on Metallic Surfaces. — Dissolve 0.5 parts of crt*- tallized boracic acid in 100 parts of tU respective spirit varnish whereby ll>r latter after being applied forms so hani a coating upon a smooth tin surfscr that it cannot be scratched off even «it^ the finger-nails. The aforementioo«^) percentage of boracic acid should d« < be exceeded in preparing the solution: otherwise the varnish wiU lose in intc*-- sity of color. Lacquer for Oil Paintiiigs.— Diluv 100 parts of sulphate of baryta with ««"' parts of water containinff in ndntioa ^* parts of red lithol R or U in paste of 17 Digitized by VjOOQ IC LACQUERS— LAMPBLACK 441 per cent. Boil the mixture for several minutes in a solution of 10 parts of bar- ium chloride in 100 parts of water. Af- ter cooling, filter ana dry. LacqueiB for Papers. — I. — With base of baryta: Dissolve 30 parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Add an emulsion obtained by mixing 10 parts of sulphate of alumina in 100 parts of water and 5 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 50 fMirts of water. Precipitate with a solu- tion of 17.5 parts of barium chloride in 125 parts of water. Cool and filter. II. — ^With base of lime: Dissolve 80 parts red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in SOO parts of hot water. Boil for a few minutes with an emulsion pre- pared by mixing 10 parts sulphate of alumina with 100 parts of water and 2.5 partji of slaked lime in 100 parts of water. Filter after cooling. Lacqtser for Stoves and other Articles to Witttttand Heat.--This is not altered br heat, and does not give off disagree- ahle odors on heating: Thin 1 part of .«odium water glass witn 2 parts of water in order to make the vehicle. This is to be thickened with the following ma- terials in order to get the desired color: VYhite» barium sulphate or white lead; yellow, baryta chromate, ocher, or ura- nium yellow; green, chromium oxide or ultramarine green; brown, cadmium oxide, manganese oxide, or sienna brown; red, either iron or chrome red. The coloring materials must be free from lumM, and well ground in with the vehicle. Bronze powders may also be u<»ed either alone or mixed with other coloring stuffs, but care must be taken, in either instance, to secure a sufficient quantity. The colors should be made up as wanted, and no more than can conveniently be applied at the time should be prepared. An excellent way to u«e the bronze powders is to lay on the coloring matter, and then to dust on the powder before the glass sets. Lines or ornamentation of anj sort may be put on by allowing the coating of enamel to dry, and then drawing the bnes or anv desired design with a fresh solution of tne water glass colored to suit the taste, or dusted over with bronze. lOSCELLAHEOUS RECIPES: RiUBiaii Polishing Lac. — I.—Sticklac 925 parts Sandarac 875 parts Larch turpentine. . . 270 parts Alcohol, 96 per cent 3,500 parts The sticklac is broken up and mixed with the sandarac, put into a suitable container with a wide mouth, the spirit poured over it and set aside. After standing for a week in a warm place, freauentlv stirring in the meantime (best witn a class rod) and fully dissolving, stir in tne turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days longer, then filter through glass wool. The sandarac dissolves complete- Iv in the spirit, but the stick leaves a slight residue which may be added to the next lot of lac made up and thus be treated to a fresh portion of spirit. The larch turpentine snould be of the best quality. This lac is used by woodcarvers and turners and is very much prized by them. Mastic Lac. — II. — ^Mastic, select 150 parts Sandarac 400 parts Camphor 15 parts Alcohol, 96 percent 1,000 parts Prepare as directed in the first recipe. Leather Polish Lac. — III.— Shellac 16 parts Venice turpentine. . 8 parts Sandarac 4 parts Lampblack, Swed- ish.... . .... 2 parts Turpentine oil ... . 4 parts Alcohol, 96 per cent 960 parts The alcohol and turpentine oil are mixed and warmed under constant stir- ring in the sand or water bath. The shellac and sandarac are now stirred in, the stirring being maintained until both are dissolveo. Finally add the turpen- tine and dissolve. Stir the lampblack with a little vinegar and then aad and stir in. Instead of lampblack 125 to 150 f>arts of nigrosin may be used. This ac should be well shaicen before appli- cation. LACQUERED WARE, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. LAKES: See Dyes. LAMPBLACK: Production of Lampblack. — The last oU obtained in the distillation of coal tar, and freed from naphthalene as far as possible, viz., soot oil, is burned in a special furnace for the production of various grades of lampblack. In this furnace is an iron plate, which must always be kept glowing; upon this plate the soot oil trickles througn a small tube fixed above it. It is decomposed and Digitized by VjOOQ IC 442 LAMPBLACK— LARD the smoke (soot) rises into four cham- bers through small apertures. When the quantity of oil destined for decom- position has been used up, the furnace is allowed to stand undisturbed for a few days, and only after this time has elapsed are the chambers opened by windows provided for that purpose. In the fourth chamber is the verv finest lampblack, which the lithographers use, ancl in the third the fine ^ade employed by manu- facturers of printers' inlc, while the first and second contain the coarser soot, which, well sifted, is sold as flame lamp- black. From grade No. 1 the calcined lamp- black for paper makers is also produced. For preparing this black capsules of iron plate with closing lid are filled, the stuff IS stamped firmly into them and the cover smeared up with fine loam. The capsules are next placed in a well draw- ing stove and calcined, whereby the em- pyreumatic oils evaporate and the re- maining lampblack becomes odorless. Allow tne capsules to cool for a few days before opening them, as the soot dries very slowly, and ea,si\y ignites again as soon as air is admitted if tne capsules are opened before. This is semi-calcined lampblack. For the purpose of preparing' com- pletely calcined lampblack, the semi- calcined article is again jammed into fresh capsules, closing them up well and calcining thoroughly once more. After 2 days tne capsules are opened contain- ing the all-calcined lampblack in com- pact pieces. For the manufacture of coal soot an- other furnace is employed. Asphalt or pitch is burned in it with exclusion of air as far as practicable. It is thrown in through the doors, and the smoke escapes tnrough the chimney. to the soot chambers, 1, 2, S, 4, and 5, assorting itself there. When the amount of asphalt pitch destined for combustion has burned up completely, the furnace is left alone for several days without opening it. After this time has elapsed tne outside doors are slowly opened and some air is ad- mitted. Later on they can be opened altogether after one is satisfied that the soot has cooled completely. Chamber 4 contains the finest soot black, destined for the manufacture of leather cloth and oil cloth. In the other chambers is fine and ordinarv flame black, which is sifted and packeci in suitable barrels. Cal- cined lampblack may also be produced from it, the operation being the same as for oil black. LAMP BURNERS AHD THEIR CAR£: See Household Formulas. LAMPS: Coloring Incandescent Lunpt.— In- candescent light globes are colored h\ dipping the bulbs into a thin solution nf collodion previously colored to suit mth anilines soluble in c^oUodion. Dip an'. close the mouth and quickljr let the nn lodion coverall parts of the inside. R'- move the balance of the collodion it once, and keep it to color electric bulU for your trade. LANOLIHE: See Oil. LANOLIHE CREAMS: See Cosmetics. LANOLINE SOAP: See Soap. LA5TERH SLIDES: See Photography. LARD: Detection of Cottonseed Oil in Lard.-- Make a 2 per cent solution of ^*i>'' nitrate in distilled water, and aridifr .' by adding 1 per cent of nitrate acid C I' Into a test tube put a sample of the « i* pected lard and beat gently until it li<|*»- fies. Now add an equal quantity of t^^ silver nitrate solution, ai^tate a little, sr * bring to a boil. Continue the Uii)'**;; vigorously for about S minutes. If th^ lard remain clear and colorless, it ma* be accepted as part. The prrsmrr M cottonseed oil or fat will make it*c^f known by a coloration, varyiag iron yellow, grayish green to brown« arcurc> ing to the amount present. LATHE LUBRICART: See Lubricants. Digitized by VjOOQ IC LAITNDRY PREPARATIONS 443 lauhdrt iuks: See Household Formulas. Laundry Preparations BLTOHG COMPOUNDS: Umndry Blue. — The soluble blue of commerce, when properly made, dis- solves freely in water, and solutions so made are put up as liquid laundry blue. The water employed in making the solu- tion should be free from mineral sub- stances, especially lime, or precipitation may occur. If rain water or distilled water and a good article of blue be used, a staple preparation ought apparently to result; but whether time alone affects the matter of solubility it is impossible to state. As it is essential that tne solu- tion should be a perfect one, it is best to filter it through several thicknesses of fine cotton cloth before bottling; or if made in large quantities this method may be modified oy allowing it to stand some days to settle, when the top portion can be siphoned off for use, the bottom only requiring filtration. This soluble blue is said to be potas- sium ferri-ferrocyanide, and is prepared bv gradually adoing to a boiling solution of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) an equivalent quantitv of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for 2 hours and washing the precipitate on a filter until the washings assume a dark- blue color; the moist precipitate can then at once be dissolved by tne further ad- dition of a sufficient (]uantity of water. About 64 parts of the iron salt are neces- sary to convert 100 parts of the potassium salt into the blue compound. Leaf bluing for laundrv use may be prepared by coating thick sized paper witfi soluble blue K>rmed into a paste with a mixture of dextrin mucilage and glycerine. Dissolve a given quantity of dextrine in water enough to make a solution about as dense as ordinary ."^vrup, add about as much glvcerine as tbere was dextrine, rub the blue smooth with a sufficient quantity of this vehicle and coat the sheets with the paint. The amount of blue to be used will depend of course on the intended cost ot the product, and the amount of glycerine will require adiastment so as to give a mixture which wDI not ''smear" after the water hai dried out and yet remain readfly sol- oble. Ultramarine is now very generallv used aA a laundry blue where the in soluble or "'hag blue*' is desired. It is mixed with jocose, or glucose and dextrine, and pressed into balls or cakes. When glu- cose alone^ is used, the product has a tendency, it is said, to become soft on keeping, which tendency ma^ be coun- teracted by a proper proportion of dex- trin. Bicarbonate of^ sodium is added as a "filler** to cheapen the product, the quantity used and the (quality of the ultramarine employed being both regu- lated bv the price at which the product is to sell. The coal-tar or aniline blues are not offered to the general public as laundry blues, but laundry proprietors have them fre<)uently brought under their notice, chiefly in the form of solutions, usually 1 to 1 J per cent strong. These dyes are strong bluing materials, and, being in the form of solution, are not liable to speck the clothes. Naturally their properties depend upon the par- ticular dve used; some are fast to acids and alkalies, others are fast to one but not to another; some will not stand iron- ing, while others again are not affected by the operation; generally they are not fast to light, but this is only of minor im- portance. The soluble, or cotton, blues are those most favored; these are made in a ^eat variety of tints, varying from a reddAph blue to a pure blue in hue, dis- tinguished by such brands as SR, 6B, etc. Occasionally the methvl violets are used, especiallv the blue tints. Blackley blue is very largely used for this purpose, being rather faster than the sol u Die blues. It ma^ be mentioned that a 1 per cent solution of this dye is usually strong enough. Unless care is taken in dissolving these dyes they are apt to produce specks. The heat to which the pure blues are exposed in iron- ing the clothes causes some kinds to assume a purple tinge. The cheapest aniline blue costs about three times as much as soluble blue, yet the tinctorial power of the aniline colors is so great that possibly they might be cheapened. Soluble Blue. — I. — Dissolve 217 parts of prussiate of potash in 800 parts of hot water and bring the whole to 1,000 parts. Likewise dissolve 100 parts of ferric chloride in water and bring the solution also to 1,000 parts. To each of these solutions add 2,000 parts of cookine salt or Glauber's salt solution saturated in the cold and mix well. The solutions thus prepared of prussiate of potash and ferric chloride are now mixed together with stirring. Allow to settle and re- move by suction the clear liquid con- taining undecomposed ferrocyanide of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 444 LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS potassium and Glauber*s salt; this is kept and used for the next manufacture by boilinff it down and allowing the salts to crystallize out. The percentage of ferro- cyanide of potassium is estimated by analysis, and for the next production proportionally less is used, employing that obtained by concentration. After siphoning off the solution the precipitate is washed with warm water, placed on a filter and washed out on the latter by pouring on cold water until the water running off commences to assume a strong blue color. The precipitate is then squeezed out and dried at a moder- ate heat (104*' P.). The Paris blue thus obtained dissolves readily in water and can be extensively employed in a similar manner as indigo carmine. II. — Make ordinary Prussian blue (that which has been purified by acids, chlorine, or the hypochlorites^ into a thick paste with distilled or rain water, and add a saturated solution of oxalic acid sufficient to dissolve. If time be of no consequence, by leaving this solution exposed to the atmosphere, in the course of 60 davs the blue will be entirely pre- cipitated in soluble form. Wash with weak alcohol and dry at about 100^ F. The resultant mass dissolves in )>ure water and remains in solution indefi- nitely. It ^ives a deep, brilliant blue, and is not injurious to the clothing or the hands of the washwoman. The same result may be obtained by precipitating the soluble blue from its oxide solution by the addition of alcohol of 95 per cent, or with a concentrated solu- tion of sodium sulphate. Pour off the mother liquid and wash with very dilute alcohol; or throw on a filter and wash with water until the latter begins to come off colored a deep blue. Liquid Laundry Blue. — This may be prepared either with liauid Prussian blue or indigo carmine. Make a solution of gum dragon (gum tragacanth) by dis- solving 1 to 2 ounces of the powdered gum in 1 gallon of cold water in which i ounce oxalic acid has been dissolved. The gum will take several days to dis- solve, and will require frequent stirring and straining before use. To the strained portion add as much Prussian blue in tine powder as the liquid will dissolve without precipitating, and the com- pound is ready for use. Instead of powdered Prussian blue, soluble Prussian blue may be used. This is made bv dissolving solid Prus- sian blue in a solution of oxalic acid, but as the use of oxalic acid is to be depre- cated for the use of laundresses, a* it would set up blood poisoning shoulii it get into any cuts in tne flesh, it is be«t to prepare liquid blue by making a solution of vellow prussiate of potash (ferrocys- niae of potassium) with water, and tbrn bv adding a sufficient quantity of rhlur ide of iron to produce a blue, but Di>t enough to be precipitated. Ball Blue.<-The ball sold for laundry use consists usually, if not always, uf ultramarine. The balls are formed h) compression, starch or some other n- cipient of like character being added to render the mass cohesive. Blocks of blue can, of course, be made by the samf process. The manufacturers of ultrt- marine prepare balls and cubes of tkr pigment on a large scale, and it durf not seem likeljr that there would be » sufficient margin of profit to justify tlic making of them in a small way !n)m the powdered pigment. Careful exprn- ments, however, would be necessary to determine this positively. Ultramsrinr is of many Qualities, and it may be rx- pected that tne balls will varv also ia thr amount of "filling" according to tlr price at which they are to be sold. Below is a "filled** formula: Ultramarine 6 ounces Sodium carbonate. ... 4 ouni^et Glucose 1 ounce Water, a sufficient quantity. Make a thick paste, roll into sbeft<. and cut into tablets. The balls in bulk can be obtained only in large parkii£«^ of the manufacturers, say barrels of ^>« they can be bought in cases as small s» ^'^^ pounds. Laundry Blue Tablets, — Ultramarine 6 ounce* Sodium carbonate. ... 4 ouorvs Glucose 1 ounce Water, a sufficient quantity. Make a thick paste, roll into sbeet«. and cut into tablets. Poliahes or Glazes for Lamidfy Wof k. — 1. — To a mixture of WO parts esrh «»f Japan wax and paraffine, add 100 pari* of stearic acid, melt together, and ra«t ir molds. If the heated smoothing iron N rubbed with this wax the iron will » * merelv get over the surface much ai<>'« rapidly, but will leave a handsome poiiowder the ammonia and oil of turpen- tine are crutched into the mass shortly before removing it from the pan, and if the powder is scented — for which pur- pose oil of mirbane is mostly used — the perfume is added at the same stage. To Whiten Flaimels. — Dissolve, by the aid of heat, 40 parts of white castile soap, shaved fine, in 1,200 parts of soft water, and to the solution, wnen cold, gradually add, under constant stirring, 1 part of the strongest water of ammonia. Soak the goods in this solution for 2 hours, then let them be washed as usual for fine flannels. A better process, in the hands of experts, is to soak the goods for an hour or so in a dilute solution of sodium hyposulphite, remove, add to the solution sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid to de- compose the hvposulphite. Replace the goods, cover the tub closely, and let re- main for 15 minutes longer. Then re- move the running water, if convenient, and if not, wring out quickly, and rinse in clear water. One not an expert at such work must be very careful in the rinsing, as care must be taken to get out every trace of chemical. This is best done by a second rinsing. Ink for the Laundry. — The following is said to make a fine, jet-black laundry ink: a. Copper chloride.crys- tals 85 parts Sodium chlorate. . . . 106 parts Ammonium chloride 53 parts Water, distilled 600 parU 6. Glycerine 100 parts Mucilage gum arabic (gum. 1 part; water, 2 parts).. . . <00 parta Aniline hydrochlor- ate 200 parts Distilled water 300 parts Make solutions a and h and preserve in separate bottles. When wanted for use, mix 1 part of solution a with 4 parts of solution b. Laces, Curtains, etc. — I. — To give lare curtains, etc., a cream color, take 1 part of chrysoidin and mix with 2 parts of dextrin and dinsolve in iSO parts of water. The articles to be washed clean are plunged in this solution. About an ounce of chrysoidin is sufficient for 5 curtains. II. — Washing curtains in coffee will give them an ecru color, but the simplest way to color curtains is with *' Philadel- phia yellow" (G. or R. of the Beriin AkHenge$elUekaff$ scale). LAUNDRT SOAP: See Soap. LAVATORY DEODORAHT: See Household Formulas. LAXATIVES FOR CATTLE AHD HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas. LEAD: See also Metals. Simple Test for Red Lead and Oraacf Lead. — Take a little of the sample in « test tube, add pure, strong nitric acid and heat by a Bunsen burner until a whitr. solid residue ia obtained. Then add water, when a clear, colorless aolntion will be obtained. A white residue would indicate adulteration with barytcs, a rrd residue or a yellow solution with oxide of iron. The presence of iron may be *•• certained by adding a few droM of a solution of potassium ferrocvanide iyl- low Prussia te of potash) to the solution, when a blue precipitate will be obtainrd if there be the least trace of iron present LEAD, TO TAKE BOILOIG, IH THE MOUTH: See Pyrotechnics. LEAD ALLOTS: See Alloys. LEAD PAPER: See Paper. LEAD PLATE, TIIIHED: See Plating. LEAKS. HI BOILERS, STOPPIBG: See Putties. LEAKS: To Stop Leakage in Iron Hot-Water Pipes. — Take some fine iron boring* nr filings and mix with them sufficient vinr- gar to form a sort of paste, though the mixture is not adhesive. With thu mii- ture fill up the cracks where the leakage is found, having previously dried toe pipe. It must be kept dry until the pa»tr has become quite hard. If an iron pi^ should burst, or there should he a h*^f broken into it by accident, a piece of iri»o may be securely fastened over it. by lied- ding it on in paste made of the boring* ann vinej^ar as above, but the pipe sIhmiM not be disturbed until it has become per fcctly dry. To Prevent Wooden Vesseli fn>m Leaking. (See also Casks.) — Wooden Digitized by VjOOQ IC LEATHER 447 vessels* such as pails, barrels, etc., often become so dry that the joints do not meet« thus causing leakage. In order to obviate this evil stir together 60 parts hog:*s lard, 40 parts salt, and SS parts wax, and allow the mixture to dissolve slowly over a fire. Then add 40 parts charcoal to the liauid mass. The leaks in the vessels are dried off well and filled up with putty while still warm. When the latter has become dr^, the barrels, etc., will be perfectly tight. If any putty is left, keep in a dry place and neat it to be used again. Leather (See also Shoes.) Artificial Leather. — Pure Italian hemp is cut up fine; 1 part of this and i part of coarse, cleaned wool are carded together and formed into wadding. This wad- ding is packed in linen and felted by treatment with hot acid vapors. The resalling felt is washed out, dried, and impregnated with a substance whose composition varies according to the leather to be produced. Thus, good sole leather, for instance, is produced according to a Danish patent, in the following manner: Mix together 50 parts of boiled linseed oil; 20 parts of colo- phony; 25 parts of Frencn turpentine; 10 parts of glycerine, and 10 parts of vegetable wax, and heat over a water bath with some ammonia water. When the mass has become homogeneous, add tS parts of glue, soaked in water, as well as a casein solution, which latter is produced by dissolving 50 parts, by weight, of moist, freshly precipitated casein in i saturated solution of 16 parts of borax and adding 10 parts of potas- sium bichromate, the last two also by weight. Finally, mineral dyestuffs as well as antiseptic substances may be added to the mass. The whole mixture is now boiled until it becomes sticky and the felt is impregnated with it by im- mersion. The impregnated felt is dried for M hours at an ordinary tempera- ture; next laid into a solution of alumi- num acetate and finally dried completely, dred« and pressed between hot rollers. Black Dye for Tamied Leather. — This rtripe takes the place of the ill-smelling iron blacking, and is not injurious to the leather. Gallnuts, pulverized, 150 parts; TTtriol. green or black, 10 parts; rock randy, 00 parts; alum, 15 parts; vinegar, ^0 parts: cooking salt, 20 parts. Dissolve with 4.000 parts of distilled water. Boil this solution slowly and the blacking is done. When it has cooled and settled, pour through linen, thus obtaining a pure, good leather blacking. Bronze Leather. — All sorts of skins — sheepskins, goatskins, coltskins, and light calfskins — are adapted for the preparation of bronze leather. In this preparation the advantage lies not onl^ m tne use of the faultless skins, but scari- fied skins and those of inferior quality may also be employed. The dressing of the previously tanned skin must be carried out with the greatest care, to pre- vent the appearance of spots and other faults. Alter tanning, the pelts are well washed, scraped, and dried. Then they are bleached. For coloring, it is cus- tomary to employ methyl violet which has previously been dissolved in hot water, taking 100 parts, by weight, of the aniline color to 8,000 parts, by weight, of water. If in the leather-dressing establishment a line of steam piping be convenient, it is advisable to boil up all the coloring dyes, rather than simply to dissolve them; for in this way complete solution is effected. Where steam is used no special appliance is required for boiling up the djres, for this may take place without inconvenience in the separate dye vats. A len^h of steam hose and a brass nozzle with a valve is all that is needed. It may be as well to add here that the violet color for dyeing may be made cheaper than as above described. To 3,000 parts, by weight, of pretty strong logwood decoction add 50 parts, by weight, of alum and 100 parts, by weight, of methyl violet. This compound is almost as strong as the pure violet solution, and insteadof 8,000 parts, by weight, we now have 80,000 parts, by weight, of color. The color is applied and well worked in with a stiff brush, and the skins al- lowed to stand for a short time, sufficient to allow the dve to penetrate the pores, when it is fulled. As for the shade of the bronze, it may be made reddish, bluish, or brownish, according to taste. For a reddish or brownish ground the skins are simply fulled in warm water, planished, fulled again, and then dved. According to the color desired, the skins are treated with cotton blue and methyl violet R, whereupon the application of the bronze follows. The bronze is dissolved in alcohol, and it is usual to take 200 parts, bv weight, of bronze to 1,000 of alcohol. By means of this mixture the peculiar component parts of the bronze are dis- solved. For a fundamental or thorough Digitized by VjOOQ IC M8 LEATHER solution a fortnight is reauired. All bronze mixtures are to be well shaken or agitated before using. Skins may be bronsed, howeTer, without the use of the bronze colors, for it is well known that aU the aniline dves present a bronze ap- pearance when highly concentrated, and this is particularly the case with the violet and red dyes. If, therefore, the violet be applied in very strong solutions, the effect wul be much the same as when the regular bronze color is emploved. Bronze color on a brown ground is the most beautiful of all, and is used to the greatest advantage when it is desirable to cover up defects. Instead of warm clear water in such a case, use a decoc- tion of logwood to which a small quan- tity of alum has been added, and thus, during the fulling, impart to the skins a proper basic tint, which mav, by the ap- Clication of a little violet or bronze color, e converted into a most brilliant bronze. By no means is it to be forgotten that too much coloring matter will never produce the desired results, for here, as with the other colors, too much will bring out a greenish tint, nor will the sloss turn out so beautiful and clear. Next rinse the skins well in clean water, and air them, after which they may be dried with arti- ficial heat. Ordinary as well as dam- aged skins which are not suitable for chevreaux (kid) and which it is desirable to provide with a very high polish, in order the more readily to conceal the defects in the grain, and other imperfec- tions, are, after the drving, coated with a mixture, compounded according to the following simple formula: Stir well 1 pint of ox blood and 1 pint of unboiled milk in 10 quarts of water, and with a soft si>onge apply this to the surface of the skin. The blood has no damaging effect upon the color. Skins thus mois- tened must not be laid one upon another, but must be placed separately in a thor- oughly well- warmed chambier to dry. When diy they are slossed, and mav then be pressed into shagreen or pebbled. The thin light goatskins are worLed into kid or chevreaux. Properly speaking, they are onlv imitation cnevreaux (kid), for although they are truly goatskins, under the term chevreaux one under- stands only such skins as have been cured in alum and treated with albumen and flour. After drying, these skins are drawn over the perching stick with the round knife, then fflossed, stretched, glossed again, and finally vif|^orously brushed upon the flesh side with a stiff brush. The brushing should be done preferably by hand, for the brushing machines commonly jpull the skins out of ail shape. Brushing is intended only to give the flesh side more of a flaky appearance. During the second glossing care mu^t be taken that the pressure is light, for the object is merely to bring the skin back into its proper shape, lost in the stretching; the glossing proper should have been accomplished during the fir»t operation. Cracked Leather. — The badly cracked and fissured carriage surface greets the painter on every hand. The following IS the recipe for nlling up and facing over such a surface: Finest pumice stone. 6 parts; lampblack (in bull), 1 part; com- mon rougnstuff filler, 8 parts. Mix to stiff paste in good coach japan, 5 pari«. hard drying rubbing varnish, 1 part. Thin to a brtisfaine consistency with turpentine, and apixy 1 coat per dsv. Put on 2 coats of this filler and then i coats or ordinary roughstuff. Rub with lump pumice stone and water. Tbi« process does not equal burning off io gettinff permanently rid of the crack*, but when the price of painting furbid^ burning off, it serves as an effective sub- stitute. Upon a job that is well cared for, and not subjected to too ezartinc service, this filler will secrete the cracks and fissures for from 3 to 5 months. DRESSmOS FOR LEATHER: For Carriage Tops. — I. — Here is in inexpensive and quickly prepared dre»^ ing for carriage tops or the like: Tske i parts of common fflue; soak and liqurfv it over a fire. Tnree parts of cs»ti)e soap are then dissolved over a moderate heat. Of water, liO parts are addee obtained. II. — Dissolve 2 pounds of borax in 4 (gallons of water and add 5 pounds of shellac to the boiling liquid in portions, till all is dissolved. Then boil half an hour, and finally stir in 5 pounds of sugar, H pounds of glycerine, and 14 pounds of soluble nigrosin. When cola add 4 pounds of 95 per cent methylated spirit. III. — Ox blood, fresh, clean 1,000 parts Commercial glyc- erine 200 parts Oil of turpentine . 800 parts Pine oil (rosin oil) 5,000 parts Ox gall 200 parts Formalin 15 parts Mix in the order named, stirring in each ingredient. When mixed strain through linen. Kid Leather pressinss. — Creams for greasing fine varieties of leather, such as kid, patent leather, etc., are produced as follows, according to tried recipes: White Cream. — Lard 75 parts Gljcerine, technical . 25 parts Mirbane oil, ad libitum. Black Cream. — Lard 100 parts Yellow vaseline 20 parts Glycerine, technical . 10 parts Castor oil, technical . 10 parts Dye black with lampblack and per- fume with oil of mirbane. Colored Cream. — Lard 100 parts Castor oil 20 parts Yellow wax 25 parts White vaseline 80 parts Dye with any desired dyestuflp, e. g., r^-d with anchusine, green with chloro- f»hy1. In summer it is well to add some wax to the first and second prescriptions. These are for either Morocco or kid: L — Shellac 2 parts Benzoin 2 parts Yellow wax 5 parts Soap liniment 7 parts Alcohol 600 parts Digest until solution is effected, then allow the liquid to stand in a cool place for 12 hours and strain. Apply with a bit of sponge or soft rag; spread thinly and evenly over the surface, without rubbing much. If dirt;^, the leather should first be washed with a little soft soap and warm water, wiped well, and allowed to dry thoroughly before the dressing is put on. II. — Oil of turpentine. ... 8 ounces Suet 2 pounds Soft soap 8 ounces Water 16 ounces Lampblack 4 ounces Patent Leatiier DressiiigB. — L— Wax 22 parts Olive oil. 60 parts Oil turpentine, best . 20 parts Lavender oil 10 parts With gentle heat, melt the wax in the oil, and as soon as melted remove from the fire. Add the turpentine oil, in- corporate, and when nearly cold, add ana incorporate the lavender oil. II.— Wax 22 parts Olive oil 60 parts Oil of turpentine 80 parts With gentle heat, melt the wax in the olive oil, and as soon as melted rennove from the fire. When nearly cold stir in the turpentine. Red Russia Leather Varnish. — Shellac 1.20 parts Dammar rosin, pow- dered 0.15 parts Turpentine, Venice . . 0.60 parts Dissolve with frequent shaking in 12 parts of alcohol (95 per cent), add 1.8 parts of powdered red sanders wood, let stand for 3 days and filter. The object of this varnish is to restore the original color to worn Russia leather boots, pre- viously cleaned with benzine. Russet Leather Dressing. — The fol- lowing formulas are said to yield effi- cient preparations that are at once de- tersive and polishing, thus rendering the use of an extra cleaning liquid unneces- sary. I. — Soft soap 2 parts Linseed oil . . .^ . . 8 parts Annatto solution (in oil) 8 parts Beeswax 8 parts Turpentine 8 parts Water 8 parts Dissolve the soap in the water, and add the annatto; melt the wax in the oil and turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap solution, stirring until cold. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 450 LEATHER II.— Palm oil 16 parts Common soap 48 parts Oleic acid 32 parts Glycerine 10 parts Tannic acid 1 part Melt the soap and palm oil together at a ffentle heat, and add the oleic acid; dissolve the tannic acid in the glycerine, add to the hot soap and oil mixture, and stir until perfectly cold. Shoe Leather Dreasing. — Oyer a water bath melt 50 parts, bv weig^ht, of oil of turpentine; 100 parts, by weight, of olive oil; 100 parts, by weight, of train oil; 40 parts, by weight, of carnauba wax; 15 parts, by weisht, of asphaltum; and 2 parts, by weight, of oil ot bitter almonds. DYEING LEATHER. In dyeing leather, aniline or coal-tar colors are generally used. These^ dyes, owing to their extremely rapid action on organic substances, such as leather, do not readily adapt themselves to the staining process, because a full brushful of dye liquor would give a much deeper coloration than a half-exhausted brush would give. Consequently, to alter and to color leather by the staining process results in a patchy coloration of the skin. In the dyeing operation a zinc shallow trough, 4 to 6 inches deep, is used, into which the dye liquor is put, and to pro- duce the best results the contents of the trough are kept at a uniform tempera- ture by means of a heating apparatus beneath the trough, such as a gas jet or two, which readily allows of a heat being regulated. The skins to be dyed are spread out flat in the djre trough, one at a time, each skin remaining m the dye liauor the time prescribed by the recipe. Tne best coloration of the skin is pro- duced by using 3 dye troughs of the same dye liquor, each of different strength, the skin being put in the weakest liquor first, then passed into the second, and from there into the third dye liquor, where it is allowed to remain until its full depth of color is obtained. Very great skill is required in the em- ployment of aniline dyes, as if the heat be too great, or the skins remain too long in the final bath, "bronzing** of the color occurs. The only remedy for this (and that not always effectual) is to sponge the skin with plenty of cold, clean water, directly it is taken out of the final dye bath. The dyed skins are dried and finished as before. Leather Brown. — Extractof fustic. .. . 5 ounces Extract of hypernic. . 1 ounce Extract of logwood. . . ) ounce Water « gallons Boil all these ingredients for 15 min- utes, and then dilute with water to make 10 gallons of dye liquor. Vw the dve liquor at a temperature of 1 10*^ F. Mordant. — Dissolve 8 ounces of white tartar and 4 ounces of alum in 10 gal- lons of water. Fast Brown. — Prepare a dye liquor br dissolving 1 ) ounces fast brown in 1 gtf- Ion of water, and make a 10-gallon bulk of this. Use at a temperature of 1 lO'^ F.. and employ the same mordanting liquor as in last recipe. Bismarck Brown. — Extract of fustic 4 ounces Extract of hypernic. . 1 ounce Extract of logwood ... i ounce Water « gallons Preparation. — Boil all together for M minutes. Method of Dyeing. — First mordant the skins with a mordanting fluid made by dissolving 3 ounces tartar and \ ounce borax in 10 gallons of water. Then put the skins into the above foundation bath at a temperature of lOO"" F. Take them out, and then put in 1 ounce of Bismarck brown, dissolved in boiling water. Put the skins in aeain until colored deep enough, then lift out, drip and dry. HARNESS PREPARATIOHS: BlackinE for Harness. — I. — In a water bath dissolve 90 parts of yellow nai in 900 parts of oil of turpentine; aside from this mix well together, all the ingredieott being finely powdered, 10 parts of Prus- sian blue, 5 parts of indigo, 50 parts of bone black, and work this into a portion of the above-mentioned waxy solution. Now throw this'into the original solution, which still remains in the water bath, and stir it vigorously until the mass become* homogeneous, after which pour it into any convenient earthenware rrceptadr. II. — Best glue, 4 ounces; good tine- gar, 1} pints; best gum arabic. t ounrr»: good black ink, \ pint; best i«ingU». i rachms. Dissolve the gum in the ink. and melt the isinglass in another Te»M^ in as much hot water as will cover it- Having first steeped the glue in the vine- gar until soft, di!(solve it completely hv the aid of heat, stirring to prevent h«n»j ing. The heat should not exceed 1**' F. Add the gum and ink, and allow the mixture to rise again to the mb^ temperature. lastly mix the solution in isinglass, and remove from fire. Wbea Digitized by VjOOQ IC LEATHER 451 used, a Bmall portion must be heated until fluid, and then applied with a sponge and allowed to dry on. DressingB for Harness. — L — Ox blood, fresh and well purified ... 100 parts Glycerine, technical. 20 parts Turpentine oil 30 parts Pine oil 50 parts Ox gall 20 parts Formalin 1^ parts . The raw materials are stirred together cold in the order named. Pour the mix- ture through thin linen. It imparts a wonderful mild, permanent gloss. II. — A French harness dressing of ^ood quality consists of oil of turpentine, 900 parts; yellow wax, 90 parts; Berlin blue, 10 parts; indieo, 5 parts; and bone hisck, 50 parts, dissolve the yellow wax in the oil of turpentine with the aid of moderate heat in a water bath, mix the remaining substances, which should previously be well pulverized, and work them witn a small portion of tbe wax solution. Finally, add the rest of the wax solution, and mix the whole well in the water bath. When a homogeneous liquid has resulted, pour it into earthen receptacles. Harness Oils. — I. — Neatsfoot oil 10 ounces Oil of turpentine 2 ounces Petrolatum 4 ounces Lampblack } ounce Mix the lampblack with the turpentine and the neatsfoot oil, melt the petrolatum and mix by shaking together. II. — Black aniline. ... 35 grains Muriatic acid ... 50 minims Bone black 175 grains Lampblack 18 grains Yellow wax. .... 2i av. ounces Oil of turpentine 22 fluidounces III. — Oil of turpentine 8 fluidounces Yellow wax 2 av. ounces Prussian blue . . . } a v. ounce Lampblack | av. ounce Melt the wax, add the turpentine, a pfirticm first to the finely powdered Prus- sian blue and lampblack, and thin with iit>at«ioot oil. Harness Pastes. — L — Ceresine, natural ydlow 1.5 parts Yellow beeswax .... 1.5 parts Japan wax 1.5 parts Melt on the water bath, and when half ^-•>oled stir in 8 parts of turpentine oil. Harness Grease. — By weight II. — Ceresine, natural yellow 2.5 parts Beeswax, yellow 0.8 parts French colophony, pale 0.4 parts By weight III. — French oil turpen- tine 2.0 parts Intimately mixed in the cold with American lamp- black 1.5 parts Put mixture I in a kettle and melt over a fire. Remove from the fire and stir in mixture II in small portions. Then pour through a fine sieve into a second vessel, and continue pouring from one kettle into the other until the mass is rather thickish. Next fill in cans. Should the mixture have become too cold during the filling of the cans, the vessel containing the grease need only be placed in hot water, whereby the con- tents are rendered liquid again, so that pouring out is practicable. For per- fuming, use cinnamon oil as required. This harness grease is applied by means of a rag ana brushed. Waterproof Harness Composition. — See also Waterproofing. By weight Rosin spirit 27} parts Dark mineral oil. . IS) parts Paraffine scales. . . 16.380 parts Lampblack 7.940 parts Dark rosin 5.450 parts Dark syrup 5.450 parts Naphthalene black 2.500 parts Berlin blue 0.680 parts Mirbane oil 0.170 parts Melt the paraffine and the rosin, add the mineral oil and the rosin spirit, stir the syrup and the pigments into this, and lastly add the mirbane oil. PATENT AlVD ENABIELED LEATHER. Patent leather for boots and shoes is f>repared from sealskins, enameled eattier for harness from heavy bullock's hides. The process of tanning is what is called "union tannage*' (a mixture of oak and hemlock barks). These tanned skins are subjected to the process of soak- ing, unhairing, liming, etc., and are then subjected to the tanmng process. When about one-third tanned a buffinff is taken off (if the hides are heavy), ana the hide is split into three layers. The top or grain side is reserved for enameling in fancy colors for use on tops of carriages; the middle layer is 'finished for splatter Digitized by VjOOQ IC 45S LEATHER boards and carriage trimmlnffs, and some parts of harness; the underneath layer, or flesh side is used for shoe uppers and other purposes. The tanning of the splits is completed by subiecting them to a gam bier liquor instead of a bark liquor. When the splits are fully tanned they are laid on a table and scored, and then stretched in frames and dried, after which each one is covered on one side with the following compound, so as to close the pores of the leather that it may present a suitable surface for receiving the varnish: Into 14 parts of raw lin- seed oil put 1 part dry white lead and 1 part silver litnarge, and boil, stirring constantly until the compound is thick enough to dry in 15 or 20 minutes (when spread on a sheet of iron or china) into a tough, elastic mass, like caoutchouc. This compound is laid on one side of the leather while it is still stretched in the frame. If for enameled leather (i. e., not the best patent), chalk or yellow ocher may^ be mixed in the above com- Cound while boiling, or afterwards, but efore spreading it on the leather. The frames are then put into a rack in a drving closet, and the coated leather dried by steam heat at 80* to 160* F., the heat being raised gradually. After removal from the drying closet, the grounding coat previously laid on is pumiced, to smooth out the surface, and then given 2 or 3 coats of the enameling varnish, which consists of Prussian blue and lampblack boiled with linseed oil and diluted with turpentine, so as to enable it to flow evenly over the surface of the coated leather. When spread on with a brush, each coating of the enamel is dried before applying the next, and pumiced or rubbed with tripoli powder on a piece of flannel (the coat last laid on is not subjected to this rubbing), when the leather is ready for market. To prepare the enamelin||^ composi- tion, boil 1 part asphalt um with <0 parts raw linseeci oil until thoroughly com- bined; then add 10 parts thick copal varnish, and when this mixture is homo- geneous dilute with 40 parts spirit of turpentine. Instead of the foregoing enameling varnish the following is used for superior articles: Prussian blue 18 ounces Vegrtahlc Mark. . . 4 ounces Raw linseed oil. . . 160 fluidounces Boil together as previously directed, and dilute with turpentine as occasion requires. These enameling varnishes should be made and kept several weeks in the same room as tne varnishing is carried on, so that they are always sub- jected to the same temperature. STAINS FOR PATEUT LEATHER: Black Stain. — Vinegar 1 gallon Ivory black 14 ounces Ground iron scales. . . 6 pounds Mix well and allow to stand a few days. Red Stain. — Water, 1 quart; spirit of hartshorn, 1 quart; cochineal, i pouiid Heat the water to near the boiling point, and then dissolve in it the cochineal . afterwards adding the spirit of hartshoro. Stir well to incorporate. Liquid Cochineal Stain. — Good French carmine 2) drachms Solution of potash } ounce Rectified spirit of wine 2 ouorr« Pure glycerine 4 ounces Distilled water to make 1 pint To the carmine in a 20-ounce bottle add 14 ounces of distilled water. Thrn gradually introduce solution of potash. shaking now and again until dLuolveii. Add glycerine and spirit of wine, roakin^ up to 20 ounces witn distilled water, aoJ filter. Blue Black. — Ale droppings, % gallon^: bruised galls, } pound; logwood extrsH. } pound; indigo extract, 2 ounces; sul- phate of iron, 3) ounces. Heat togethrr and strain. Finishen* Ink.-^Soft water, 1 gallon, logwood extract, 1} ounces; green ritriiJ. ^i ounces; potassium bichromate, f ounce; gum arabic, h ounce. Grind the gum and potassium bichn>- mate to powder and then add all tb<' coloring ingredients to the water and Uul To Restore Patent Leather ]>asb. - Take raw linseed oil, 1 part; cider vnnr- gar, 4 ounces; alcohol, i ounces; butter of antimony, 1 ounce; aoua ammontt. i ounce; spirits of campnor, ) ouikt. lavender, i ounce. Shake well togethrr; apply with a soft brush. PRESERVATIVES FOR LEATHER. I. — Mutton suet 50 part« Sweet oil 50 part< Turpentine 1 part Melt together. The application should be made oo the dr^ leather warmed to the pcMnt where it will liquefy and absorb the fsl II.— Equal parts nf mutton fat and linseed oil. mixed with one-tenth their Digitized by VjOOQ IC LEATHER 453 weight of Venice turpentine, and melted together in an earthen pipkin, will pro- duce a **dubbin" which is very efficacious in preserving leather when exposed to vet or snow, etc. The mixture should he applied when the leather is quite dry and warm. III. — A solution of 1 ounce of solid paraffine in 1 pint light naphtha, to which 6 drops of sweet oil have been added, is put cold on the soles, until they «ill absorb no more. One dressing will do for the uppers. This process is claimed to vastly increase tne tensile strength. Patent Leather Preserver. — Camauba wax 1.0 part Turpentine oil 9.5 parts Aniline black, soluble in fat 0.06 parts Melt the wax, stir in the turpentine oil and the dye and scent with a little mir- bane oil or lavender oil. The paste is rubbed out on the patent leather by means of a soft raff, and when dry should be polished with a soft brush. REVIVERS AND REGENERATORS. By weight. I.— Methylic alcohol 22 J parts Ground ruby shellac 2.250 parts Dark rosin 0.910 parts Gum rosin 0.115 parts Sandarac 0.115 parts Lampblack ....... 0.115 parts Aniline black, spirit- soluble 0.1 15 parts The gums are dissolved in spirit and next the aniline black soluble in spirit is added; the lampblack is ground with a little liquid to a paste, which is added to the whole, and filtering follows. Kid Reviver. — By weight. IL — Clear chloride of lime solution 3.5 parts Spirit of sal ammo- niac 0.5 parts Scraped Marseilles soap 4.5 parts Water 6.0 parts Mix chloride of lime solution and spirit of sal ammoniac and stir in the Hoap dissolved in water. Revive the cloves with the pulpy mass obtained, by means of a flannel rag. TANNING LEATHER. Picklinf Process. — Eitner and Stiazn;r have made a s^rstematic series of experi- cuents with mixtures of salt and vari- L>us acids for pickling skins preparatory to tanning. Experiments with hydro- chloric acid, acetic and lactic acids showed that these offered no advantages over sulphuric acid for use in pickling, the pickled pelts and the leatner pro- duced from them being similar in ap- • ^ the kle liqu€ found that the amount of salt absorbed pearance and quality. ^By varying concentration oi the pickle liquors, it was by the pelt from the pickle liquor was controlled by the concentration of the solution, 23 to 25 per cent of the total amount used being taken up by the pelt, and that the absorption capacity or the pelt for acid was limited. The goods pickled with the largest amount of acid possessed a more leathery feel and after drving were fuller and stretched much better than those in which smaller amounts of acids were eniployed. Dried, pickled pieces, con- taining as much as 3 per cent of sulphuric acid, snowed no deterioration or tender- ing of fiber. The pickled skins after chrome tanning still retained these characteristics. An analysis of the leather produced by tanning with sumac showed that no free acid was retained in the finished leather. An Australian pickled pelt was found to contain 19.2 per cent of salt and 2.8 per cent of sul- phuric acid. From a very large number of experi- ments the following conclusions were drawn: 1. That sulphuric acid is quite equal in eflficiency to other acids for the purpose. 2. To a certain limit increas- ing softness is produced by increasing the quantity of acid used. 3. For naturally soft skins and when a leather not very soft is required the best results are obtained by usm^ 22 pounds of salt, 2.2 pounds of sulphuric acid, and 25 gal- lons of water for 110 pounds of pelt in the drum. 4. For material which is natural- ly hard and when a soft leather is re- quired, the amount of acid should be increased to 4.4 pounds, using similar amounts as those given above of pelt, salt, and water. French Hide Tanning Process. — I. — The prepared pelts are submitted to a 8 to 4 hours* immersion in a solution of rosin soap, containing 5 to 10 per cent of caustic soda. The goods are afterwards placed in a 6 to 12 per cent solution of a salt of chromium, iron, copper, or alum- inum (preferably aluminum sulphate) for 3 to 4 hours. II. — The hides are soaked in a solu- tion of sodium carbonate of 10® Be. for 3 to 6 hours. After washing with water they are allowed to remain for 5 hours in Digitized by VjOOQ IC 454 LEATHER a bath of caustic soda, the strength of which may vary from 2"* to SO"* Be. From this the^ are transferred to a bath of hydrochloric acid (1^* to 5® Be.) in whicn they remain for 2 hours. Finally the hides are washed and the beam- work finished in the usual way. The tannage consists of a special bath of sodium or ammonium suiphoricinoleate (2 to 30 per cent) and sumac extract, or similar tannine material (2 to 50 per cent). The strength of this bath is gradually raised from 4<' to 80"* or ^O"" B^. Tanning Hides for Robes. — The hides should be very thoroughly soaked in order to soften them completely. For dry hides this will require a longer time than for salted. A heavy hide requires longer soaking than a skin. Thus it is impos- sible to fix a certain length of time. After soaking, the hide is fleshed clean, and is now ready to go into the tan liquor, which is made up as follows: One part alum; I part salt; 1 to ) part japonica. These are dissolvea in hot water in suf- ficient quantity to make a 35^ liquor. The hide, according to the thickness, is left in the tan from 5 to 10 days. Skins are finished in about 2 or 3 days. The hide should be run in a drum for about 2 hours before going into tan, and again after that process. In tanning hides for robes, shaving them down is a main requisite for success, as it is impossible to get soft leather otherwise. After shaving put back into the tan liquor again for a day or two and hang up to dry. When ^ood and hard, shave a^ain and lay away m moist sawdust and give a heavy coat of oil. When dry, apply a solution of soft soap; roll up and lay away in moist sawdust asain. Run the hides on a drum or wheeiuntil thoroughly soft. The composition of the tan liquor may be changed considerably. If the brown- ish tinge of the japonica be objectionable, that article may be left out entirely. The japonica has the effect of making the robe more able to resist water, as the alum and salt alone are readily soaked out by rain. Lace Leather. — Take cow hides aver- aging from 25 to SO pounds each; 35 hides will make a convenient soak for a vat containing 1,000 gallons of water, or 25 hides to a soak of 700 gallons. Soak 2 days or more, as required. Change water every 24 hours. Split and flesh; resoak if necessary. When thoroughly soft put in limes. Handle and strength- en once a day, for 5 or 6 days, rnhair and wash. Hathe in hen manure. 90^ F. Work out of drench, wash well, drain 4 of 5 hours. Then process, using 43 pounds vitriol and 600 pounds of soft water to 700 gallons of water. In n> newing process for second or oooiecutirf packs, use 15 pounds vitriol and 200 pounds salt, always keeping; stock con* stantly in motion during time of proo essing. After processing, drain oTcr night, then put in tan in agitated liquors, keeping the stock in motion during the whole time of tanning. Pack down ove^ night. Use 200 pounds dry leather to each mill in stuffing. For stuffing, use 3 gallons curnen* hard grease and 3 gallons American ccmI oil. Strike out from mill, on flesh. Srt out on grain. Dry slowly. Trim snd board, length and cross. The stock is then ready to cut. The time for soakinj; the hides may be reduced one^half by putting the stock into a rapidly revolving reel pit, with a good inflow of water, »o that the dirty water washes over and runs off. After 10 hours in the soak, put the stock into a drum, and keep it tumblinx 5 hours. This produces soft stock. In liming, where the saving of the hsir is no object, softer leather is obtainable by using 35 pounds sulphide of stidium with 60 pounds lime. Then, when the stock comes from the limes, the hair if dissolved and immediately washes off, and saves the labor of unhairing and caring for the hair, which in some cases does not pay. MISCELLAlfEOUS RECIPES: Russian Leather. — This leather owe^ its name to the country of its origin. The skins used for its production are goat, large sheep, calfskin, and cow or strrr hide. The preliminary oi>eration9 of soaking, unhairing, and fleshing are done in the usual manner, and then the hides are permitted to swell in a mixture of ryt flour, oat flour, yeast* and salt This compound is made into a paste with water, and is then thinned with suffi- cient water to steep a hundred hides in the mixture. The proportions of ingre- dients used for this mixture are i'i pounds rye flour, 10 pounds oat flour, a little salt, and sufficient yeast to set up fermentation. The hides are steeped in this com- pound for 2 days, until swelled up, an- jective or eyepiece the lenses are not clean, the definition mav be seriously im- paired or destroyed. Uncleanliness may lie due to finger marks upon the front lens of the objective, or upon the eyepiece leiLses; dust which in time may settle upon the rear lens of the objective or on the eve lens; a film which forms upon one or the other lens, due occasionally to the fact that glass is hygroscopic, but general Iv to the exhalation from the interior finisn of the mountings, and, in immersion ob- jectives, because the front lens is not properly cleaned; or oil that has leaked on to its rear surface, or air bubbles that have formed in the oil between the cover glass and front lens. Remedv. — Keep all lenses scrupu- lously clean. For cleaninff, use well- washed linen (an old hanulcerchief) or Japanese lens paper. Eyepieces. — To find impurities, revolve the eyepieces during the observation; breathe upon the lenses, and wipe gently with a circular motion and blow off an} particles which may adhere. Dry Objectives. — Clean the front kn% as described. To examine the rear and in- terior lenses use a 2-inch magnifier, look- ing through the rear. Remove the du^t from the rear lens with a camelVbur brush. Oil Immersion Objectives. — Invariakir clean the front lens after use with moi»l- ened linen or paper, and wipe dry. In applying oil examine the front o/ the objeciive with a magnifier, and if tkrnr are any air bubbles, remove them with a pointed quill, or remove the oil entirely and apply a fresh quantity. LENSES, REPAIRING BROKEN: See Adhesives, under Cements. LETTERS, TO REMOVE FROM CHDIA : See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. LETTER-HEAD SENSITIZERS: See Photography, under Paper-SetiM- tizing Processes. Lettering CEMENTS FOR ATTACHINO LETTERS ON GLASS: See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Ce- ments. Gold Lettering. — This is usually done by first drawing the lettering, tbencuvrr^ ing with an adhesive mixture, such as Mxe. and finally applying gold bronxe powder or real gold leaf. A good method for amateurs to follow in marking Irttrm on glass is to apply first a coat of w biting, mixed simply with water, and then tu mark out the letters on this surfscp, usinff a pointed stick or the like, .iftrr this has oeen done the letters may r«ftil; be painted or gilded on the reverse wdr ol the ^lass. When done, wash off the whiting from the other side, and the work is complete. Bronze Lettering. — The following i» the best method for card work: Writr vith asphaltum thinned with turpentine until it flows easily, and, when nearly dry. du«4 bronze powder over the letters. When the letters are perfectly dry tap the rsni to take off the extra bronse, and it will leave the letters clean and sharp. T|>e letters should be made with a camel V hair brush and not with the automatic pen, as oil paints do not work satisf*<'- torily with tnese pens. For bronzed letters made with the pr«. use black letterine or any water cxAttr. Digitized by VjOOQ IC LETTERING 457 If a water color is used add considerable Kuiu arable. Each letter should be bronzed as it is made, as the water color dries much more quickly than the a»- phaltum. Another method is to mix the bronze powder with bronze sizing to about the consistency of the asphaltum. Make the letter with a camers-nair brush, using the bronze paint as one would any oil paint. This method requires mucn skill, as the gold paint spreads quickly and is apt to flood over the ed^e of the letter. For use on oilcloth this is the most practical method. Bronzes may be purchased at any hardware store. They are made in copper, red, green, silver, gold, and cop- per shades. Lettering on Glass. — White lettering on glass and mirrors produces a rich effect. Dry zinc, chemically pure, should be used. It can be obtainecf in any first- claas paint store and is inexpensive. To every teaspoonful of zinc, 10 drops of mucilage should be added. The two should be worked up into a thick paste, water being gradually added until the mixture is about the consistency of thick cream. The paint should then be ap- plied with a camel's-hair brush. Another useful paint for this purpose is Chemnitz white. If this distemper color is obtained in a jar, care should be exercised to keep water standizig above the color to prevent drying. By using mucilage as a sizing these colors will ad- here to the glass until it is washed off. Both mixtures are equally desirable for lettering on block card-board. .\ny distemper color may be employed on glass without in any way injuring it. An attractive combination is — first to letter the .sign with Turkey red, and then to outline the letters with a very narrow white stripe. The letter can be ren- dered still more attractive by shading one side in black. S&gns on Show Cases. — Most show cases have mirrors at the back, either in the form of sliding panels or spring doors. Lettering in distemper colors on these mirrors can easilv be read throu||b the fronts or tops of cases. If the mirror is on a sliding panel, it will be necessary to detach it from the case in order to letter it. When the mirror IB on a spring door the sign can be let- tered with less trouble. By tracing letters in chalk on the out- jcide of the jgtass, and then painting them on the inside, attractive signs can be produced on all show cases; but paint- ing letters on the inside of a show case glass is more or less difficult, and ii is not advisable to attempt it in very shallow cases. "Spatter" Work. — Some lettering which appears very difficult to the unin- itiated is, in fact, easily produced. The beautiful effect of lettering and orna- mentation in the form of foliage or con- ventional scrolls in a speckled ground is simple and can be produced with little effort. Pressed leaves and letters or designs cut from newspapers or maga- zines may be tacked or pasted on card- board or a mat with flour paste. As little paste as possible should be used — only enough to hold the design in place. When all tne designs are in the positions desired, a toothbrush should be dipped in the ink or paint to be employed. A toothpick or other sjnall piece of wood is drawn to and fro over the bristles, which are held toward the sign, the en- tire surface of which shoula be spat- tered or sprinkled with the color. When the color is dry the designs pasted on should be carefully removed and the paste which held them in place should be scraped off. This leaves the letters and other designs clean cut and white against the "spatter** background. The begin- ner should experiment first with a few simple designs. After he is able to pro- duce attractive work with a few figures or letters he may confidently undertake more elaborate combinations. Lettering on Mirrors. — From a bar of fresh common brown soap cut off a one- inch-wide strip across its end. Cut this into 2 or 3 strips. Take one strip and with a table-knife cut from two opposite sides a wedge-shaped point resembling that of a shading pen, but allow the edge to be fully J inch thick. Clean the mirror thoroughly and proceed to letter in exactly the same manner as with a shading pen. To Fill Engraved Letters on Metal Signs. — Letters engraved on metal may be filled in with a mixture of asphaltum, brown japan, and lampblack, the mix- ture being so made as to be a putty -like mass. It should be well pressed down with a spatula. Any of the mass ad- hering to the plate about the edges of the letters is removed with turpentine, and when the cement is thorougnly dried the plate may be polished. If white letters are desired, make a putty of dr^ white lead, with equal parts of coach japan and rubbing varnish. Fill the letters nearly level with the sur- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 458 LICORICE— LIME face, and when hard, apply a stout coat of flake white in japan thinned with tur- pentine. This will ffiye a clean white nnish that may be poushed. The white cement may be tinted to any desired shade, using coach colors ground in japan. Tlnwled Letters, or Chinese Paintmg on Glass. — ^This is done by painting the groundwork with any color, leaving the letter or figure naked. When dry, place tin foil or any of the various colored copper foils over the letters on the back of tne glass, after crumpling them in the hand, and then partially straightening them out. UCE KILLERS: See Insecticides. UCHEN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods and Household Formulas. LICORICE: Stable Solutions of Uoorice Juice. — A percolator, with alternate layers of broKen glass, which have been well washed, first with hydrochloric acid and plentifully rinsed with distilled water, is the first requisite. This is charged with pieces of crude licorice juice, from the size of a hazel nut to that of a walnut, which are weighted down with well- washed pebbles. The percolate is kept for S days in well corked flasks which have been rinsed out with alcohol be- forehand. Decant and filter and evap- orate down rapidly, under constant stirring, or in vacuo. The extract should be kept in vessels first washed with alcohol and closed with parchment paper, in a dry place — never in the cellar. To dissolve this extract, use water, first boiled for 15 ininutes. The solu- tion should be kept in small flasks, first rinsed with alcohol and well corked. If to be kept for a long time, the flasks should be subjected for S consecutive days, a half hour each day, to a stream of steam, and the corks paraffined. There is frequentiy met with in com- merce a purified juice that remains clear in the mixtura tolxyen». It is usually obtained by supersaturation with pure ammonia, allowing to stand for S days, decanting, filtering the decanted liquor, and quick evaporation. Since solutions with water alone rapidly spoil, it is well to obncrve with them the precautions commoD for narcotic extracts. To Test Eztxmct of Licorice.— Mere solubility is no test for the punty of extract of licorice. It is, therefore, pro- posed to make the glycyrrhizin content and the nature of the ash the determinintr test. To determine the glycyrrhizin quantitatively proceed as follows: Mac- erate iV ounce of the extract, in coarse powder, in 10 fluidounces distOled watrr tor several hours, with more or less frr^ quent agitation. When solution » com- plete, add 10 fluidounces alcohol of 90 per cent, filter and wash the filter with alcohol of 40 per cent until the latter comes off colorless. Drive off the alco- hol, which was added mereljr to facilitalf filtration, by evaporation in the water bath; let the residue cool down and prr- cipitate the ^Ivcyrrhizin by addition of sulphuric acici. Filter the liouid and wash the precipitate on the filter with distilled water until the wash water coinr» off neutral. Dissolve the glvcyrrhixin from the filter by the addition of ammooia water, drop b^ drop, collecting the fil- tered solution in a tared capsule. Evap- orate in the water bath, drv the reaidval glycyrrhizin at 212*" F., and weigh. Re- peated examinations of known pure ex- tracts have yielded a range of perceota^ of glycyrrhizin running from 8.06 per cent to 11.00 per cent. The ash should be acid in reaction and a total percentage of from 5.64 to 8.64 of the extract. LIFTING SPRIHOS, HOW TO SOLDER : See Solders. LIGHT, nfAcmnc: See Photography, LIGNALOE SOAP: See Soap. LIMEADE: See Beverages, under' Lemonades. LIME AS A FERTILIZER: See Fertilizers. LIME, BIRD. Bird lime is a thick, soft, tougb, and sticky mass of a greenish color, kaa an unpleasant smell and bitter taste, i»^t» easily on heating, and hardens when n* posed in thin layers to the air. It i» dif- ncult to dissolve in alcohol, but eau>r soluble in hot alcohol, oil of turpeotinr. fat oils, and also somewhat in rincfta'' The best qualitv is prepared from iKr inner green barK of toe nolly {JUx afs>- folium), which is boiled, then put in har« rels, and submitted for 14 days to liifhf fermentation until it becomes ^^} Another process of prepa^ng it is to mi i the boiled bark with juice of mi»t]ft>*«' berries and burying it in the ground sotil Digitized by VjOOQ IC LINIMENTS— LINSEED OIL 459 fermented. The bark is then pulverized, boiled, and washed. Artificial bird lime is prepared by boiling and then igniting linseed oil, or boiling printing vami^ until it is verv tough and sticky. It is also preparea by dissolvinff cabinet- makers' glue in water and adding a con- centrated solution of chloride of zinc. The mixture is very sticky, does not drv on exposure to the air, and has the acf- vantage that it can be easily washed off the feathers of the birds. LIME JUICE: See essences and Extracts UME- JUICE CORDIAL : See Wines and Liquors. LIME WAFERS: See Confectionery. LIlfEN, TO DISTINGUISH COTTON FROM: Sec Cotton. LIKEN DRESSING: See Laundry Preparations. LINIMENTS: See also Ointments. For eztemal use only. — I. — The fol- lowing penetrating oily liniment reduces all kincb of inflammatory processes: Paraffine oil 4 ounces Capsicum powder. .... i ounce Digest on a sand bath and filter. To this ma^ be added directly the following: Oil of wintergreen or peppermint, phenol, thymol, camphor or eucalyptol, etc. II. — Camphor 2 ounces Menthol 1 ounce Oil of thyme 1 ounce Oil of sassafras 1 ounce Tincture of myrrh . . 1 ounce Tincture of capsicum 1 ounce Chloroform 1 ounce Alcohol 2 pints LOnMENTS FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas. LINOLEUM: See also Oiidoth. CdmDosition for Linoleum^ Oilcloth. etc — This is composed of whiting, dried linseed oil, and any ordinary dryer, such ail litharge, to which ingredients a pro- portion of gum tragacantn is to be added, rvplacinff a part of the oil and serving to impart (fexibility to the fabric, and to the romposition in a pasty mass the property of arjinff more rapidly. In the pro- cl action of linoleum, the whiting is re- placed in whole or in part by pulverized 4X9ik. The proportions are approximate- ly the following by weight: Whiting *r powdered cork, 13 parts; g[um .traga- canth, 5 parts; dried imseed oil, 5i parts; siccative, } part. DressingB for Linoleum. — A weak so- lution of beeswax in spirits of turpentine has been recommended for brightening the appearance of linoleum. Here are some other formulas: I. — Palm oil 1 ounce Paraffine 18 ounces Kerosene 4 ounces Melt the paraffine and oil, remove from the fire ana incorporate the kerosene. II. — Yellow wax 5 ounces Oil turpentine 11 ounces Amber varnish 5 ounces Melt the wax, add the oil, and then the varnish. Apply with a rag. Treatment of Newly Laid Linoleum. — The proper way to cleanse a linoleum flooring IS first to sweep off the dust and then wipe up with a damp cloth. Several times a year the surface should be well rubbed with floor wax. Care must be had that the mass is well pulverized and free from grit. Granite linoleum and figured coverings are cleansed without the application of water. A floor cover- ing wnich has been treated from the beginning with floor wax need onl^ be wiped off daily with a dry cloth, either woolen or felt, and afterwards rubbed well with a cloth filled with the mass. It will improve its appearance, too, if it be washed several times a year with warm water and a neutral soap. LINOLEUM, CLEANING AND POLISH- ING: See Household Formulas. LINOLEUM ON KON STAIRS OR CEMENT FLOORS, TO GLUE: See Adhesives, under Glues. LINSEED OIL: See also Oils. Bleachiiu; of Linseed Oil and Poppy- seed Oil. — In order to blecch linseed oil and poppyseed oil for painting purposes, thoroughlv shake 2.5 parts of it in a glass vessel with a solution of potassium per- manganate, 50 parts, in 1,250 parts of water; let stand for 24 hours in a warm temperature, and then mix with 75 parts of pulverized sodium sulphite. Now shake until the latter has dissolved and add 100 parts of crude hydrochloric acid, 20°. Agitate frequently and wash, after the previously brown mass has become light colored, with water, in which a little Digitized by VjOOQ IC 460 LINSEED OIL— LUBRICANTS •r^alk has been finely distributed, until the water is neutral. Finally filter over calcined Glauber's salt. Adulteration of Linseed Oil. — This is common, and a simple and cheap meth- od of testing is by nitric acid. Pour equal parts of the linseed :>il and nitric acid into a flask, shake vigorously, and Ik'K it stand for 20 minutes. If the oil is 'j«.tre, the upper stratum is of straw yellow color and tne lower one colorless. If impure, the former is dark brown or black, the latter pale orange or dark yellow, according to the admixtures to the oil. The addition of rosin oil to linseed oil or other paint oils can be readily de- tected by the increase in specific gravity, the low flash point, and the odor of rosm on heatin|; ; while the amount may be approximately ascertained from the amount of unsaponifiable oil left after boiling with caustic soda. LIP SALVES AlVD LIPOL: See Cosmetics. LIPOWITZ METAL: Sec Alloys. LI9U£nRS: See Wines and Liquors. LIOUOR AMMONU ANISATUS: See Ammonia. LIQUORS: See Wines and Liquors. LITHOGRAPHERS' LACQUER: See lacquers. LITHOGRAPHS: See Pictures and Engravings. LIVER-SPOT REMEDIES : See Cosmetics. LOCKSBUTH'S VARNISH: See Varnishes. LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICANTS: Sec Lubricants. LOCUST KILLER: See Insecticides. LOUSE WASH: See Insecticides. Lubricants Oil for Fireamu. —Either pure vaseline oil, white, 0.870, or else pure white-bone oil, proof to cold, is employed for this purpose, since these two oils are not only frp«* from acid, but do not oxidize or rcsinify. Leather Lubricants. — Russian tallow. 1 pound; beeswax, 6 ounces; black pitch, 4 ounces; common castor oil, S pounds; soft para (fine, } jpound: oil of citroneUs. i ounce. Melt all together in a saucepsn, except the citronella, which add on cool- ing. Stir occasionally. Machinery Oils.— I.— The solid Ul called bakourine, a heavv lubricant whidi possesses extraordinary lubricating qusii- lities, has a neutral reaction and mrlU only at about ne"" to ISS"* F. It is pre- pared as follows: A mixture is made of 100 parU of Bienne petroleum or crude naphthA. with 25 parts of castor oil or some min- eral oil, and subjected to the action of (M) or 70 parts of sulphuric acid of 66* Be. The acid is |>oured in a small stream into the oil, while carefully stirrini^. Thr agitation is continued until a thick and blackish-brown mass is obtained frrr from non-incorporated petroleum. \rr} cold water of !i or 8 times the wei^tht oi the mass is then added, and the whole t« stirred until the mass turns white sdiI becomes homogeneous. It is left at rest for 24 hours, after which the wstrn liquid, on the surface of which the fsl i* floating, must be poured off. After resting again from S to 4 days, the prtMi- uct is drawn off, carefully neutralixrd with caustic potash, and placed in Ur- rels ready for shipping. II.— Melt in a kettle holding 2 to i times as much as the volume of the m««« which is to be boiled therein, 10 t>srt«. by weight, of tallow in 20 parts of rape oil on a moderate 6re; ada 10 parta nf freshly and well burnt lime, slaked in SO or 40 parts of water; increase the tin- somewhat, and boil with constant atirnnc until a thick froth forms and the nia«« sticks to the bottom of the kettle. Buro* ing should be prevented by diligent stu- rinff. Then add in portions of 10 Dsrtt eacn, gradually, 70 parts of rape oil apeo touched with the finf^er. When t^^^ {>oint is reached add, with constant «*>* ring, when the heat has abated ^^^ ciently (which may be tested by pounnc in a few drops of water). 25 to SO part» of water. Now raise the fire, vitboot Digitized by VjOOQ IC LUBRICANTS 461 rfssini; to stir, until the mass comes to a fcfble, uniform boil. In order to be able Id art quickly in case of a sudden boiling uvcr, the fire must be such that it can be rrmoved quickly, and a little cold water must always be kppt on hand. Next, Kraduiilly add in small portions, so as not to disturb the boiling of the mass, 500 parta of paraffine oil (if very thick, HOO to 900 parts may )>e added), remove from the fire, allow the contents of the kettle to darify, and skim off the warm grease from the sediment into a stirring apparatus. Agitate until the mass be- jTiDs to thicken and cool; if the grease should still be too solid, stir in a little paraffine oil the second time. The odor of the paraffine oil may be disguised by thf admixture of a little mirbane oil. For Cutting Tools. — The proportion <»f inj^redients of a lubricating mixture for cutting tools is 6 gallons of water, 3) I'ounds of soft soap, and } gallon of r leau refuse oil. Heat the water and mix «itb the soap, preferably in a mechan- ■nil mixer; afterwards add the oil. A ( ast'iron circular tank to hold 12 gallons, tilted with a tap at the bottom and hav- in& three revolving arms fitted to a ver- tical shaft driven by bevels and a fast aiid loose pulley, answers all requirements ftjr a mixer. This should be kept run- ning all through the working day. For Highspeed Bearings*— To prevent heating ana sticking of bearings on iieavy machine tools due to running con- tinuously at hi^h speeds, take about | o( flake graphite, and the remainder l^erosene oil. As soon as the bearing ;«iiuws the slightest indication of heat- ■Hf^ or sticking, this mixture should be forcibly squirted through the oil hole until it flows out between the shaft and '><*aring, when a small (quantity of thin machine oil may be applied. For Heayy Bearings.— An excellent uhricant for neavy bearings can be made rum either of the following recipes: 1. —Paraffine 6 pounds Palm oil 12 pounds Oleonaphtha 8 pounds I— Paraffine 8 pounds Palm oil 20 pounds Oleonaphtha 12 pounds The oleonaphtha should have a den- tr of 0.9. First dissolve the paraffine I the oleonaphtha at a temperature of bout 158^ P. Then gradually stir in le palm oil a little at a time. The pro- Drtions will show that No. II gives a v> liquid product than No. I. Quick- iie may be added if desired. For Lathe Centers. — An excellent lubricant for lathe centers is made by using 1 part graphite and 4 parts tallow thoroughly mixed. Sewing Machine Oil.— I.— Petroleum oils are better adapted for the lubrication of sewing machines than any of the animal oils. Sperm oil has for a long time been considered the standard oil for this pur- pose, but it is reall^r not well adapted to the conditions to which a sewing machine is subjected. If the machine were oper- ated constantly or regularly every day, probably sperm oil could not be im- proved on. The difficulty is, however, that a family sewing machine will fre- quently be allowed to stand untouched for weeks at a time and will then be ex- pected to run as smoothly as though just oiled. Under this kind of treatment almost any oil other than petroleum oil will become gummy. What is known in the trade as a ''neutral" oil, of high viscosity, would probably answer better for this purpose than anything else. A mixture of 1 part of petrolatum and 7 parts of parafisne oil has also been rec- ommended. II. — Pale oil of almonds. 9 ounces Rectified benzoline.. 3 ounces Foreign oil of laven- der 1 ounce PETROLEUM TELLIES AlVD SOLID- IFIED LUBRICANTS. Petroleum jelly, vaseline, and petro- latum are different names for the same thing. Tne pure qualities are made from American stock thickened with hot air until the desired melting point is at- tained. Three colors are made: white, yellow, and black of various qualities. Cheaper qualities are made by using ceresine wax in conjunction with the genuine article and pale mineral oil. This is the German method and is ap- proved of by their pharmacopceia. Ma- chinery qualities are made with cylinder oils, pale mineral oils, and ceresine wax. I. — Yellow ceresine wax 11 parts White ceresine wax . 6 parts American mineral oil,|H^ 151 parts Melt the waxes and stir in the oil. To make white, use all white ceresine wax. To color, use aniline dyes soluble in oil, to any shade required. II. — Ceresine wax 1 pound Bloomless mineral oil, Sq. 910 1 gallon Digitized by VjOOQ IC 46S lATBRICANTS Melt the wax and add the oil, var^inff according to the consistency required. To color black, add 28 pounds lamp- black to 20 gallons oil. Any wax will do, according to quality of product de- sired. White Petroleum Jelly.— White tasteless oil . . 4 parts White ceresine wax . 1 part SoUdifled Lubricants.— I. — Refined cotton oil. . . 2 parts American mineral oil, g'i? « parts Oleate of alumina . . 1 part Gently heat together. II.— Petroleum jelly 1«0 parts Ceresine wax 5 parts Slaked lime i part Water 4)parU Heat the wax and the petroleum jelly gently until liquid; then mix together the water and lime. Decant the former into packing receptacles, and add lime and water, stirring until it sets. For cheaper qualities use cream cylinder oil instead of petroleum jelly. WA60H AND AXLE GREASES: For Axles of Heavy Vehicles.— I.— Tallow (free from acid), 19 ) parts; palm oil, 14 parts; sal soda, 5 A parts; water, S parts, oy weight. Dissolve the soda in the water and separately melt the tallow, then stir in the palm oil. This may be gently warmed before adding, as it greatly facilitates its incorporation with the tallow, unless the latter be made boiling hot, when it readily melts the semi-solid palm oil. When these two greases are thoroughljr incorporated, pour the mixture slowly into the cold Ive (or soda solution), and stir well until tne mass is homogeneous. This lubricant can be made less solid by decreasing the tallow or increasing the palm oil. II. — Slaked lime (in powder), 8 parts, is slowly sifted into rosin oil, 10 parts. Stir it continuously to incorporate it thoroughly, and gently heat the mixture until of a syrupy consistency. Color with lampblack, or a solution of turmeric in a strong solution of sal soda. For blue grease, 275 parts of rosin oil are heated with 1 part of slaked lime and then allowed to cool. The supernatant oil is removed from the precipitated mat- ter, and 5 or 6 parts of the foregoing rosin-oil soap are stirred in until aU is a soft, unctuous mass. For Axles of Ordinarr Vehicles.— I.— Mix 80 parts of fut aucf 20 parts of very fine black lead; melt the fat in a var- nished earthen vessel; add the black Irsd while constantly stirring until it is rul0 miles without the necessity of renewinic the grease. II. — Mix equal parts of red Americma rosin, melted tallow, linseed oil, snd caustic soda lye (of 1.5 density). III.— Melt 20 parU of rosin oil in 50 parts of yellow palm oil, saponify tbii with 25 parts of caustic soda lye of \y Be., and add 25 parts of mineral oil or paraffine. IV. — Mix residue of the distillation of petroleum, 60 to 80 parts; tallow. 10 parts; colophony, 10 piarts; and caitttM* soda solution of 40® Be., 15 parts. A Grease for LooomotiTe Axles.— :>•• ponify a mixture of 50 parts tallow. iS parts palm oil, 2 parts sperm oil. Mix in soda lye made by dissolving W parts of soda in 137 parts of water. mSCELLANEOUS LUBRICAHTS: For Cotton Belts.— Carefully melt over a slow fire in a closed iron or self-rrfpi- lating boiler 250 parts of caoutchouc tir gum elastic, cut up in small pieces; then add 200 parts of colophony: when tbr whole is well melted and mixfd. iuror- porate, while carefully stirring. 200 part* of yellow wax. Then heat 850 part* uf tram oil, mixing with it 250 parts of talc, and unite the two preparations, con- stantly stirring, until completely cold. Chloriding Mineral Lubricating Oik. ~ A process has been introduced tor prf>- ducing industrial vaselines and miorril oils for lubrication, based on the treat- ment of naphthas, petroleums, and ftimi- lar hydrocar bides, by means of chluhnc or mixtures of chlorides and hvpocblwr- ides, known under the name ot decvlor ing chlorides. Mix and stir tborouitLij 1.000 parU of naphtha of about Oo^ density; 55 parts of chloride of hmf. and 500 parts of water. Decant am) wash. Glass Stop Cock Lubricant.— unds of linseed oil. Then add 20 ounds of paraffine, SO pounds of vase- ne. and 00 pounds of rosin. Finally mix ith JO pounds of ffraphite, first rubbed p with 50 pounos of boiled oil. For ire ropes fuse 100 pounds of suint with ) pounds of dark colophony (rosin). Hen stir in SO pounds of rosin oil and ^ pounds of dark petroleum. Sheet Metal Lubricant.— Mix 1 quart whale oil, 1 pound of white lead, 1 pint water, and S ounces of the finest graphite. This is applied to the metal with a brush before it enters the dies. Steam Cylinder Lubricant.— To ob- tain a very viscous oil that does not de- compose in the presence of steam even at a high temperature, it is necessary to ex- pose neutral wool fats, that have been freed from wool-fatty acids, such as crude lanolin or wool wax, either quite alone or in combination with mineral oils, to a high heat. This is best accomplished in the presence of ordinary steam or super- heated steam at a heat of 572® F., and a pressure of 50 atmospheres, correspond- ing with the conditions in the cylinder in which it is to be used. Instead of sepa- rating any slight quantities of acid tnat may arise, they may be dissolved out as neutral salts. Wooden Gears.— An excellent lubri- cating agent for wooden gears consists of tallow, 30 parts (by weight); palm oil, 20 parts; fish oil, 10 parts; and graphite, 20 parts. The fats are melted at mod- erate heat, and the finely powdered and washed graphite mixed with them inti- mately by Ions-continued stirring. The teeth of wooden combs are kept in a perfectly serviceable condition for a much longer time if to the ordinary tal- low or graphite grease one- tenth part of their weight of powdered glass is added. TESTS FOR LUBRICAHTS. In testing lubricants in general, a great deal depends upon the class of work in which they are to be employed. In dealing with lubricating greases' the specific gravity should always be deter- mined. The viscosity is, of course, also a matter of the utmost importance. If possible the viscosity should be taken at the temperature at which the grease is to be subjected when used, but this cannot always be done; 300® F. will be found to be a very suitable temperature for the determination of the viscositv of heavy lubricants. Although one ot the stan- dard viscosi meters IS the most satisfac- tory instrument with which to carry out the test, yet it is not a necessity. Pro- vided the test be always conducted in exactly the same manner, and at a fixed temperature, using a standard sample for comparison, the form of apparatus used is not of great importance. Most dealers in scientific apparatus will pro- vide a simple and cheap instrument, the results obtained with which will be found reliable. With the exercise of a little ingenuitv any one can fit up a visco- simeter for himself at a very small outlay. Acidity is another important point to Digitized by VjOOQ IC 464 LUBRICAN1>5— MAGNETIC CURVES note in dealing with lubricating greases. Calculated as sulphuric acid, tne free acid should not exceed .01 per cent, and free fatty acids should not be present to any extent. Cylinder oil should dissolve completely in petroleum benzine (spe- cific gravity, .700), giving a clear solution. In dealing with machine oils the condi- tions are somewhat different. Fatty oils in mixture with mineral oils are very useful, as they give better lubrication and driving power, especially for heavy axles, for which these mixtures should alwavs be used. The specific gravity should be from .900 to .915 and the freezing point should not be above 58° F. The flash point of heavy machine oils is not a matter of great importance. The viscosity of dynamo oils, taken in Kiigler*s apparatus, should be 15-16 at 08«F. and 3i-4 at 1««« F. In dealing with wagon oils and greases it should be remembered that the best kinds are those which are free from rosin and rosin products, and their flash point should be above 212° F. To Test Grease.— To be assured of the purity of grease, its density is examined as compared with water; a piece of fat of the size of a pea is placed in a glass of water. If it remains on the surface or sinks very slowly the fat* is pure; if it sinks rapidlv to the bottom the fat is mixed with heavy matters and coom is the result. lubricahts for watchmakers: See Watchmakers' Formulas. LUPULINE BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors. LUSTER COLORS: See Pigments. LUSTER PASTE. This is used for plate glass, picture frames, and metal. Five parts of very finely washed and pulverized chalk; 5 parts of Vienna lime, powdered; 5 parts of bolus, powdered; 5 parts of wood ashes, powdered; 5 parts of English red, powdered; 5 parts of soap powder. Work all together in a kneading machine, to make a smooth, even paste, adding spirit. ^ The consistency of the paste can be^ varied, by varying the amount of spirit, from a solid to a soft mass. LUTES: See Adhesives. MACHINE OIL: See Lubricants. MACHINERY, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. MAGIC: See Pyrotechnics. MAGNESIUM CITRATE. Magnesium carbon- ate 10 ounces Citric acid iO ouncrt Sugar 21 uunrf^ Oilof lemon ) drachm Water enough to make 240 ounce » Introduce the magnesium carbonate into a wide-mouthed 2-^lon bottle, drop the oil of lemon on it, stir with a wooden rtrk then add the citric acid, the sugar, and water enough to come up to a mark on the bottle indicating 240 ounces. For this purpose use cold water, addinit about half of the quantity first, and thf remainder when the substanoef *tt mostly dissolved. Bv allowing the M>iu' tion to stand for a half to a whole da v. it will filter better and more quickly tnao when hot water is used. MAGNESIUM ORGEAT POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent. MAGNESIUM PLASH-UGHT POW* DERS: See Photography. MAGNETIC CURVES OP IRON FIL- INGS, THEIR FIXATION. One of the experiments made in exrry physical laboratory in teaching the rlr- ments of inagnetism and electncitv i« the production of the magnetic curves i>> sprinkling iron filings over a glass platr. after the well-known method. For fixing these curves so that tbrt may be preserved indefinitely, a plate of glass is warmed on the smooth u|i|>fr surface of a shallow iron chest ctintainmc water raised to a suitable temperaturr by means of a spirit-lamp. A piece *4 paraflfine is placed on the glass, ami id the course of 3 or 4 minutes sprrjuN itself evenly in a thin layer over the sur- face. The glass plate is removed, the surplus parafline running off. TKr image is formed with iron filings oo tbr cooled parafline, which does not adbrn- to the iron, so that if the image U uii- satisfactory the filings may be renii>«<^l and a new figure taken. To fit ih^* curves, the pJate of glass is again piscrti on the warming stove. Finally, the «»r- face of the oarafline is covered with wluV paint, so that the cur^-es appear Use matches are dipped, as, before. his is cheaper than the previous one. IV. (Diesel.) — Phosphorus, 17 parts; UP. 21 parts; red lead, 24 parts; niter, ) parts. Proceed as above. Matrhes tipped with II, III, or IV, Hame without fulmination when rubbed wiusi a rough surface, and are hence rrned noiseless matches by the makers. Safety Pftste for Matches. — The dan- r of explosion during the preparation matrh composition may be mini- xpcJ by addition to the paste of the \**wing mixture: Finely powdered 1'. S parts, by weight; oxide of iron, parts; flour, 28 parts; and water, •lit 40 f>srts. In practice, SO parts of II arabic are dissolved in water, 40 t^, and to the solution are added ^«iprrd potassium chlorate, 57 parts, ! when this is well distributed, amor- ii."* phosphorus, 7 parts, and pow- -f i i^iajis. 15 parts, are stirred in. The vf* mixture is then immediately in- lijop«f« and when mixing is complete, c« imposition ^ can be applied to den uticks which need not have been previouslv dried or paraffined. The head of the match is finally coated with tallow, which prevents atmospheric action and also spontaneous ignition. Most chemists agree that the greatest im- provement of note in the manufacture of matches is that of Landstrom, of Jon- koping, in ^ Sweden. It consists in dividing the ingredient of the match mix- ture into two separate compositions, one being placed on the ends of the splints, as usual, and the other, which contains the phosphorus, being spread in a thin laver upon the end or lid of the box. The following are the compositions used: (a) For the splints: Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sulpnuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts; glue, 1 part. (6) For the friction surface: Amorphous phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuret of antimony or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, S to 6 parts; spread thinly upon the surface, which has been previously made rough by a coating of glue and sand. By thus dividing the composition the danger of fire arisin|; from ignition of the matches bv acci- dental friction is avoided, as neitner the portion on the splint nor that on the box can be ignited by rubbing against an un- prepared surface. Again, by using the innocuous red or amorphous phosphorus, the danger of poisoning is entirely pre- vented. MATCH MARKS ON PAINT, TO RE- MOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. MATCH PHOSPHORUS, SUBSTITUTE FOR: See Phosphorus Substitute. Matrix Masses Matrix for Medals, Coins, etc. — I. — Sharp impressions of coins, medals, etc., are obtained, according to Bottger, with the following: Mix molten, thimy liquid sulphur witn an equal quantitv of in- fusorial earth, adding some graphite. If a sufficient quantity of this mass, made li(][uid over a flame, is quickly applied with a spatula or spoon on the coin, etc., an impression of great sharpness is ob- tained after cooling, which usually takes place promptly. Owing to the addition of graphite the articles do not become dull or unsightly. II. — Bronze and silver medals should always be coated with a separating grease layer. The whole coin is greased slightlv and then carefully wiped off again with a little wadding, but in such a manner Digitized by VjOOQ IC 468 MATRIX MASSES— MEAD that 8 thin film of grease remainB on the surface. Next, a ring of strong card- board or thin pasteboard is placed around the edge, and the ends are sealed to> gether. Now stir up a little gyosum in a small dish and put a teaspooniul of it on the surface of which the mold is to be taken, distributine it carefullv with a badger's-hair bruui, entering tne finest cavities, which operation wiD be assisted by blowing on it. When the object is covered with a thin laver of plaster of Paris, the plaster, whicn has meanwhile become somewhat stiffer, is poured on, so that the thickness of the mold will be about ^ of an inch. The removal of the cast can be effected only after a time, when the plaster has become warm, has cooled affain, and has thoroughly hard- ened. If it be attempted to remove the cast from the metal too early and by the use of force, fine pieces are liable to break off and remain adhering to the model. In order to obtain a positive mold from the concave one, it is laid in water for a short time, so that it be- comes saturated with the water it ab- sorbs. The dripping, wet mold is again provided with an edge, and plaster of raris is poured on. The latter readily flows out on the wet surface, and only in rare cases blisters wilj form. Naturally this casting method will furnish a surface of pure gypsum, which is not the case if tne plaster is poured into a greased mold. In this case the surface of the cast contains a soapy laver, for the liquid plaster forms witti oil a subsequently rather hard lime soap. The freshjv cast plaster must likewise be taken off onlv when a quarter of an hour has elapsed, after it has become heated and has cooled again. MATS FOR METALS: See Metals. MATZOON. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of bakers' yeast to 1 pint of rich milk, which has been slightly warmed, stirring well together and setting aside in a warm room in a pitcher covered with a wet cloth for a time varying from 6 to 12 hours, accord- ing to the season or temperature of the room. Take from this, when curdled, 6 tablespoonfuls, add to another pint of milk, and again ferment as before, and continue for five successive fermenta- tions in all, when the product will have become free from the taste of the yeast. As soon as the milk thickens, which is finally to be kept for use, it should be stirred again and then put into a re- frigerator to prevent farther fennentatiofL It should be smooth, of the consisleiire d thidc cream, and of a sli^tly add taste. The milk should be prepared fre^b every day, and the new supplv is made hy adding 6 tablespoonfuls of the pre- vious day 8 lot to a pint of milk and pro- ceeding as before. The curd is to be eaten with a tpooo. not drunk, and preferabljr with sumr bread broken into it. It is also some- times eaten with susar, which u said not to impair its digestibility. MAT WINE: See Winea and Liquors. MEAD. In its best form Mead is made as fol- lows: 12 gallons of pure, soft water Hean rain water is, next to distilled water, best) are mixed with 80 ffalions of ex- pressed honey in a big caldron. 4 ouoce« of hops added, and the whole broucbt to a boil. The boilinff is rontinurd with diliffent skimming, for at least ad hour ana a half. The fire is then dra« n. and the liouid allowed to cool do«o slowly. Wnen cold, it is drawn off into a clean barrel, which it should fill to ibe bung, with a little over. A pint of f rtnh wine veast or ferment is added, and iht barrel put in a moderately warm plsre. with the bung left out, to ferment f<^ from 8 to 14 days, according to tbe weather (the warmer it is the sborirr the period occupied in the primarv t^ chief fermentation). Every daj th< foam escaping from the bung shoultl br carefully skimmed off, and rverv t ot S days there should be added a little buoM and water to keep the barrel quite full. and in the meantime a pan or cup nhouM be inverted over the nole« to keep ool dust, insects, etc. When fermentatiuo ceases, the procedure varies. Sune merely drive in the bung securelv and M the liquor stand for a few weeaA. then bottle; but the best German makers pnn ceed as follows, this being a far superior process: The liquor is removed fn*'-' the barrel in which it fermented to sn- ot her, clean, barrel, being slraip«>i through a haircloth sieve to prerrat tK#^ admission of the old yeaat. A sm>»*) portion of yeaat is added, and the lHia>«l allowed to pass through the serootUrt fermentation, lasting usually as kuie *• the first* The bung is driven tnti* t^** barrel, the liquid allowed to stand a fr» days to settle thoroughly and then dra«n off into bottles and stored in the tt«ii*i way. Some add nutmeg. rinnaoMm, etc., prior to the laat fermeuUlion. Digitized by VjOOQ IC MEERSCHAUM— METALS 469 MEASURES: See liVeighU sod Measures. MEASURES, TO CLEAN; See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. MEAT EXTRACT CORTAnilNG AL- BUMEN: See Foods. MEAT PEPTONOmS: See Peptonoids. MEAT PRESERVATIVES: See Foods. MEAT PRODUCTS (ADULTERATED): See Foods. MEDAL IMPRESSIONS: See Matrix Mass. BfEDALS, CLEANING AND PRESERV- ING: See Cleaning Compounds. MEDALLION METAL: See Alloys. MEDICINE DOSES: See Doses. MEERSCHAUM: To Color a Meerschaum Pipe.— I. — Fill the pipe and smoke down about one- thira, or to the height to which you wish to color. Leave the remainder of the tobacco in the pipe, and do not empty or disturb it for several weeks, or until the desired color is obtained. When smok- ing put fresh tobacco on the top and smoke to the same level. A new pipe should never be smoked outdoors in extremely cold weather. II. — The pipe is boiled in a prepara- tion of wax, 8 parts; olive oil, £ parts; and nicotine, 1 part, for 10 or 15 minutes. The pipe absorbs this, and a thin coating of wax IB held on the surface of the pipe, and made to take a high polish. Under the wax is retained the oil of tobacco, which is absorbed by the pipe; ^nd its hue grows darker in proportion to the to- bacco used. A meerschaum pipe at first should be smoked ver^ slowly, and before a second bowlful is lighted the pipe should cool off. This is to keep the wax as far up on the bowl as possible; rapid smoking will overheat, driving the vax off and leaving the pipe dry and raw. To Repair Meerschamn Pipes.— To cement meerschaum pipes, make a glue of finely powdered and sifted chalk and white of egg. Put a little of this glue on Ibe parts to be repaired and hold them pressed together for a moment. See also Adhesives under Cements. To Tell Genuine Meerschaum.— For the purpose of distinguishing imitation meerschaum from the true article, rub with silver. If the silver leaves lead pencil-like marks on the mass, it is not genuine but artificial meerschaum. If no such lines are produced, the article is genuine. MENTHOL COUGH DROPS: See Confectionery. MENTHOL TOOTH POWDER: See Dentifrices. MERCURY SALVES: See Ointments. MERCURY STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. METACARBOL DEVELOPER: See Photography. Metals and Their Treatment METAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes. METAL CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. METAL INLAYING: See Damaskeening. METAL POLISHES: See Polishes. METAL PROTECnVES: See Rust Preventives. METAL VARNISHES: See Varnishes. METALS, HOW TO ATTACH TO RUB- BER: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements. METALS. SECURING WOOD TO: See Aohesives. METALS, BRIGHTENING AND DEAD- ENING, BY DIPPING: Bri£litenin|r Pickle.— To brighten ar- ticles by dipping, the dipping liquid must not be too hot, otherwise the pickled surface turns dull; neither must it be prepared too thin, nor must wet articles be entered, else only tarnished surfaces will be obtained. For a burnish-dip any aqua fortis over 88** B^., i. e., possessing a specific gravity of 1.30, may be employed. It is advis- able not to use highly concentrated aqua fortis, to reduce tne danger of obtaining matt work. It is important that the quantity sf oil of vitriol, which is added. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 470 METALS is correct. It is added because the action of the aqua lortis is very uncertain. Within a short time it becomes so heated in actimr on the metals that it turns out only dull work, and pores or even holes are apt to be the result of the violent chemical action. If the aqua fortis is diluted with water the articles do not become bright,^ but tarnish. For this reason sulphuric acid should be used. This does not attack the metals; it only dilutes the aqua fortis and distributes the heat generated in pickling over a larger space. It is also much cheaper, and it ansorbs water from the aqua fortis and, therefore, keeps it in a concentrated state and yet distributed over the space. In the case of too much oil of vitriol the dilution becomes too (n^eat and the goods are tarnished; if too little is added, the mixture soon ceases to turn out bright articles, because of overheating. On this experience are based the formulas given below. Dip the articles, which must be free from grease, into the pickle, after they have been either annealed and quenched in diluted sulphuric acid or washed out with benzine. Leave them in the dip- ping mixture until thev become covered with a greenish froth. Then quickly immerse them in a vessel containing plenty of water, and wash them out well with running water. Before entering the dipped articles in the baths it is well to remove all traces of acid, by passing them through a weak soda or potassium cyanide solution and washing them out again. If the brightly dipped goods are to remain bright they must be coated with a thin spirit or zapon acquer. Following are two formulas for the pickle: I.— Aaua fortis, 36** B^., by weight 100 parts Oil of vitriol (sul- Shuric acid), 66° e., by weight . . 70 parts Cooking salt, by volume 1) parts Shining soot (lamp- black), by vol- ume 1} parts II. —Aqua fortis, 40"* B^., by weight 100 parts Oil of vitriol, 66"* Be., by weight .. . 100 parts Cooking salt, by volume 2 parts Shining soot, by volume 2 parts Matting or Deadening Pickle.— When, instead of brilliancy, a matted appear- ance is desired for metals, the artidr t» corroded either mechanically or rheniir- ally. In the first case it is pierced nith fine holes near together, rubbed «itb emery powder or pumice stone and Urn- ponnea. In the other case the com>Moo is effected in acid baths thus coropit«ril: Nitric acid of 36"* Be., 200 parts, Uy volume; sulphuric acid of 56® Be.. ^(^ parts, by volume; sea salt, 1 pari, by volume; zinc sulphate, 1 to 5 parts, by volume. With this proportion of acids tbr articles can remain from 5 to 20 roinntc« in the mixture cold; the prominenre M the matt depends on the length of timr of the immersion. The pieces on heinc taken from the bath have an earthy ap- pearance w^hich is lightened by dtppini; them quickly in a brightening acid. U left too long the matted appearance i« destroyed. Cotton Matt.— This matt, thus callni on account of its soft shade, is niWy employed except for articles of stamprti brass, statuettes, or small obierts. \* much zinc is dissolved in the bath s« it will take. The pieces arc left in it frvm 15 to SO minutes. On coming from tb^ bath they are dull, and to brighten tbem somewhat they are generally dipped into acids as before described. Silver Matt— Articles of value for which gilding is desired are matted by covering them with a light coating of silver by the battery. It is known tbal this deposit is always matt, unleM thr bath contains too large a quantity o( potassium cyanide. A brilliant silverioc can be regularly obtained with eirrtnr baths onlv by adding carbon sulphtdr. Four dracnms are put in an emery fls^k containing a quart of the bath fluid and allowed to rest for 24 hours, at the rod of which a blackish precipitate is forronl. After decanting, a quart is pouml iotu the electric bath for each quart befurv every operation of silvering. Dangers of Dipping.— The operation of dipping shoulci l>e carried out only in a place where the escaping fumr* of by |»*> nitric acid and chlorine can paa "ff without molesting the workmen, t t* under a well -drawing chimnev, prrfrr- ably in a vapor chamber. If suck sa arrangement is not present the oprratur should choiise a draughty place and pro- tect himself from the fumes bv tying » wet sponge under his nose. The T8|a*r» are liable to produce very riolrot ai**! dangerous inflammations of the respira- tory organs, coming on in a surpriaiagly Digitized by VjOOQ IC METALS 471 quick manner after one has felt no pre- vious injurious effect at all. COLORING METALS: See also Plating. Processes by Ozidation. — By heat: — Coloration of Steel.— The steel, heated uniformly, is covered in the air with a pellicle of oxide and has successively the following colors: Straw yellow, blue (480^ to 570^ F.), violet, purple, water-green, disappearance of the color; lastly the steel redaens. For producing the blue read- ily, plunge the object into a bath of 25 parts of lead and 1 part of tin; its tem- perature IS sufficient for bluing small pieces. Bronzing of Steel. — I. — The piece to be bronsed is wet by the use of a sponge with a solution formed of iron perchlor- ide, cupric sulphate, and a nitric acid. It is dried in a stove at 86** F., then kept for to minutes over boiling water. It is dried again at 86^ F., and rubbed with a scratch brush. This operation is repeated several times. Bronzing of Steel. — II. — Rust and grease are removed from the objects with a paste of whiting and soda. Thev are immersed in a bath of dilute sul- phuric acid, and rubbed with very fine pumice-stone powder. They are then exposed from 8 to 8 minutes to the vapor of a mixture of equal |>arts of concen- trated chlorhydric and nitric acids. The object is heated to 570'' to 660"* F. until the bronze color appears. When cooled, it is covered with paraffine or vasdine while rubbing, and heated a second time until the vaseline or paraf- fine csommenoes to decompose. The operation is repeated. The shades ob- tained are beautiful, and the bronzing is not changeable. By subjecting the ob- ject to the vapors of the mixture of chlor- liydric and nitric acids, shades of a light reddish brown are obtained. By add- ini; to these two adds acetic acid, beau- tiful yellow bronze tints are procured. By varying the proportion of these three acids, ail the colors from light reddish brown to deep brown, or from light yellow bronze to deep yellow bronze, are produced at will. Bronzing. — III. — Under the name of Tnlcer bronze, a colored metal is found in trade which imitates ornamental bronse perfectly. It is obtained by de- ozidlaing or, if preferred, by burnishing cast iron. A thin layer of linseed oil or of tinseed-oil varnish is spread on. It is heated at a temperature sufficient for producing in the open air the oxidation of the metal. The temperature is raised more or less, according as a simple yel- low coloration or a deep brown is desired. Lustrous Black. — In a quantity of oil of turpentine, sulphuric acid is poured drop by drop, stirring continually until a precipitate is no longer formed. Then the whole is poured into water, shaken, decanted, and the washing of the pre- cipitate commenced again until blue litmus paper immersed in the water is no longer reddened. The precipitate will thus be completely freed from acid. After having drained it on a doth, it is readv for use. It is spread on the iron and burned at the fire. If the precipitate spreads with diffi- culty over the metal, a little turpentine can be added. It is afterwards rubbed with a linen rag, soaked with linseed oil, until the surface assumes a beautiful lustrous black. This covering is not liable to be detached. Bluish Black. — Make a solution com- posed of nitric add, 15 parts; cupric sulphate, 8 parts; alcohol, 20 parts; and water, 125 parts. Spread over the metal when wdl cleaned and grease removed. Dry and rub with linen rag. Black. — Make a solution composed of cupric sulphate, 80 parts; alcohol, 40 parts; ferric chloride, SO parts; nitric acid, 20 parts; ether, 20 parts; water, 400 to 500 parts, and pass over the ob- ject to be blackened. Magnetic Oxide. — I. — A coating of magnetic oxide preserves from rust. To obtain it, heat the object in a fur- nace to a temperature sufficient to de- compose steam. Then inject from 4 to 6 hours superheated steam at 1,100** F. The thickness of the layer of oxide formed varies with the duration of the operation. This process may replace zincking, enameling, or tinning. II. — A deposit of magnetic oxide may be obtained by electrolysis.^ The iron object is placed at the anode in a bath of distilled water heated to 176'' F. The cathode is a plate of copper, or the ves- sel itself if it is of iron or copper. B^ electrolysis a layer of magnetic oxide is formed. In the same way other peroxides may be deposited. With an alkaline solution of litnarge a brilliant black deposit of lead peroxide, very adherent, is ootained. The employment of too strong a cur- rent must DC avoided. It will produce a pulverulent deposit. To obtain a good coating, it is necessary after leaving the objects for a moment at the opposite Digitized by VjOOQ IC 472 METALS pole, to place them at the other pole until the outside is completely reduced, then bring them back to the first place. Piocetseg by Sulphuration.— Oxidized Brown Color. — The object is plung[ed into some melted sulphur mingled with lampblack, or into a liquid containing the flowers of sulphur mingled with lamp- black.^ It is drained and dried. The bronzing obtained resists acids, and may acquire a beautiful polish which has the appearance of oxidized bronze, due per- haps to the formation of ferric sulphide, a ^ort of p^tes remarkable for its beau- tiful metallic reflections and its resistance to chemical agents. Brilliant Black.— Boil 1 part of sulphur and 10 parts turpentine oil. A sulfHiur- ous oil IS obtained of disagreeable odor. Spread this oil with the brush as lightly as possible, and heat the object in the flame of an alcohol lampuntif the patina takes the tint desired. This process pro- duces on iron and steel a brilliant black patina, which is extremely solid. Blue. — Dissolve 500 drachms of hypo- sulphite of soda in 1 quart of water, and S5 grains of lead acetate in 1 quart of water. The two solutions mingled are heated to the boiling point. The iron is immersed, and assumes a blue coloration similar to that obtained by annealing. Deposit of a Metal or of a Kon-Ozi- dizaUe Compound.— Bronze Color. — Rub the iron smarUy with chloride of antimony. A single operation is not sufficient. It is necessary to repeat it, heating the object slightiy. Black.— I. — Make a paste composed of eoual parts of chlonde of antimony and linseed oil. Spread on the object, previously heated, with a brush or rag; then pass over it a coating of wax and brush it Finally varnish with gum lac. II. — ^Pkepare a solution of bismuth chlo- ride, 10 parts; mercury chloride, 20parts; cupric chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts; alcohol, 50 parts; water, 500 pNsrts. Add fuchsine in sufficient quantity to mask the color. The mercury chloride is poured into the hydrochloric acid, and the bismuth chlonde and cupric chloride added; then the alcohol. Employ this mixture with a brush or a rag for smearing the object. The object may also be immersed in the liquid it it is well cleaned and free from grease. It is dried and afterwards sub- mitted to boiling water for half an hour. The operation is repeated until the wished-for tint is obtained; then the object is passed into the oil bath and taken to the fire without wiping. The object ma V also be placed for 10 minutn in boiling linseed oil. Brown Tint. — A solution is made nf chloride of mercury, «0 parts; cupri<- chloride, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid. 60 parts; alcohol, 50 parts; water, 500 psrU. The object is plunged into this solutioo after being weh cleaned. The solutioo may also be applied with a brush, gi^inc two coats. It IS afterwards put into hot water. The surface of the object is cov- ered with a uniform layer of vegetable oil. It is placed in a fumaoe at a hi|^ teaopen- ture, but not sufficient for carbonuinc the oil. The iron is covered with a thin layer of brown oxide, which adbrrr^ strongly to the metal, and which ran Itt beautifully burnished, producing the ap- pearance of bronze. Brilliant Black. — The process hfgin* bv depositing on the object, perfec-tJt clean and free from grease, a layer of metallic copper. For this purpose the following solutions are prepared : (a ' Cupric sulphate, 1 part; water, 16 parU. Add ammonia until complete dij^tolu- tion. (6) Chloride of tin, 1 part; watrr. 2 parts; and^ chlorhydric acid« t part*. The object b immersed in solulioo h, and afterwards in solution a. In lhi« way there is deposited on the iron a vcn adherent coating of copper. The objc t. washed with water, is aiterwards ruliU-H with sulphur, or immersed in a solution of ammonium sul phhvdrate. A dull bUti coating of cupric sulphide is producrtl which oecomes a brilliant black by burn ishing. Blue Black.— The iron object is fint heated according to the previous reripr. but the copper is converted into rnpn> sulphide, not by a sulph hydrate, but hr a hyposulphite. It is sufficient to dip the coppered object into a solution *^ sodium hyposulphite, addulated niO chlorhydric acid, and raised to the tcD' perature of 175<» to 105' F. Thus a blue-black coating is oblainf^i. unchangeable in air and in water. \i^r* polishing, it has the color of blue fXrrt It adheres strongly enough to neiaA ti** action of the scratch brusL Deposition of Molvbdenum.— IrM i« preserved from rust by covering it mth a coating of molybdenum, as follov*: Water, 1,000 parts; ammonium mui.^W- date, 1 part; ammonium nitrate, 1i t: 20 parts. Suspend the object at thr negative pole of a battery. The currrn* ought to have a strength of < to 5 aa peres per cubic decimeter. Deposit of Manganese Penuddc.— TV Digitized by VjOOQ IC METALS 473 iron or sted is first covered with a coat- ing of manganese peroxide by immer- sing as an anode in a bath containing about 0.05 per cent of chloride or suf phate of manganese and from 5 to 25 per cent of ammonium nitrate. The bath is electroiyxed cold, making use of a cath- ode of charcoal. Feeble currents (1 or 2 amperes) produce an adherent and unchangeable deposit. Bronzing of Cannon. — ^Ptepare a solu- tion of ferric chloride of density 1.28 1» 14 parts; mercury chloride, S parts; fum- ing nitric acid, S parts; cupric sulphate, 3 parts; water, 80 parts. Give to the piece of ordnance 2 or 8 coatings of the solution, takinff care always to scratch the preceding layer with a steel brush before spreading the second. Afterwards, the object is nTuni^ed in a solution of fiotassium sulpnide m 900 parts of water. t is left in this for 10 days. It is removed br washing with soap and hot water. The obiect is rinsed, dried, and finally brushed with linseed-oil varnish. Green Bronzing. — Dissolve 1 part of acetate of silver in 20 parts of essence of lavender; coat the surface of iron with this liquid by means of a brush and raise the temperature to 292'' F. A firilliant green c-Thefle are made from skimmed milk freed from casein, •an' and albumen, and resemble mrat n tracts. The milk is slightly artduistr>l with phosphoric or hydrochlorir sn«i and evaporated in varuo to the cua»i* Digitized by VjOOQ IC MILK 476 tency of thick svrup. During the crys- tallization of the augar, the liquid is sterilized. Modificatioii of ttBlk for Infants.— For an 0) child note the percentages of milk taken; decide, if indigestion is prpsent, which insredient of the milk, fat or proteid, or bota, is at fault, and make formula accordingly. After allowing the milk to stand 8 li ours, remove tne top 8 ounces from a quart jar of 4 per cent fat milk by means )f a dipper, and count this as 12 per cent 'at cream. Count the lowest 8 ounces of fie quart fat-free milk. From these the bilowing formula may be obtained, "overing fairly well the different per- -fntages required for the different pe- iods of life. Firsi Week. W per cent cream. Fat-free milk. at 2.00 Cream .... SJ oz. ij^ar 6.00 Milk ij oz. ruteid.4. . 0.75 MDk sugar 2 meas. Second Week. it 2.50 Cream 4) oz. iirar. ...6.00 Milk IJ oz. otrids.. 1.00 Milk sugar 2$ meas. Third Week. t S.OO Cream.... 5 oz. ^ar 6.00 Milk 1 oz. oteids.. 1.00 Milk sugar. 2} meas. Four to Six Weeke. t 8.50 Cream .... 5} oz. i^ar 6.50 Milk li oz. )teida.. 1.00 Milk sugar 2) meas. Six to Eight Weeka. S.50 Cream. . . . 5f oz. rar 6.50 Milk s| oz. t4*id8. . 1.50 MDk sugar 2^ meas. Two to Four Months. 4.00 Cream .... 6} oz. 7.00 Milk 2i oz. 1.50 Milk sugar 2} meas. Four to Eight Months. 4.00 Cream .... 6f oz. 7.00 Milk 4} oz. 2.00 Milk sugar 2| meas. Eight to Nine Months. ... . 4.00 Cream 6f oe. r . . 7.00 Milk 7} oz. *iil«.. 9.50 Milk sugar 2 meas. ^ine to Ten Months. 4.00 Cream . . 6) oz. r . . . 7.00 Milk 10^ oz. i«i«« . . 3.00 Milk sugar 1) meas. ids. ir . fids . Ten to Twelve Months. Fat 4.00 Cream 6f oz. Sugar. . . . 5.00 Milk llf oz. Proteids.. 8.50 Milk sugar } meas. After Twelve Months. Unmodified cow*8 milk. Preservation of Milk (see also Foods). — 1. — Shortly after the milk is strained add to it from 1 per cent to 2 per cent of a 12- volume solution of hydrogen per- oxide, and set it aside for 10 to 12 hours. It thus acquires the property of keeping perfectly sweet and fresh for 8 or 4 days, and is far preferable to milk sterilized oy heat Two points are worthy of notice in the process. The addition of oxy- genatea water should be made as soon after it is taken from the cow, strained, etc., as possible; the peroxide appears to destroy instantly all anaerobic microbes (such as the bacillus of green diarrhea of childhood), but has no effect upon the bacillus of tuberculosis. This process is to be especially recommended in the heat of summer, and at all times in the milk of cattle known to be free of tuberculosis. II. — Fresh milk in bottles has been treated with oxygen and carbonic acid under pressure of some atmospheres. By this method it is said to be possible to preserve milk fresh 50 to 60 days. The construction of the bottle is sipnon-like. Milk Substitute.^Diamalt is a thick syrupy mass of pleasant, strong, some- what sourish ocfor and sweetish taste, which is offered as a substitute for milk. The preparation has been analyzed. Its specific gravity is 1.4826; the percentage of water fluctuates between 24 and 28 per cent; the amount of ash is 1.8 per cent. There are present: Lactic acid, 0.718 to 1.51; nitroffenous matter, 4.68 to 5.06 per cent; and constituents rich in nitrogen, about 68 per cent. The latter consist principally of maltose. Dissolved in water it forms a ^reenish-vellow mixt- ure. Turbidness is caused by starch grains, yeast cells, bacteria, and a shape- less coagulum. MILK AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR CELLU- LOID, BONE, AND IVORY: See Casein. MILK, CUCUMBER: See Cosmetics. MILK OF SOAP: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. MINARGENT: See Alloys. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 476 MIRRORS MINERAL WATERS: Sec Waters. MUIOFOR METAL: See Alloys. MIIIT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. Mirrors (See also Glass.) Mirror Silvering. — Mirror silvering is sometimes a misnomer, inasmuch as the coating applied to glass in the manu- facture of mirrors does not always con- tain silver. In formula I it is an amal- gam of mercury and tin. I. — A sheet of pure tin foil, slightlv larger than the glass plate to be silverea, is spread evenly on a perfectly plane stone table having a raised ed^, and is well cleaned from all dust and impurity. The foil must be free from the slightest flaw or crack. The tin is next covered uniformly to a depth of | of an inch with mercury, preference being given by some to that containing a small propor- tion of tin from a previous operation. The glass plate, freed from all dust or grease, and repolished if necessary, is then carefully slid over the mercury. This part of the work rec^uires skill and experience to exclude all air bubbles, and even the best workmen are not successful every time. If there is a single bubble or scratch the operation must oe repeated and the tin foil is lost; not a small expense for large sizes. When this step has been satisfactorilv accomplished the remainder is easy. The glass plate is loaded with heavy weights to press out the excess of mercury which is collected and is used again. After 24 hours the mirror is lifted from the table and placed on ed^e against a wall, where it is left to drain well. H. — Solution No. 1 is composed as follows: To 8 ounces of distilled water, brought to a boil, add 12 gr&ins of silver nitrate and 12 grains of Kochelle salts. I^t it come to a boil for 6 to 7 minutes; then cool and filter. Solution No. 2 is made as follows: Take 8 ounces of distilled water, and into a small quantity poured into a tum- bler put 19 grains of silver nitrate. Stir well until dissolved. Then add several drops of 26^ ammonia until the solution becomes clear. Add 16 grains more of nitrate of silver, stirring well until dis- solved. Add balance of distilled water and filter. The filtering must be done through a glass funnel, in which the filter paper is placed. The solution must be stirred with a glass rod. Keep thr solutions in separate bottles marked Nu. 1 and No. 2. Directions for Silvering: Clean tbc glass with ammonia and wipe with a wet chamois. Then take half and ball of the two solutions in a graduating glsj^v stirring well with a glass rod. Pour thr contents on the middle of the fflass to Ir silvered. It will spread over the suHi,« into the slobe and expose it to a ippotir heat untu the compound is meltrd: it melts at 197* F.; then by tumiuK 1'' globe slowly round, an equal nwlmf may be laid on, which, when cold, bsnl ens and firmly adheres. ResUvering Miiron— If mirrors costi-i with amal^m become damaged t)-*-) may sometimes be successfully rppatr«>« by one of the following processes: I.-^Place the old mirror in a v^'b^ solution of nitric acid — say S per rrnt which immediately removes the ulwr Rinse it a little, and then dean very tbt r oughly with a pled^ of rotton-aocd a > : a mixture of whiting and ammoTai Rouge will answer in place of wbitiiMt **' as a last extreme, finest levirated pumi^. first applied to a waste Igasa to rru^h down any possible grit Thb rlean)-/ is of the utmost importance, as upon it* thoroughness depends eventual svcrr^^^ Front, back, and edgca must ahir %«• left in a state above saspirioo« 1^< Digitized by VjOOQ IC MIRRORS 477 {date is then again flowed with weak acid, ringed under the tap, then flowed back and front with distilled water, and kept immersed in a class-covered dish of dis- tilied water untS the solutions are ready. The depositing vessel is the next con- sideration, and it should be realized that unless most of the silver in the solution finds its way on to the face of the mirror it were cheaper that the glass should be sent to the professional mirror-maker. The best plan is to use a fflass dish al- lowing a i^ inch margin ail round the mirror, inside. ^ But such a fflass dish is expensi%;e, having to be made specially, there being no regular sizes near enough to 4 X 7 or 8 X 5 (usual mirror sizes). If too large, a dish must perforce be used, the sides or ends of whioi should be filled up with sealing wax. Four strips of ^lass are temporaruy bound together with 2 or S turns of string, so as to form a hol- low square. The side pieces are i inch longer outside, and the end pieces i inch wtfjer than the mirror glass. This frame is placed in about the center of the dish, moijitened with glycerine, and the molten wax flowed outside of it to a depth of about i of an inch or more. For econ- omy's sake, good "parcel wax" may be uned, but l>est red sealing wax is safer. This wax frame may be used repeatedly, being cleaned prior to each silvering operation. It is the only special ap- pliance necessary, and half an hour is a liberal time allowance for making it. Use a stock solution of silver nitrate of the strength of 25 grains to 1 ounce of distilled water: Taxe 2 drachms of sil- ver nitrate stock solution and convert it to ammonia nitrate, by adding[ ammonia drop by drop until the precipitate is re- dissolved. Add 3} ounces of distilled water. In another measure take 80 drops (approximately 74 minims) of 40 per cent formalin. Pour the solution of ammo- nio nitrate of silver into the measure con- taining the formalin, then back into the original measure, and finally into the dis.h containing the glass to be silvered. This should ms done rapidly, and the dish containing the mirror well rocked unto the silvering is complete, which may be ascertained by the precipitation of a black, flocculent deposit, and the clearing of the solution. The actual process ot silTeriBg takes about 2 minutes. Cleanliness throughout is of the great- er importance. Toe vessels in which \t^ solutions are mixed should be well rinsed with a solution of bichromate of pof«sb and sulphuric acid, then washed «ml three or four times under the tap, and finally with distilled water. For cleans- ins, dip the fflass for a short time in a solution of Bichromate of potash, to which a little sulphuric acid is added. The glass is afterwards well rinsed for a minute or two under the tap, flooded with distilled water, and dried with a clean linen cloth. A little absolute alcohol is then rubbed on with a soft linen handkerchief, which is immediately rolled into a pad and used for well polish- ing the surface. The cleaning with al- cohol is repeated to avoid risk of failure. After the mirror has been silvered, hold it under the tap and allow water to flow over it for about 8 minutes. Rinse it with distilled water, and stand it up on edge on blotting paper, l^hen it is quite dry take a pad of very soft wash- leather, spread a small quantity of finest opticians rouge on a sheet of clean glass, and well coat the pad with rou^e by polishing the sheet of glass. A minute quantity of rouge is sufficient. After- wards polish the mirror by gently rubbing the surface with the pad, using a circular stroke. It will be seen that with this process it is unnecessary to suspend the mirror in the silvering solution, as usually recom- mended. The mirror is laid in the dish, which is a distinct advantage, as the progress of the silvering may be watched untu complete. The film also is much more robust than that obtained by the older methods. II. — 'Clean the bare portion of the glass bv rubbing it gently with fine cot- ton, taking care to remove any trace of dust and grease. If this cleaning be not done very carefully, defects will appear around the place repaired. With the point of a penknife cut upon the back of another lookine fflass around a portion of the silvering of the required form, but a little larger. Upon it place a small drop of mercury; a drop the size of a pin*s head will be sufficient for a surface equal to the size of the nail. The mercury spreads immediately, penetrates the amalgam to where it was cut off with the knife, and the required piece may be now lifted and removed to the place to be repaired. This is the most dimeult part of the operation. Then press lightly the renewea portion with cotton; it hardens almost immediately, and the glass pre- sents the same appearance. Clouding of Moutli Mirrore. — Bv means of the finger, slightly moistened, apply a film of soap of any brand or kind to the mirror; then rub this off with a clean, dry cloth; the mirror will be as Digitized by VjOOQ IC 478 MIRRORS— MOLDS bright and clear as ever. Breathing on it will not affect its clearness and the mirror does not suffer from the opera- tion. lla|;ic Mirron. — Among the many amusmg and curious articles which the amateur mechanic can turn out, metallic mirrors having concealed designs on them, and which can be brought into view bjr breathing on the polished sur- face, are both funny and easy to produce. To produce steel mirrors either tough bronze or good cast mottled iron discs should be used, and the design should be on the bottom of the cast disc, as this is the soundest and densest part of the metal. The method of worlcing is dif- ferent with bronze and iron, and bronze will be dealt with first. The cast disk of bronze should be turned up level on both sides, and the edges should be turned or shaped up, the metal being about half an inch thick. On the side which was at the bottom in casting, a line should be drawn to allow for working up the border or frame of the mirror, and on the rest of the smooth surface the design should be drawn, not having too much detail. It is best to mark the lines with a sharp scriber, to prevent their effacement during working. When the disk is marked out, it should be laid on a smoothly planed iron block, and the lines punched to a depth of about } inch, a punch with round edges being used. Then the disk should bo turned down to just below the surface of the punched-in metal, and the border or edge formed, finishing smoothly, but without burnishing. The back can be turned down and, with the outer edge, bur- nished; but the inside of the edge and the face of the mirror should be polished with fine abrasive powder, and finished with fine rouge. When dry, the mirror will appear eaually bright all over; but when breathed on the design will show, again disappearing as the moisture is removed. The metal punched in will be more dense than the rest of the surface, and will also be very slightly raised, this being imperceptible unless the polishing has been too long continued. With iron mirrors a good mottled iron must be used, selecting nematite for pref- erence; but in any case it must be chill - able metal. Preferably it should be melted in a crucible, as this causes the least change in the metallic content, and as the metal can be made hot and fluid, it works well. The design must he worked out in iron of about ji inch in thickness, and must be level, as it has to touch the molten metal In the bottom o( the mold. If preferred, the design o»; be cast and ground flat, but this depfnil* largely on the design. The chill patlm should be coated with plumbago, and id molding the disk pattern of about } inHt in thickness should be laid on a boanl and on this the design — chill — should be placed, and the mold should br rammed upfrom the back in the ordinirr manner, ^he casting should be allowr«J to get cold in the mold, and should tbrn be removed and dressed in the usual nay It should then be ground bright all our on emery wheels of successively 6nrr ffrades, and the mirror surface should U Duffed and polished until a steely airmr surface is produced. With a gc>od m*>\ tied iron the chilled design will not »li<>« until the surface is breathed on or rubl»«] with a greasy rag, but will then shu* clearly. MIRROR ALLOTS: See Alloys. MIRRORS, FROSTED: See Glass. MIRROR-LETTERING : See Lettering. MIRROR POLISETOS: See Polishes. MIRRORS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Mrth> ods. MIRRORS, TO PREVENT DDOOVG OF: See Glass. MIRROR VARNISH: See Varnishes. MITE KILLER: See Insectiddea. MIXING STICKS FOR PAINT: See Paint MODELING WAX: See W*ax, Modeling. MOISTURE: See Insulation. MOISTURE IN WOOD: See Wood. MOLDS: Sec also Casting and Matrix. Molding Sand. — A high i^rade of r^^ ing sand should be fat, i. e.. itrf«nf4t mixed with clay. Natunilly the mM* •' this sand should be cmnlnffrU i>nlf to a perfectly dry state. The Vat fntM't sjind is prepared artificially fmin c|ti»i> sand (fine sprinkling sand), fat Hay. fr^ Digitized by VjOOQ IC MOLDS— MOUNTAxVTS 479 from lime and ferric oxide (red ocher). The ZDolding sand is fixed b^ breaking up the loose pieces in which it is partly dug; next it is passed through a fine sieve and mixed up to one-third of its volume with charcoal dust, or, better still, with lampblack, which, owinff to its looseness and fatness, does not detract so much from the binding qualities of the sand. The utility of the sand may be tested by pressing tne finger into it, whereupon the nne lines of the skin should appear sharply defined; its binding power is ascertained by droppins a lump pressed together with the nana from a neigh t, which is increased until it breaks. MOLDING CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. MOLDS OF PLASTER: See Plaster. MOLES: See also Warts. Lunar caustic is frequently used to remove warts and moles. It should be wrapped in tin foil or placed in a quill so that It will not touch the bare flesh. Moisten the raised surface and touch with the caustic niffht and morning. Successive lavers of sxin will dry up and peel off. Wnen on a level with the sur- rounding flesh applv a healing ointment. Let the last crust fornied drop without touching it. Unless carefully done this process may leave a white scar. A simple remedy for warts consists in wetting and rubbing them several times a da^ in a strong solution of common washing soda. The electric treatment, however, is now the most popular. MOLYBDENUM STEEL: See Steel. MORDANTS: See also Dyes. Mordant for Cement Sur^ces. — Take freen vitriol and dissolve it in hot water. f the cement is rather fresh add 1 part of vinegar for each part of ^reen vitriol. BesI suited, however, is triple vinegar < vinegar containing H P^i' ^^^^ ^^ acetic acid), which is alone sufiicient for well- dried places. For such surfaces that have been smoothed with a steel tool and have hardly any pores, take alcohol, 1 part» and green vitriol, 10 parts, and apply this twice until the iron has ac- quired a yellowish color. This mordant forms a neutral layer between cement and paint, and causes the latter to dry Mordant for Gold Size. — A mordant for gold size gilding that has been thor- oughly tested and found to be often pref- erable to the shellac- mixed article, is prepared from yolk of egg and glycerine. The yolk of an egg is twirled in a cup and up to 80 drops of glycerine are added to it. The more glycerine added, the longer the mordant will take to dry. Or else an equal portion of ordinary svrup is mixed with the jrolk of egg. Same must be thinly liquid. If the mass be- comes too tough it is warmed a little or thinned with a few drops of warm water. A single application is sufiBcient. Nat- urallv, this style of gilding is onlv prac- ticable indoors; it cannot withstaoa the in- fluence of moisture. MORTAR, ASBESTOS. Asbestos mortar consists of a mixture of asbestos wi*h 10 per cent of white lime. Canadian asbestos is generally used, which is composed of 80 per cent of asbestos and 20 per cent of serpen- tine. The asbestos is ground and the coarse powder used for the first rough cast, while the finer material is employed for the second top- plastering. This mortar is highlv fire-resisting and water- proof, is only naif as heavy as cement mortar, and tough enough to admit of nails being driven in without breaking it. MOSQUITOES IN THE HOUSE: See Household Formulas. MOSQUITO REMEDIES: See Insecticides. MOSS REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. MOTHS: See Turpentine. MOTH PAPER: See Paper. MOTH TRAPS AND MOTH KILLERS: See Household Formulas. MOTHER-OF-PEARL : See Peari. MOTORS, ANTI-FREEZING SOLU- TION FOR: See Freezing Preventives. MOUNTANTS: See also Adhesives and Photography. Mounting Drawings, Photos, etc., upon Fine Pasteboard. — It freoucntly happens that the pasteboard will warp toward the face of the picture, even if left in a press till tlie gluing medium is perfectly dry. Thi? fault can be pbvi- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 480 MOUNTANTS— MUSTARD PAPER ated by moutening the back of the paste- board moderately with a sponge, and« while this b still wet, pasting the picture on with good, thin ^lue. If moistening the pasteboard is impracticable (with sensitive drawings, paintings, etc.)> Daste which has been pressed through a nne cloth is rubbed on, aJways in the same direction, and the picture is care- fully and evenly pressed on. Then bend the pasteboard backward in a wide semicirde, and place it between two heavy objects on the table. After a few hours, wnen the paste is completelv dry, put the picture down flat ana load pro- portionately. Papers of large size, which cannot conveniently be placed between two objects, are wrapped up, and twine is stretched around, thus keeping them bent. Mountiiig PrintB on Glass. — Take 4 ounces of gelatin; soak } hour in cold water; then place in a glass jar, adding 16 ounces of water; put the jar in a large dish of warm water and dissolve the gel- atin. When dissolved pour in a shal- low trav; have the prints rolled on a roller, albumen side up; take the print by the corners and pass rapidly through the ffelatin, using great care to avoid air bubbles. Squeeze carefully onto the glass. The better the quality of glass, the finer the effect. MOUTH AlfTISEPTICS: See Antiseptics. MOUTH WASHES: See Dentifrices. MOVING OBJECTS AND HOW TO PHOTOGftAPH THEM: See Photography. MUCILAGE: See Adhesives. MUSIC BOXES. Care must be exercised in taking apart, for if the box is wound up and the fly is removed, the cylinder is ruined. The sprinff relaxes at a bound, causing the cVlinaer to turn with such rapidity that tne pins cannot resist the teeth, whose force is intensified by the velocity of the cylinder. The pins originally bent for- ward are broken, or pressed backwards; as they are hardened, they cannot be bent forward again without breaking. This accident involves the cost of a new cylinder, the most expensive part of the apparatus. Besides, the comb almost always loses some teeth and the wheel- work also suffers in its turn. To avoid such mishaps the careful operator will take the parts asunder in the following otder: 1. Remove the comb. 2. Take the apparatus from the box and completely disarm the spring. 3. Remove the barrel. 4. Remove the escapement. 5. Remove the cylinder. The barrel and the wheels are deaned like those of a watch. The cylinder should be handled care- fully. The holes should be well cleaoefi. Oil should be put only on the piroU. especially none on the part of the arbor to which the cylinder is attached. It i« the first piece to be replaced, care beioc taken to see that the arbor turns fredv. but without play, between the bridgm. When it is in position, put in the (scipr- ment, then the barrel, and finally tbf comb. The comb, representing the mttncal part of a simple box, cannot receive Uto much care. Before replacing it examine the springs closeljr, and in supplyinic tbf ones that are lacking, take for the modrl of size and form those resembling tbrm the most. If the parts have been put together properly, then, as soon as tbe comb is screwed in its place, these should be found in good working order: the Uf*f (lift)— that », that the pins do not lift thr teetn too much or too little; the tomUr (fall)— that is, that the chords, the bavs the medium, and the treble, fall together: and the visSe (pointine) — that the pint catch at the center of the ends of tb« teeth. MUSLIN, PAniTING ON: See Painting. MUSTACHE FIXING FLUID. Balsam of Tolu 1 part Rectified spirit S parts Jockey dub I part Dissolve the balsam in the liqui getner 500 parts of cod-liver oil and fOO parts of a cold infusion of coffee. Grsd- ually add a part of this mixture to thf powder in the mortar and triturate until emulsified. To the remaining liquid mixture add 100 parts of rum, torn gradually incorporate with tbecontroL« of the mortar by trituration. Extnictiiif Oil from Cottofmed.— Claim is made for a process of eitraction. in an English patent, in which the srr cordance with the method of Milliaa on a water bath with a 8 per cent «lut^"0 of silver nitrate, and the brown prrn«i«t chiefly of a brown silver salt rfimpta*e'ing oils, when heated with basic sub- stances such as the alkalies, polymerize and become solid. Hertkorn makes use of the oxides of the alkaline earths, or their salts with weak acids, such as their soaps. When chalk or lime is added to the oil during the process of oxidation, either during the hquid or the plastic stage, it forms a calcium soap, and causes polymerization to set in in the partially oxidized oil. Similarlv, if caustic soda or caustic potash be added, the action is not caused by them in the free state, but b^ the soaps which they form. Oxidized od is more readily saponified than raw oil, and the greater tlie oxidation, the more readily does saponification take place. Lime soaps are not soluble in water, whereas soda and potash soaps are. Conseouently a cement made with the latter, ii exposed to the weather, will be acted upon by rain and moisture, owing to the soluble soap contained in it, while a cement made with lime will not be acted upon. It is suggested that the action of the bases on linseed oil is simpiv due to their neutralization of the free acid. The acidity of linseed oil increases as it becomes oxidized. When the basic matter is added part of the free acid is neutralized, and polymerization sets in. The presence of a lar^e amount of free acid must therefore hinder polymeriza- tion. From 5 to 10 per cent of chalk or lime is considered to be the amount which gives the best result in practice. Decolorizing or Bleaching Linseed Oil. — ^Linseed oil may be bleached by the aid of chemical bodies, the process of oxidizinff or bleaching being best per- formed oy means of peroxide of hydro- gen. For this purpose, the linseed oil to be bleached is mixed with 5 per cent peroxide of hydrogen in a tin or glass Dottle, and the mixture is shaken re- peatedly. After a few days have ela psed the linseed oil is entirely bleached and clarified, so that it can be poured off from the peroxide of hydrogen, which has been reduced to oxide of hydrogen, i. e., water, by the process of oxidation. The use of another oxidizing medium, such as chloride of lime and hvdro- chloric acid or bichromate of calcium and sulphuric acid, etc., cannot be rec- ommenaed to the layman, as the oper- ation requires more care and is not with- out danger. If there is no hurry about the preparation of bleached linseed oil, sun bleaching seems to be the most recommendable method. For this onlv a glass bottle is required, or, better still, a Bat glass dish, of any shape, which can be covered with a protruding piece of glass. For the admission of air, lay some sticks of wood over the dish and the glass on top. The thinner the layer of linseed oil, tne quicker will be the oxi- dation process, it is, of course, neces- sary to place the vessel in such a manner that it IS exposed to the rays of the sun for many hours daily. Linseed Oil for Varnish-Making.— Heat in a copper vessel 50 gallons Baltic oil to 280^ F., add 2^ pounds calcined white vitriol, and stir well together. Keep the oil at the above temperature for half an hour, then draw the fire, and in 24 hours decant the clear oil. It should stand for at least 4 weeks. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 484 OILS Refining Linseed (Ml. — Put 2S6 gallons of oil into a copper boiler, pour in 6 pounds of oil of vitriol, and stir them toffether for 3 hours, then add 6 pounds fuAer's earth well mixed with 14 pounds hot lime, and stir for S hours. The oil must be put in a copper vessel with an eaual quantity of water. Now boil for S hours, then extinguish the fire. When cold draw off the water. Let the mix- ture settle for a few weeks. mifERALOIL: See also Petroleum. Production of Consistent Mineral Oils.— By weight I. — Mineral oil 100 parts Linseed oil 25 parts Ground nut oil. . . . 25 parts Lime 10 parts IL — Mineral oil 100 parts Rosin oil 100 parts Rape seed oil 50 parts Linseed oil 75 parts Lime 25 parts Mizinff Castor OU with Mineral Oils.^ Castor oU is heated for 6 hours in an auto- clave at a temperature of 500® to 575® F., and under a pressure of 4 to 6 atmos- pheres. When cold the resulting product mixes in all proportions with mineral oils. BLEACHING OILS: Linseed Oil or Poppy Oil. — Agitate in a glass balloon 25,000 parts, by weight, of oil with a solution of 50 parts, by weight, potassium permanganate in 1,250 parts, by volume, of water. Let stand for 24 hours at a gentle warmth and add 75 parts, by weight, of pow- dered sodium sulphite. Agitate strongly and add 100 parts, by weight, of hydro- chloric acid and again agitate. Let stand until decolorization takes place, then wash the oil with a sufficiency of water, carrving in suspension chalk, finely powdered, until the liquid no longer has an acid reaction. Finally filter off over anhydrous sodium sulphate. Boiled Oil. — The following is espe- cially adapted for zinc painting, but will also answer for any paint: Mix 1 part binoxide of manganese, in coarse pow- der, but not dusty, with 10 parts nut or linseed oil. Keep it gently heated and frequently stirred for about 30 hours, or until the oil begins to turn reddish. British Oil.— ^ I. — Oil of turpentine.. . . 40 parts Barbadoes pitch 26 parts Oil of ro.Hpniary 1 part Oil of origanum .... 1 part IL — Oil of turpentine 2 parts Rape oil 20 purU Spirit of tar 2 part* AJkanet root, quantity sufficirnt. Macerate the alkanet root in the rape oil until the latter is colored deep mJ; then strain off and add the other ini^rr- dients. Decolorizing and Deodorizing Oils.— I. — One may partially or coinplHrl^ deodorize ana decolorize rank fi^^n and other oils by sending a current of hot »ir or of steam through them, after hA\iiis heated them from l?^'' to 200*^ F. *lo decolorize palm oil pa.s.s through it a current of steam uncier pressure mrrr- sponding to a tem[)crature of 230=" K. agitating the oil conxtantly. The %M\M*r is then passed through leaden tuvrrr^ of about 2 inches diantcter, 10 hour« Ixirit; sufficient for deodorizing 4 ton.s of oil IL — Another method that may Ih» ap plied to almost all kiiul.s of fatA an After ttiis exposure the material i^ rr- assembled in a boiler of iron, jacket r«l on the inside with lead; a quantity of «al phuric acid diluted to 5 per cent, rqusl m amount to the lime chloride previou^lv used, is added, and heat is applied until the oil melts and separates from tit<- other substances. It is then left lonM>i off and solidify. Decomposition of Oils, Fats, etc In many of the process«'s at prrsrnl -n use. whereby oils and fats are dr<-<*ni- posed by steam at a high pressure, tin time during which the oil or fat ka» i<> be expo-secT to high prcnnure and Urn- perature has the effcVt of considrraM) darkening the resulting product. Hau nig*s process claims to shorten the tit r required, b^ bringing the steam and « >' into more intimate contact. The oil to be treated is projectcci in fine strra-..* into the chamber containing steam at h to 10 atmospheres pressure. The «trrani« of oil are projected with suffideot U*t^^ to cause them to strike against the «atU of the chamber, and they are thu« hn^ir' up into minute globules which tm\ tn'^* ntately with the steam. In thin »aj >t** most sati.sfactorv conditions for the 6i- com position of tne oil are obtained. Digitized by VjOOQ IC OILS 485 Drifield (Kb.— Barbadocs tar 1 ounce Linseed oil 16 ounces Oil turpentine 3 ounces Oil vitriol J ounce Arid the oil of vitriol to the other in- gredients very gradually, with constant tirring. Drying Oilfl.— To dry oils for varnishes, aintin^s, etc., the most economical cans IS to boil them with shot, to leave em for some time in contact with of, or else to boil them with lith- ;e. Another method consists in boil- : the oils with tqual parts of lead, tin, J sulphate of zinc in the ratio of xV t (weight) of the united metals to 1 t of oil to be treated. These metals tf be granulated, which is easily ac- plished bv melting them separately putting tnem in cold water. They be found at the bottom of the water (• shape of small balls. It is in this ler, by the way, that shot is pro- ;t 'Laying Oil. — A process has been cd for rendering mineral oils mis- n aJI jjroportions of water. The d consists of forming an intimate e of the oil with a soap which is in water. The most simple I is as follows: The oil is placed k provided with an agitator. The iict in motion and the fatty oil or y acid from which the soap is to icd is added, and mixed inti- vith the mineral oil. When the is seen to be thoroughly homo- thc alkali, in solution m water, little by little and the stirring I until a thorough emulsion is of which the constituents do ite, even after prolonged stand- 'ordinary temperatures. The may be produced either by a I apparatus or by forcing air ressure. As a rule, the oper- >e carried out in the cold, but -uses the solution of the fatty its iiaponification requires ^iitn of moderate heat. This lineci by using either a ^team- n, or oy having the steam the pan* or live steam may •4>u^n the mixture, serving at rne both as a heating and fit. Any fatty mailer or itnble for soap-making may the base may be any one rniin^ a soluble soap, most he alkaline hydroxides, and caustic potash, as also ammonia. The raw materials are chos- en according to the use to which the fin- ished product is to be applied. A good formula, suitable for preparing an oily liouid for watering dusty roads, is as follows: By weight Heavy mineral oil ... . 75 parts Commercial olein .... 2 parts Commercial ammonia 1.5 parts Water «1.5 parts Floor Oils. — I. — Neatsfoot oil 1 part Cottonseed oil 1 part Petroleum oil 1 part II. — Beeswax 8 parts Water 56 parte Potassium carbonate 4 parts Dissolve the potash in 12 parts of water; heat togetner the wax and the re- maining water till the wax is liquefied; then mix the two and boil together until a perfect emulsion is effected. Color, if desired, with a solution of annatto. Ground-Laylnff Oil for Ceramics. — Boil together until thoroughly incorporated 1 pint of linseed oil, 1 pint of dissolved gum mastic, } ounce of red lead, } ounce of rosin. In using mix with Venice turpentine. Oil Suitable for Use with Gold.— Heat and incorporate linseed oil, 1 quart; rape oil, 1 pint; Canadian balsam, 3 pints; rectified spirits of tar, 1 quart. Wool Oil. — These are usually pro- duced by the distillation in retorts of Yorkshire grease and other greases. The distilled oil is tested for quality, and is brought down to 70 per cent or 50 per cent grades by the addition of a suitable quantity of mineral oil. The lower the quality of the grease used the lower is the grade of the resulting wool oil. OIL BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors. OIL, CASTOR: See Castor Oil. OIL FOR FORIONO A BEAD ON LIQUORS: See Wines and Liquors. OILS FOR HARNESS: See Leather. OILS (EDIBLE), TESTS FOR: See Foods. OIL, HOW TO POUR OUT : See Castor Oil. OIL, LUBRICATING : See Lubricants. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 486 OILS— OINTMENTS OILS, PURIFICATIOll OF: See Fats. OILCLOTH: See Linoleum. OILCLOTH ADHESIVES: See Adhesives. OILCLOTH ViOUflSHES : See Varnishes. OILING FIBERS AND FABRICS: See Waterproofing. OILSKINS: See Waterproofing. OIL REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. OIL, SOLIDIFIED: See Lubricants. Ointments Arnica Salve. — Solid extract of arnica 2 parts Rosin ointment 16 parts Petrolatum 4 parts Sultanas 16 parts Fine cut tobacco I part Boil the raisins and the tobacco in 40 ounces of water until exhausted, express the liquid, and evaporate down to 8 ounces. Soften the arnica extract in a little hot water and mix in the liquid. Melt the rosin ointment and petrolatum together, and add the liquid to the melted mass and incorporate thoroughly. Barben' Itch.~ Ichthyol SO grains Salicylic acid 18 grains Mercury oleate (10 per cent) 8 drachms Lanolin 1 ounce Mix. To be kept constantly applied to the affected parts. Brown Ointment. — Rosin 1 ounce I^ad plaster 4 ounces Soap cerate 8 ounces Yellow beeswax. ... 1 ounce Olive oil 7} fluidounces Chilblains. — The following are for unbroken chilblains: I. — Sulphurous acid. ... 8 parts Glycerine 1 part Water 1 part II. — Balsam Peru 1 part Alcohol 24 parts Hydrochloric acid. . . 1 part Tincture benzoin compound .... 8 part.^ Dissolve the balsam in the alcohol, and add the acid and tincture. Apply morning and evening. Domestic Ointments. — I. — Vaseline 80 parts Diachylon oint- ment 80 parts Carbolic acid 4 parts Camphor 6 parts II. — Butter, fresh (un- salted) 750 parts Wax, yellow 1 45 parU Rosin, white 100 parts Nutmeg oil 15 parts Peru balsam 1 part III. — Lead plaster, sim- ple 6,090 parU Vaseline, yellow . . 1,000 parts Camphor 65 parts Carbolic acid 50 parts Mix. Green Salve, — White pine turpentine 8 ounces Lard, fresh 8 ouncra Honey 4 ounce* Beeswax, yellow 4 ounces Melt, stir well, and add Verdigris, powdered.. 4 drachma Apply locally. This cannot be surpassed when n»rd for deep wounds, as it prevents thr formation of proud flesh and keeps up • healthy discharge. Salve for all Wounds. — Lard, fresh 16 ounces White lead, dry 8 ouncr* Red lead, drv I ounce Beeswax, yellow 8 ouore« Black rosin 2 ounces Mix, melt, and boil for 45 minutr*. then add Common turpentine 4 ouom Boil for 8 minutes and cool. Apply locally to cuts, bums. 9«>rr«. ulcers, etc. It first draws* then bcAU Irritating Plaster. — Tar, purified 16 ouncrs Burgundy pitch 1 ouiice White pine turpentine 1 ounce Rosin, common it ottnces Melt and add Mandrake root« pow- dered 1 drscbm Blood root« powdered . 1 ounce Poke root, powdered . . 1 ounce Indian turnip rooU powdered 1 o«inrv Apply to the skin in tbe f»rna of a Digitized by VjOOQ IC OINTMENTS 487 plaster (spread on muslin) and renew it daily. This salve will raise a sore which is to l>e wiped with a dry cloth to remove mat- ter, etc. The sore must not be wetted. This is a powerful countei^irritanl for re- moving internal pains, and in other cases where an irritating plaster is necessary. Mercury Salves.— I,— Red Salve.— Red mercury oxide, 1 part; melted lard, 9 parts. II. — White Salve. — Mercury precipi- tate, I part; melted lard, 9 parts. Pink salve. Ammonia ted mer- cury 1 ounce Mercuric oxide, precipitated 21 ounces Red mercuric sul- phide (vermilion) 60 irrains Perfume 1 luidounce Lard 1 J pounds Prepared suet i pound Antiseptic Nervine Ointment. — Iodoform 2 parts Salol 4 parts Boric acid 5 parts Antipyrine 5 parts Vasebne 80 parts Photographers' Ointment. — The fol- lowing protects the hands from photo- graphic chemicals: Best castile soap, in fine shavings 1 ounce Water I ounce Wax. 1 ounce Ammonia 45 minims Lanolin 1 ounce The soap is dissolved in the water heated for that purpose, the wax mixed in with much stirrin£[, and, when all is in jM>lution, the ammonia is added. When clear, the lanolin is put in, and then, if the mixture is very tnick, water is added until the whole has the consistency of honey. Keep in a covered stoneware jar. The hands should be first washed with ordinary soap, and then, while the lather is still on them, a bit of the mixture about the size of a hazel nut is rubbed in untD all is absorbed, and the hands are dry. At the close of the work, the film of wax is washed off in warm water and a little lanolin rubbed into the hands. PidnnSobduing Ointment. — The fol- lowing is an excellent formula: Tincture of capsicum. 5 parts Tincture of camphor. 1 part Ammonia water 2 parts Alcohol 2 parts Soap liniment 2 parts Skin Ointment. — I. — Add about 2 per cent of phenol to petrolatum, perfuming it with oil of bergamot and color a dull green. It has been suggested that a mixture of Prussian blue and yellow ocher would answer as the coloring agent. II. — Phenol. 40 grains Boric acid 2 drachms Oil of bergamot 90 minims Petrolatum 1 pound Color with chlorophyll. OINTMENTS FOR VETERINARY PUR- POSES: See Veterinary Formulas. OLEIN SOAP: See Soap. OLEOlfARGARINE: See Butter. OLIVE-OIL PASTE: See Butter Substitutes. ONYX CEMENTS: See Adhesives. ORANGEADE: See Beverages, under Lemonades. ORANGE BITTERS AND CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. ORANGE DROPS: See Confectionery. ORANGE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. ORANGE FRAPP£: See Beverages, under Lemonades. ORANGE PHOSPHATE: See Beverages. ORGEAT PUNCH: See Beverages, under Lemonades. ORTOL DEVELOPER: See Photography. OXIDIZING: See Bronzing, PUting, Painting. OXIDE. IfAGNETIC: See Kust Preventives. OXOLIN: See Rubber. OZONATINE: See Air Purifying. PACKAGE POP: See Beverages, under Ginger Ale. PACKAGE WAX: See Waxes. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 488 PACKINGS— PAINTINGS PACKINGS: Packing for Stuffing Boxes. — Tallow 10 parts Barrel soap, non-filled 80 parts Cylinder oil 10 parts Ta 1 c u m Venetian, finely powdered. ... 20 parts Graphite, finely wasned 6 parts Powdered asbestos. . . 6 parts Melt the tallow and barrel soap to- gether, add the other materials in rota- tion, mix intimately in a mixing 'ma- chine, and fill in 4-pound cans. Packing for Gasoline Pumps. — For packing pumps on gasoline eneines use asbestos wick-packm^ rubbed full of regular laundry soap; it will work with- out undue friction and will pack tightly. Common rubber packing is not as good, as the gasoline cuts it out. PADS OF PAPER: See Paper Pads. PAIN-SUBDUING OINTMENT: See Ointments. PAINTING PROCESSES : Painting Ornaments or Letters on Cloth and Paper. — Dissolve gum shellac in 95 per cent alcohol at the rate of I pound of shellac to S pints of alcohol, and mix with it any dry color desired. If it becomes too thick, thin with more alcohol. This works free, does not bleed out, imparts brilliancy to the color, and wears well. The preparation can be used also on paper. Painting on Harble. — To paint marble in water colors, it must be first thor- oughly cleaned and all grease com- pletely removed. The slab is washed well, and then rubbed off with benzine by means of a rag or sponge. In order to be quite sure, add a little ox call or aguoline to the colors. After marble has been painted with water colors it cannot be polished any more. Painting on Muslin. — To paint on muslin requires considerable skill. Select a smooth wall or partition, upon which tack the muslin, drawing the fabric taut and firm. Then make a solution of starch and water, adding one-fourth starch to three-fourths water, and apply a glaze of this to the muslin. To guard against the striking in of the paint, and to hold it more securely in place and tex- ture, mix thepigment with rubbing varnish to the consistency of a stiff paste, and then thin with turpentine to a free work- ing condition. A double thick camel's- hair brush, of a width to correspond properly with the size of the surface to bf coated, is the best tool with which to cost fine muslin. A fitch-hair tool is prob- ably best suited to the coarser muslio. Many painters, when about to letter on muslin, wet the material with water: but this method is not so reliable as sitiD^ with starch and water. Wetting canfii» or duck operates very successfully in holding the paint or color in check, but these materials should not be confounded with muslin, which is of an entirely dif- ferent texture. PAINTING ON LEATHER: See Leather. PAINTINGS: Protection lor OU Pai]itiiici.~Oil painting[s should under no drcumstanm be varnished over before the colors srr surely and unmistakably dry, otherwi^ the fissuring and early decay of the »ur face may be anticipated. The contm- tion of some people that oil oaintioir* need the protection of a coat of rami^h is based upon the claim that the ptHuir. unvarnished, looks dead and ltt»1erlri« in parts and glossy in still others, thr value and real oeauty of the color beinc thus unequally manifested. It is not to be inferred, however, that a heavy cuMt- ing of varnish is required. When it i« deemed advisable to varnish over an (ul painting the varnish should be ms«tir. with perhaps 8 or 4 drops of refined lin- seed oil added to insure against crack inir. A heavy body of varnuh used o^r^ paintings must be strictly prohibited, id- asmuch as the varnish, as it gro«» m age, naturally darkens in color, and m ««> doing carries with it a decided doudtt;; and discoloration of the delicate pig- ments. A thinly applied coat of ois»t < varnish affords the required protr<*iit»a from all sorts and conaitions of attnu^ pheric impurities, besides fulfillini; it* mission in other directions. Oil painting, aquarelles, etc., may U also coated with a thin layer of Cans*!* balsam, and placed smootiily on a psn^ of glass likewise coated with Can««iA balsam, so that both layers of bsLoi; come together. Then the piciurf* srr pressed down from the back, to rrmoir all air bubbles. To RenoTate Old Oil Pitintiaci. W*hen old oil paintings have ben^n:^ dark and cracked, proceed as foil**** Pour alcohol in a dish and put tbr t» - ture over it, face downward. The fu-"-^ of the alcohol dissolve the paint of t-' picture, the fissures dose up again, s'^^ Digitized by VjOOQ IC PAINTINGS— PAINTS 489 the color assumes a freshness which is surprising. Great caution is absolutely necessary, and one must look at the paint- ing very often, otherwise it may happen that the colors will run together or even run off in drops. PAINTINGS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. Paints (See also Acid-Proofing, Ceramics, Enamels, Fireproofing, Glazing, Painting Processes, Pigments, Rust Preventives, Varnishes, and Waterproofing.) PAINT BASES: Dry Bases for Paints. — The following colors and minerals, mixed in the pro- portions given and then ground to fine powder, make excellent dry paints, and may be thinned with turpentine oil, and a small percentage of cheap varnish to consistency required. Buff.— Yellow ocher 44 pounds Whiting 6 pounds Oxide of zinc 5 pounds Plaster of Paris i pound Brick Brown. — Yellow ocher 26 pounds Calcined copperas.. .. 4 pounds Red hematite 1} pounds Best silica 7 pounds Whiting 18 pounds Gray. — Oxide of zinc 30 pounds White lead 6 pounds Whiting 12 pounds Bone black } pound Yellow ocher 2 pounds Crimson. — Indian red 25 pounds Crocus martis 7 pounds Oxide of zinc 6 pounds Whiting 6 pounds Vandyke Brown. — Yellow ocher 25 pounds Whiting 18 pounds Unaber...^ 4 pounds Oxide of zinc 7 pounds Purple oxide of iron . . 1 pound Blood Red. — Crocns martis 80 pounds Whitinj^ 20 pounds Hematite S pounds Silica. 6 pounds Venetian red 2 pounds Drab.— Yellow ocher 40 pounds Whiting 10 pounds Oxide of zinc 8) pounds Sulphate of barytes. . . 1 pound Paint for Blackboards. — Shellac 1 pound Alcohol 1 gallon Lampblack (fine quality) 4 ounces Powdered emery 4 ounces Ultramarine blue ... . 4 ounces Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol. Place the lampblack, emerv, and ultra- marine blue on a cheese-cloth strainer, pour on part of the shellac solution, stirring constantly and graduallv adding the solution until all of the powders have passed through the strainer. Bark-Green Paint for Blackboards. — Mix 1 part Prussian blue and 1 part chrome green with equal parts of gilders' size and alcohol to a thm cream consistency. Apply with a large, stiff brush and after an nour a second coat is given. After 24 to 48 hours smooth the surface with a felt cloth. This renders it rich and velvety. The shade must be a deep black green and the quantities of the colors have to be modified accordingly if necessary. Old blackboards should be previously thoroughly cleaned with soda. BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS. I. — The so-called ** banana solution *' (the name bein^ derived from its odor) which is used in applying bronzes of various kinds, is usually a mixture of equal parts of amyl acetate, acetone, and benzine, with just enough pyr- oxyline dissolved therein to g[ive it body. Powdered bronze is put into a bottle containing this mixture and the paint so formed applied with a brush. The thin covering of pyroxyline that is left after the evaporation of the liquid protects the bronze from the air and Keeps it from being wiped off by the cleanly housemaid. Tarnished picture frames and tarnished chandeliers to which a gold bronze has been applied from such a solution will look fresn and new for a long time. Copper bronze as well as gold bronze and the various col- ored bronze powders can be used in the "banana solution" for making very pretty advertising signs for use in the drug store. Lettering and bordering work upon the siffns can be done with it. Several very small, stiff painters* brushes are needed for such work and they must Digitized by VjOOQ IC 490 PAINTS be either kept in the solution when not in use, or, better still, washed in benzine or acetone immediately after use and put away^ for future service. As the "banana solution" is volatile, it must be kept well corked. II. — A good bronzing solution for paint tins, applied by dipping, is made b^ dis- solving Syrian aspnaltum in spirits of turpentine, etc., and thinning it down witn these solvents to the proper bronze color and consistency. A little good boiled oil will increase the adherence. Paint Brushes. — To soften a hard paint brush, stand the brush overnight in a pot of soft soap and clean in warm water. Afterwards clean in benzine. If the brush is wrapped with a string do not let the string touch the soap. Paint brushes which have dried up as hard as stone can be cleaned in the fol- lowing manner: Dissolve 1 part soda in 3 parts water; pour the solution in a cylinder glass, and suspend in it the brushes to be cleaned, so that they are about 2 inches from the bottom of the vessel. Let it remain undisturbed at a temperature of UO"" to 158"* F., 12 to 24 hours, after which the most indurated brushes will have become soft, so that the^ can be readily cleaned with soap. It is essential, however, to observe the temperature, as bristle brushes will be injured and spoiled if the heat is greater. Black. — ^A Permanent Black of Rich Luster for Metal Boxes. — Dissolve chlorate of potassium and blue vitriol, equal parts, in 36 times as much water, and allow the solution to cool. The parts to be blacked may be either dipped in the solution, or the solution may be flowed on and allowed to remain until the metal becomes black, after which the fixtures should be rinsed in clean water and allowed to dry. Those parts of the surface which show imperfections in the black should be recoated. Dead White on Silver Work, etc.— Bruise charcoal very finely and mix it with calcined borax in the proportion of 4 parts of charcoal to 1 ot borax. Of this make a paste with water; apply this paste on the parts to be deadened; next expose the piece to the fire of well-lit coal until it acquires a cherry-red shade; allow to cool and then place it in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The bath must not be more than 5^ B^. Leave the piece in the bath about 2 hours, then rinse off several times. White Coating for Signs, etc^A white color for signs and articles exposed to the air is prepared as follows for tbr last coat: Thin so-called Dutch ''sUod** oil with oil of turpentine to workinf consistency, and grind in it equal part*o{ zinc white and white lead, not addiof much siccative, as the white lead a»st«t5 the drving considerably. If the paint i> smootnea well with a badger bru.«h, t very durable white color of great glow ti obtained. Linseed oil, or varnish wkirh has thickened like '*stand*' ofl by loof open storing, will answer equally well. To Prevent Crawling of Painti.— Probably the best meUiod to poffoe will be to take an ordinanr flannel ra< and carefully rub it oyer tne woi^ prr- vious to varnishing, stripins, or paistmc This simple operation will obviate tbr possibility of crawling. In some instances, however, crawticc may be traced to a defective vanu«.t The latter, after drying evenlv on a %r\\- prepared paint surface will at tiom crawl, leaving small pitmarks. For tlli^ the simple remedy consists in pufrhaunK varnish from a reputable manufactunrr. FIREPROOF PAINTS: See also Fireproofing. Fireproofin^ paints of effectiTe qnalitj are prepared in different ways. xtSstu- rally no oily or ^neasy substances entrr into their composition, the blending Mgeni being simply water. I. — One of the standing paints mn- sists of 40 pounds of powdered asbc«to«. 10 pounds of aluminate of soda, lo pounds of lime, and 30 pounds of ■ilKstr of soda, with the addition of any n*>t- rosinous coloring matter draircd. TKr whole is thorougnly mixed with eoou^fa water to produce a perfect blend anJ render an easv application. T«o •« more coats of tnis is the rule in applytrjc it to any wood surface, inside or ontMdr of buildfing. IL — Another formula inTolvea the u«r of 40 pounds of finely ground ^a%«. » like amount of ground porcdam. aoii similarly of China day or the same quan- tity of powdered asbestos, and 20 poaoti* of quicklime. These materials arr ground very fine and then mizrd in en pounds of liquid silicate of soda wiifa water, as in the preceding fonaula. Two or more coats, if necessary, are gifen. Each of these paints is applied with a brush in the ordinary way, the drjint being accomplished in a few hoon, an J. if coloring matter is desire mvei any desired shade and it may be Ussed as a good working paint and nibably fireproof to the same extent lat most of the pretentiously sounded gmeuU on the markets are. Fireproof and Waterproof Paints. — 'ie following recipes are claimed to n'st both fire and water: A prepara- n for protecting wood against the ac- n of fire and of moisture, and also for (during on the surface of wood and taJ a coat, insulating with reference to -tricity and preservative from corro- u has been introduced in France Louis Bethisv and Myrthil Rose. • ba.<«es or fundamental raw materials e distinct from those hitherto em- enie 20 or SO minutes, washed with r of water, and kept for 24 hours in k of water supplied with an ener- current. ' nitro-cellulose thus obtained is ed for this purpose; a double hypo- «.* ot aluminum and magnesium is relAce work. This paint is also used on pid •.' * frames of cheap and medium gradr^i. la ing the place ot gold leaf or the Uc<)u< n i silver leaf formerly used on articles «f **.• better grades; it is al.Ho subMitutrd for "Dutch metal,'* or imitation gold leaf. <>» the cheapest class of work. A cheaper ||^old paint is made by u«m.* an inexpensive varnish conpusrd • i gutta percha, gum dammar, ur **>\' other varnish gum, di5S4>lved in ben.*" . or in a mixture of benzole and brfinr.i The paints made with a celluloid-ani.tt acetate varnish give off a strong haniir i like odor when applied, and may l>e rr.A<: ily recognized by this characteristic-. The impalpablv powdered hn>ii."« are called lining * bn>nzes. Tbr% »'' chiefly used for striping or lining h> rn riage painters; in bronzing gas fi\ttjrf« and metal work; in fresco auti othrr •- terior decoration, and in printioft; * ' use of a very fine powder in inks or pai* '« admits of the drawing or printing of yf: delicate lines. Lining bronze is also used on pirtnr*' frames or other plastic ornamental •"*^ Mixed with a tnin weak glue nitinf: it :« applied over "burnishing? clay," sr * when dry is poliiChed with aipite h^* nishers. The object thus trvated. sf*'? receiving a finishing coat of a thin trsn*^ parent varnish, imitates very do«rl,« * appearance a piece of finely cast snti«) .* bronze. To add still more to this e'f ' the burnishing clay is colored the grrt • ish black that is seen in the derp ^rt* of real antique bronzes, and the nr^n" powder, mixed with size, is applied •*' ' to the most prominent parts i>r "l^u lights*' of the ornament. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PAINTS 498 Since the discovery of the celluloid- imvJaoetate varnish, or bronze liquid, m lis preservative properties on bronze ">w(Jers, manufacturers have discon- ijiued t^e use of liquids containing oils, irpentine, or ffums, since tl\eir constitu- its corrode tne bronze metal, causing le paint finally to turn black. Gilding in Size. — The old painters and Idcrs used to prepare the gold size imseives, but nowadays it is usually u^ht ready made, barring the white of ^ additional. The best and most lable. and especially suited for fine rk, 15 undoubtedly the red French d iiize. It is cleaned, as far as pos- e, of all impurities, and powdered. ' iid trains take 1 white of egg; put it > a ^iass, taking care to exclude the ( entirely — otherwise the burnish will » black spots. Beat the white of egg froth with a long, well-cleaned bristle •h; add the froth to the size and grind y tof^ether, which is soon done. ■n grinding, a little water and red if necessary, may be added (use water for thinning). After being n«i, the size is forced through a very bair sieve into a perfectly clean l« and covered up well, for imme; or subsequent use. 1' raw stuff of the red size is bolus, i Lh dug in France and Armenia in eiit quality. Besides the red size are yellow, white (pipe clay), blue, ruy (alumina), which are used for Q purposes, to enumerate which ifiuld lead too far. burnish gold, always take yellow •ir jErround work. Dip a finely J bristle brush in the gold size pre- for use; fill a well-cleaned glass 1*^ I pint) half full of water, and r size contained in the brush, also I to 5 spoonfuls of pure alcohol, vinahle not to take too much size; uiJ, when applied, must hardly yellow tint. When this is dry t«-r, commence applying the size, i« h a hair pencil is used. The (•$ are to paint evenly and not too so that tne torie remains uniform. firce coats of size. I (he size is laid on correctly and f»cnc dry, brush the whole with brush, or rub with a flannel rag, thtain the highest possible luster. must not stand too long; other- ^Iriftji can be dcvelopea. After . coat the work with weak glue <1 wrap it up in tissue paper if i|^ is not to be done at once. rieCe^t cleanliness is essential, as the red gold size is very sensitive. The parts where the size has been applied must not be touched with the hand, else grease spota will ensue, which will make a flawless gloss in gilding impossible. The least relaxation of tne necessary attention may spoil the whole job, so that evervthing has to be ground off again. Tne necessary tools for the application of gold leaf are: Hair pencils ot various sizes, tip, cushion, ana gilding knife, as with oil-gilding. Take pure alcohol or grain brandy, and dilute with two-thirds water.^ When ready to apply the ^old leaf, dip a hair pencil of suitable size into the fluid, but cfo not have it full enouj^h that the alcohol will run on the size ground. Moisten a portion of the ground surface as larjge as the sold leaf» which is laid on immediately after. Proceed in the same manner, first mois- tening, then applying the ready-cut gold leaf. The latter must not be pressea on, but merely laid down lightly, one leaf a little over the edge of the previous one, without using ui> too much sold. Tech- nical practice in gold-leaf gilding is presupposed; through this alone can any skill be acquired, reading being of no avail. The leaf of gold being applied, all dust must be swept off by means of a light, fine hair^ pencil (but never against the overlapping edges), and the burnishing is commenced. For this purpose there are special agate tools of the shape of a horn. Flint stone, blood stone, and wolf's teeth are sometimes, but gradually more seldom, employed. Burnish till a full, fine luster appears; but very care- fully avoid dents and lines, not to speak of scratches, which would be very nard to mend. Gold Enamel PftintB. — I. — Pure turps 6 , pints Copal varnish 1 ' pint Good gold bronze. . . 6} pounds Calcis hvdrate (dry- slakea lime) i ounce Mix the varnish and turps at a gentle heat, then slake well with the lime, and settle for a few days, then pour off the clean portion and mix with tne powder. II. — White hard varnish . 1 gallon Methvlated spirit. . . } gallon Gold oronze 12 pounds Finely powdered mica 8 ounces Mix the varnish and the spirit, reduce the mica to an impalpable powder, mix with the gold, then add to the liquid. Many bronze powders contain a goodly Digitized by VjOOQ IC 494 PAINTS {>roportion of mica, as it imparts brij- | iancy. Powdered mother-ot-pearl is used also. ORAIHUIG WITH PAINT: See also Wood. Oak Graining. — Prepare a paint of two-thirds of white leacf and one-third of golden ocher with the reouisite amount of boiled linseed oil ana a little drier, and cover the floor twice with this mix- ture, which possesses great covering power. When the last coating is dry, paint the floor with a thinly liquid paint consisting of varnish and sienna, apply- ing the same in the longitudinal direc- tion of the boards. Treat a strip about 20 inches wide at a time, and draw at once a broad paint brush or, in the ab- sence of sucn, an ordinary brush or goose feather along the planks through the wet paint, whereupon the floor will acquire a nicely grained appearance. The paint requires several days to dry. A subsequent coating of varnish will cause the graining to stand out still more prominenUy. Birch. — Imitations of birch are use- fully emploved for furniture. The ground should be a lisht, clean buff, made from white lead, stained with either yellow ocher or raw sienna in oil. In training, brush over the surface with a thin wash of warm brown, making the panel of 2 or 3 broad color shades. Then take a large mottler and mottle the darker parts into the light, working slantwise, as for maple, but leaving a broad and stiff mark. While this is stiir wet soften the panel and then slightlv mottle across the previous work to breat it up. When thoroughly dry, carefully wet the work over witii clean water and clean mottler, and put in darker over- grain with a thin oak overgrainer or overgrainer in tubes. Maple. — Sixty pounds white lead; I ounce deep vermilion; 1 ounce lemon chrome. Ash. — Sixty pounds white lead; I ounce deep vermilion; 1 ounce lemon chrome. Medium Oak. — Sixty pounds white lead; 2 pounds French ocher; 1 ounce burnt umber. Light Oak.— Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce lemon chrome; ) pound French ocher. Dark Oak.— Sixty pounds white lead; 10 pounds burnt umber; 1} pounds medium Venetian red. Satin Wood. — Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce deep vermilion; 1} poun tian red. Rosewood. — Nine and one-half pouad* burnt umber; 40 pounds medium VmHiafl red; 10 pounds orange chrome. Dark Mahogany. — Nine and ooe-lulf pounds burnt umber; 40 pounds mrdiuoi Venetian red; 10 pounds orange rhnioM' light Mahogany. — Sixtv pounds vbitr lead; 3 pounds burnt umber; 10 poaodi medium Venetian red. American Walnnt. — Thirty poood* white lead; 9 pounds French othrr. 4 pounds burnt umber; 1 pound medium Venetian red. LUMINOUS PAINTS. The illuminating power of the phov phorescent masses obtained by heaUn«! strontium thiosulphate or banum tiii<>- sulphate is considerably increased by thr adaition, before heating, of small quan- tities of the nitrates of uranium, bi^mutk or thorium. Added to cmlrtun tiii«>- sulphate, these nitrates do not hci(rl parts, by weignt, of sodium rhl<»nd<'. 0.4 parts, bv weight, of maofrnnrv chloride. The materials are heaird f«-f three-quarters of an hour to one hour. to about «,S72'' F. The produrt ipt<^ a violet light. II. — Mourel's. — One hiuidfvd paH«. *•« weight, of strontium carbonate: 30 p«rtK bv weight, of sulphur: < parts, by vrjitbt of sodium carlMinate; 0 5 par1j(. by wriest of sodium chloride: 0.< parts^ by vrtr^*- of manganese sulphate. The mether cent acidified alco- holic solution of bismuth nitrate; 6 parts, by wfiffht, of 8 0.5 per cent alcoholic soiu- ion or uranium nitrate. The materials irf mixed, dried, brought gradually to a fraperature of 2,872" F., and heated for hout an hour. The phosphorescence is nieraJd green. IV.— Bal main's. — Twenty parts, by I'i^bt, of calcium oxide (burnt lime), cf from iron; 6 parts, bv weight, of sul- lur; i parts, by weight, of starch; 1 rl. by weight, of a 0.5 per cent solution Mjtrouth nitrate; 0.15 parts, by weight, potaMium chloride; 0.15 parts, by if?ht. of sodium chloride. The maten- are mixed, dried, and heated to 1,300" (<.S72* F.). The product gives a vio- light. [o make these phosphorescent sub- ices effective, they are exposed for a (T to direct sunliffht; or a mercury p may be used, rowerful incandes- ^as fight also does well, but requires e time. VTS FOR METAL SURFACES: ackening Onuunents of Iron. — I. — pive iron ornaments a black-brown aek color, proceed in the following icr: The articles are treated with ^ives, cleaned of all adhering grease, >laced in a 10 per cent solution of sium bichromate, dried in the air, iially held over an open, well-glow- tin -sooting fire for 2 minutes. The Woring is usually black brown, but process is repeated several times, }>lack shade is obtained. Special on has to be paid to removing all otherwise the greasy spots will touched by the liquid, and the (( produced will become irregular. r is employed for that purpose articles must not be toucnedwith ers afterwards. This process protects the iron \si for a long time. The treat- iiftists in coating the objects very ly with a thin layer of linseed-oil and burning it off over a char- During tne deflagration the must be stopped. The varnish ffa up in smoke with a strong ri of soot, and finally burn up 1*he process is repeated, i. e., criatinff is burned off a new one I. until the parts exhibit a uni- laiifjAome. deep * black color. >#• oflT the covering with a dry heat a^ain. but only moder- ately. Finally, the articles are taken from the fire and rubbed with a rag well saturated with linseed-oil varnish. The black turns completely dull, and forms a real durable covering for the objects. Black for Polished Iron Pieces. — Apply successive layers of a very concentrated solution of nitrate of manganese dis- solved in alcohol over a gentle fire and the water bath. The surfaces to be blackened should be previously heated. By repeating the layers all the tints be- tween brownish black and bluish black may be obtained. Glossy Black for Bicycles, etc. — Amber 8 ounces Linseed oil 4 ounces Asphaltum 1 } ounces Rosin 1 ^ ounces Oil turpentine 8 ounces Heat the linseed oil to boiling point, add the amber, asphaltum, and rosin, and when all melteci remove from the fire and gradually add the turpentine. Japan Black. — The following is a ffood japan black for metal surfaces: Take 12 ounces of amber and 2 ounces of asphaltum. Fuse by heat, and add Uint boiled oil and 2 ounces of rosin, en cooling add 16 ounces of oil of turpentine. Brass and Bronze Protective Paint. — As a protective covering, especially for brass and bronze objects, a colorless celluloid solution is recommended, such as is found in trade under the name of "Zapon" (q. v.). Paint for Copper. — Dissolve 1 ounce of alum in 1 quart of warm soft water. When cold add flour to make it about the consistency of cream, then add i thimble of rosin and i ounce of sugar of lead. Primin|[ Iron. — The following, if care- full]^ earned out, gives the best satis- faction: The first step consists in thor- oughly^ cleaning the surface of the iron, removing all adhesions in the way of dirt, rust, etc., before the question of priming is considered. As paint in this instance is applied more with a view of protecting the iron from atmospheric influences, rather than for a decorative effect, careful attention should be de- voted for securing a base or surface which is calculated to produce a thorough and permanent application. A ereat deal depends upon the nature of the metal to be painted. (\>mmon cast iron, for instance, possessing a rough exterior. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 496 PAINTS with ordinary precautions can be more readily painted with the prospect of a permanent adhesion of the paint, than a planed steel or wrought-iron surface. With the latter it has been demonstrated that a hard and elastic paint is needed, while with regard to cast iron, other paints containing iron oxides are more suitable. For good drying and coverins properties, as well as elasticity, a sooa boiled oil to which has been addea an adequate proportion of red lead will be found to form an excellent paint for smooth metal surfaces. The primary object is to protect the surface of the iron from moisture for the purpose of avoid- ing rust. The primin|[ must therefore be carried out so that it will stick, after which subsequent coats may be added if desired. It is advisable that articles made of iron should first be coated with linseed- oil varnish. It dries slowly, hardens, and enables the operator afterwards to exercise an effective control over the con- dition of his material. Iron must be absolutely drjr and free from rust when it is to he painted. It is best to apply next a coating of hot linseed oil; when dry this should be followed by a primins of pure red lead in good linseed oil, and the iron should then be painted as de- sired, using ground oil paints and leav- ing an interval of a week between each coatinff. Cementing should be done after tne red lead priming, but the last coat must not be given until the whole is thoroughly dr^. Bright oil paints and an upper coating with plenty of oil resist the effects of heat better than thin coat- ings; moreover, rust can be detected in its early stages with the former. Coat- ings of tar and asphalt (asphalt dissolved in turpentine) are practicable for under- ground pipes, but are not adapted for pipes exposed to the air, as tney are quickly spoiled. Asphalt varnish, used for coating coal scuttles, fire screens, etc., consists of asphalt dissolved in linseed- oil varnish. Iron stoves and stovepipes are best coated with graphite. Galvanized Iron. — For galvanised iron there has been recommended a wash consisting simply of dilute hydrochloric arid, which produces chloride of sine, that in combination with the oxygen of the air is said to produce a film upon which oil color takes as good a hold as it would upon ordinary sheet iron. Another method which has been tested and found effective is to make a solution as follows: One ounce of chlo- ride of copper; 1 ounce nitrate of copper; 1 ounce sal ammoniac dissdvcd in i quarts of soft water, to which is addrd 1 ounce of crude or commercial hydro- chloric add. This solution should b^ made in an earthenware dish or pot, or in gl%ss or stoneware, as tin will preripi- tate the copper salts and make the dilu- tion impenect. ^ To large surfaces tku solution is applied with a broad bni»h. when the surface assumes a deep blsrk color, which in drying out in from W to 24 hours becomes a gray white, up(*n which the properly prepared primermll take a permanent grip. On the film w produced a much tninner paint «il) cover very much better than a stouter paint woiud on the untreated ^alvaniird or ordinary iron surface. A single tritJ will convince the craftsman that tl)i« treatment is a method that will gi\r lasting results, provided he tries the ssior priming paint on the treated and un- treated surface. To Paint Wrought Iron with Gfmphttt . — In order to make wrought iron liM>k like new mix fine graphite with equai parts of varnish and turpentine oil, so parts with this twice, allowing to dr; each time. Especially the second coat- ing must be perfectly dry before furthrr treatment. The latter consists in pre- paring graphite with spirit and applriojc It very thinly over the first coat. Aftrr the dryinff or evaporation of the spint the graphite last applied is bruuii^i vigorously, whereby a handsome, dors* ble gloss is produced. Pftint for Iron Bodies Bzpo«d to Heat — Dilute 1 part soda water gU^* with 2 parts water and mix intimatrxt with the following pigments: IFAite.— White lead or sulphate uf barium. Yeliow. — Chromate of barium, orhrr. or uranium yellow. Oreen, — Chromic oxide or ultxanunDr green. Blue. — Ultramarine. Brown, — Oxide of cadminm, osid# <'• manganese or terra di sienna. Red. — English red or chrome rrd Bronse powder in a suitable ausstit* may be auded to the mixture^ out c- * more paint should be prepared thsa cms be used up in a few hours. The \a%*^f powder may also be strewn on the irt^ paint, or applied with a dry brusk. t^« enhance the gloss. This paint t« «-< affected by heat, and is inodorou* Protective Cofltiii( for Bright lew Articles.— SUnc white, SO parts; U»p^ Digitized d by Google PAINTS 497 black, i parts; tallow, 7 parts; vaseline, I part; olive oil, 3 parts; varnish, 1 part. Roil together \ hour and add ) part of henzine and } part of turpentine, stirring the mass carefully and boiling for some time. The finished paste-like substance an be readily removed with a rag with- uut the use of solvents. Rust Paints. — I. — A new rust paint is produced by the following process: Mix 100 parts dry iron sulphate and 87 parts sodium chlorate and heat to 1,500*' to I.SOO" F. The chlorine set free seems tu have a very favorable action on the color of the simultaneously forming iron oxide. In order to avoid, however, too far-reaching an effect of the chlorine sas, about 18 pounds of a substance which absorbs the same mechanically, such as kaolin, ground pumice stone, ocher, etc., are added to the mixture. II.— A material known under the names of lardite, steatite, agalmatolite, Daffodite, is excellently adapted as a sub- tit ute for the ordinary metallic protec- ive agent of the pigments and has the property of protecting iron from rust in n effective manner. In China, lardite ! used for protecting edifices of sand- one, which crumbles under the action f the atmosphere. Likewise a thin yer of powdered steatite, applied in the rm of paint, has been found valuable pre as a protector against the decay of telLtks, statues, etc. Lardite, besides, ^ssexses the quality of being exceedinf^ly e-grained, which renders this material luable for use in ship painting, ound steatite is one of the finest ma- ials which can be produced, and no ler .so quickly and firmly adheres to the Ts of iron and steel. Furthermore, itite is lighter than metallic covering nts, and covers, mixed in paint, a rer surface than zinc white, red lead, iron oxide. Steatite as it occurs in tzerlaod is used there and in the <>l for stoves, since it is fireproof. jeeL — An excellent coating for steel, a ting the blue color of natural steel, ^mpe called to the destructiTe arboB of medicinal admixtures. For such rooms as well as for laboratories, an Digitized by VjOOQ IC PAINTS 499 ipptiration of Swedish wood tar, made into a flowing consistency with a little oil of turpentine and put on hot, has b^n found very excellent. It is of tdrantsge previously to warm the wall slightly. To the second coat add some rax. A very durable coating is ob- tained, which looks so pleasing that it is onlj necesiary to draw some stripes with a darker paint so as to divide the surface into fields. Cement, to Paint Over Fl^sh. — The wait should be washed with dilute sul- phuric acid several days before painting. This will change the surplus caustic lime to sulphate of lime or gvpsum. The acid snould be about one-half chamber add and one-half water. This should be rfpeated before painting, and a coat of raw linseed oil no wed on freely should \h: inven for the first coat. V/hile this ranoot be always guaranteed as effectual for making the paint hold, it is the best method our correspondent has heard of for the purpose, and is worth trying when t is absolutely necessary to paint over resh cement. Damp Walls, Coatinff for.—- Thirty tarts of tin are dissolved in 40 parts of ydrochloric acid, and 80 parts of sal mmoniac are added. A powder com- oiM'd of freestone, 50 parts; zinc oxide, ) parU; pounded glass, 15 parts; pow- 'rrd marble, 10 parts; and calcined amnesia, 5 parts, is prepared, and made to a paste with the liquid above men- >ried. Coloring matter may be added. tie composition mav be used as a mp- proof coating for walls, or for >airing stonework, or for molding tuea or ornaments. ?a^de Paint. — For this zinc oxide is •<*rially adapted,^ prepared with size ^ai^cin. Any desired earth colors may > be added. ^ The surfaces are coated irors with this mass. After the third »li cation is dry, put on a single coat- of zinc chlonde solution of 30^ B^. htch S per cent borax is added. *hi^ coating is very solid, can be hed, and ia not injured by hydrogen hide. ard -Finished Walls.— The treatment bard-finiahed walls which are to be ted in flat colors is to prime with a coiat of lead and oil well brushed the wall. Next put on a thin coat of »ize: next a coat mixed with } oil ^ turpentine; next a coat of flat mixed iivith turpentine. If you use (''.v pigment mix it stiff in oil and with tnrps. If in either case the paint dries too fast, and is liable to show laps, put a little glycerine in, to retard the drying. PAIIIT^ WATERPROOF AND WEATHERPROOF : See also Fireproof Faint. The following are claimed to be both waterproof and weatherproof: I. — In 50 parts, by weight, of spirit of 96 per cent, dissolve 16 parts, by weight, of shellac, orange, finely pow- dered; 8 parts, by weight of silver lake, finelv powdered; and 0.6 parts, bv weij|fnt» ^ of gamboge, finelv j^wderea. This paint may be employea without ad- mixture of any siccative, and is excel- lently adapted for painting objects which are exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, as it is perfectly weatherproof. II. — Mix glue water with zinc oxide (zinc white) and paint the respective object with this mixture. When this is dry (after about 2 hours) it is followed up with a coating of glue water and zinc chloride in a highly diluted state. Zinc oxide enters into a chemical combination with zinc chloride, which acquires the hardness of glass and a mirror-like bright surface. Any desired colors can be prepared with the glue water (size) ana are practically imperishable. This zinc coating is very durable, dries quick- ly, and is 50 per cent cheaper than oil paint. Water- and Acid-Redstinflr Paint— Caoutchouc is melted with colophony at a low temperature, after the caoutchouc has been dried in a drying closet (stove) at 158® to 176" F.. until no more con- siderable increase in weieht is percepti- ble, while the colophony nas completely lost its moisture oy repeated melting. The raw products thus prepared wul readily melt upon slight neating. To the melted colophony and caoutchouc add in a hot liquid state zinc white or anv similar pigment. Thin with a varnish consisting of 50 parts of perfectly an- hvdrous colophony, 40 parts of absolute alcohol, and 40 parts of benzine. The whole syrupy mass is worked through in a paint mill to obtain a uniform product, at which operation more or less colo- Shony varnish is added according to the esired consistency. Water- and Air-Proof Paint. — An air- proof and waterproof paint, the subject of a recent Frencn patent, is a compound of 30 parts, bv weight, acetone; 100 parts acetic ether; 50 parts sulphuric ether; 100 parts camphor; 50 parts gum lac; 200 parts cotton; 100 parts paper Digitized by VjOOQ IC 500 PAINTS (diasolved in sulphuric acid); 100 {wrts mastic in drops. These proportions may fluctuate according to need. The paper is reduced well and dissolved with- out heat with sufficient sulphuric ether; the cotton is dissolved in the acetone and the whole is mixed to|[ether with the other inf^redients and stirred well. The application is performed as with any other varnish. The coating is said not to crack or shrink and to be particularly useful as a protection against moisture for all stuffs. pAnrrs for wood: See also Wood. Floor Coating. — A new paint for floors, especially those of soft wood: Mix to- gether 2.2 pounds ioiners' glue; a little over 1 ounce powdered bichromate of potash; 3) ounces aniline brown; and 10 i quarts water in a tin vessel. After 6 hours have elapsed (when the glue is completely soaked), heat g[radually to the boiling point. The coating becomes perfectly water-tight after 2 or 3 davs; it IS not opaque, as the earthy body is lack- ing. The glue causes the wood fibers to be firmly united. It becomes in- soluble by the addition of bichromate of potash, under the influence of light. Without this admixture a simple glue coat has formerly not been found satis- factory, as it dissolves if cleaned with water. Durable House Paint — I. — New houses should be primed once with pure linseed oil, then painted with a thin paint from white lead and chalk, and thus gradually covered. The last coat is prepared of well- boiled varnish, white lead, and chalk. The chalk has the mission to moderate the saponification of the linseed oil by the white lead. Mixing colors such as ocher and black, which take up plenty of oil, materially assist in producing a durable covering. II. — Prime witn zinc white and let this be succeeded by a coating with zinc chloride in glue water (size). The zinc oxide forms with the zinc chloride an oxy-chloride of great hardness and glossy surface. By admixture of pig- ments any desired shade may be pro- duced. The zinc coating is indestruc- tible, dries quickly, does not peel, is free from the smell of fresh oil paint, and more than 5 per cent cheaper. Ivory Coating for Smooth, Light Wood. — In order to cover the articles, which may be flat or round, with this coating, thev must first be polished quite smooth and clean; then they are coated with thin, hot, white glue. When the coat U thoroughlv dry, the glue is nibbed utf again witn fine glass paper. The ros^» is prepared as follows: Take 3 pouo(l» (more or less, according to the oumhrr of articles) of the purest and best collo- dion; grind upon a clean grinding stone twice tne quantity that can be taken up with the point of a knife of Krems white, with enough good pale linaeed oO as i« necessary to grind tne white smooth sod fine. Take a dean bottle, into whiih one-half of the collodion is ^ured; to this add the ground white, which can be removed clean from the stone by means of a good spatula and put in the bottle. Add about 100 drops oi linseed oil, aod shake the mass till it looks like milk. Now painting with this milky sub- stance msLj be commenced, using a 6ne hair pencil of excellent quality. The pendf is not dipped in the large bottle, out a glass is kept at hand with an ooeo- ing of about 1 inch, so as to be able to immerse the pencil quickly. The su(>- stance is not flowing like the alcohol lacquers, for which reason it may be put on thick, for the ether, chiefly coo»ii- tuting the mass, evaporates at once anil leaves but a very thin film which become* noticeable only after about 10 su<-h applications have been made. Shale the bottle well each time before fiilinir the small glass, as the hesvr krrm« white is very apt to sink to th^ bottom of the bottle. If it is observed that the substance becomes too thick, which ou? easily occur on account of the erapun- tion, a part of the remaining ether i« added, to which in turn SO to 40 dmp* of oil are added, shaking it till the oil appears to be completely dissulred. The operator must put on the ma^^ in quick succession and rather tbul- After about 10 coats have been appl»<'tl the work is allowed to rest several Dour«. then 8 or 4 coats of pure collodion, t«> which likewise several drops of oil ha%e been added, are given. Another psinr of several hours having been alloved Uy intervene, application of the maia is (*& that no dust remains. Then rostinc i* continued till the work seems serricraVile A few applications of parr rolttMii«>« should be made, and when tht> Ka» become perfectly hard, after • ^' hours, it can be robbed down with a nt. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PAINTS 501 tripoli, and oil, and polished by hand, like horn or ivory. This work can be done only in a room which is entirely free from dust. The greatest cleanliness must be observed. mSCELLAHEOUS RECIPES, PAIHTS, ETC.: Bathtub Paint.~Take white keg lead, tint to any desired color and then add, say, I boiled oil (pure linseed) to } hard drying durable body varnish. Clean the surface of the tub thoroughly before ap- plying the paint. Benzine or lime wash are good cleaninff agents. Coat up un- til a satisfactorily strong, pure color is reached. This will give good gloss and will also wear durably. CMtlse for Name Plates. — A durable coating tor name plates in nurseries is produced as follows: Take a woolen rag, saturate it with joiners* polish, lay it into a linen one, and rub the wooden sur- face with this for some time. Rub down with sandpaper and it can be written on almost like paper. When all is dry, coat with dammar lacquer for better protection. If the wood is to receive a color it is placed in the woolen rag before rubbing down» in this case chrome yellow. To Keep Flies from Fresh Paint. — For the purpose of keeping flies and other in^Hccts away from fresnly painted sur- faces mix a little bay oil (laurel oil) with the oil paint, or place a receptacle con- taining same in the vicinity of the painted objects. The pungent odor keeps off the flies. Heat-Indicatiiig Pauit. — A heat-indi- cating paint composed of a double iodide of copper and mercury was first dis- covered years ago by a German physi- cist. At ordinary temperatures the paint IS red, but wnen heated to 206^ F. It turns black. Paper painted with this composition and warmed at a stove ex- hibits the change in a few seconds. A yellow^ double iodide of silver and mer- cury is even more sensitive to heat, changing from yellow to dark red. To Keep Liqtdd Pftint in Workable Condition. — To prevent liquid paint which, for convenience sake, is kept in small quantities and flat receptacles, from evaporating and drying, give the vessels such a snape that they can be placed one on top of the other without danger of faljing over, and provide the under side with a porous mass — felt or very porous clay, etc. — which, if mois- tened, will retain the water for a long time. Thus, in placing the dishes one on top of the other, a moist atmosphere is created around them, which will inhibit evaporation and drying of the paint. A similar idea consists in producing covers with a tight outside and porous inside, for the purpose of covering up, during intermission in the work, clav models and like objects which it is desired to keep soft. In order to avoid the forma- tion of fungous growth on the constantly wet bottom, it may be saturated witn non-volatile disinfectants, or with vola- tile ones if their vapors are calculated to act upon the objects kept underneath the cover. If the cover is used to cover up oil paints, it is moistened on the inside with volatile oil, such as oil of turpentine, oil of lavender, or with alcohol. Peeling of Paints. — For the preven- tion of peeling of new coatings on old oil paintings or lakes, the latter should be rubbed with roughly ground pumice stone, wet by means of felt rags, and to the first new coat there should be added fine spirit in the proportion of about tHr of the thinning necessary for stir- ring (turpentine, oil, etc.). This paint dries well and has given good results, even in the most diflicult cases. The subsequent coatings are put on with the customary paint. Fat oil glazes for graining are likewise mixed with spirit, whereby the cracking of the varnish coating is usually entirely obviated. Polychroming of Figures. — This paint consists of white wax, 1 part, and pow- dered mastic, 1 part, melted together upon the water bath and mixed with rectified turpentine. The colors to be used are first ground stiflVy in turpentine on the grinding slab, and worked into consistency with the above solution. Priming Coat for Water Spots. — A very simple way to remove rain spots, or such caused by water soaking through ceilings, has been employed with good result^. Take unslaked white fime, dilute with alcohol, and paint the spots with it. When the spots are dry — wnich ensues quickly, as the alcohol evaporates and the lime forms a sort of insulating layer — one can proceed painting with size color, and tne spots will not show through again. PAnrr for protecting cemeut AGAINST ACID: See Acid- Proofing. PAINT, GREASE: See Cosmetics. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 502 PAINTS— PAPER PAHIT REMOVERS: See CleAning Compounds. PALLADIUM ALLOYS: See Alloys. PALLADIUMIZING: See Plating. PALMS, THEIR CARE. Instead of washing the leaves of palms with water, manv florists employ a mix- ture of milk and water, the object being to prevent the formation of cusfiguring brown stains. Paper Paper Pads (see also Adhesives, under Glue). I. — Glue 3} ounces Glycerine 8 ounces Water, a sufficient quantity. Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerine. If the mixture is too thick, add more water. II. — Glue 6 ounces Aluni 80 grains Acetic acid | ounce Alcohol 1 } ounces Water 6} ounces Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow to cool, and add the alcohol. Papier Mach€.— The following are the ingredients necessary to make a lump of papier mach£ a little larger than an ordi- narv baseball and weighing 17 ounces: Wet paper pulp, dry paper,^ 1 ounce; water, 8 ounces; 4 ounces (avoirdupois); dry plaster Paris, 8 ounces (avoirdupois); hot glue, i gill, or 4} tablespoonfuls. While the paper pulp^ u bein^ pre- pared, melt some best Irish glue m the glue pot and make it of the same thick- ness and general consistency as that used by cabinet makers. On taking the paper pulp from the water squeeze it gently, but do not try to dry it. Put in a bowl, add about 8 tablespoonfuls of the hot glue, and stir the mass up into a soft and very sticky paste. Add the Blaster of Paris and mix thoroughly. (y the time about 8 ounces ^ of the plaster have been used, the mass is so drv and thick that it can hardly be worked. Add the remainder of the glue, work it up again until it becomes sticky once more, and then add the remainder of the plaster. Squeeze it vigorously through the fingers to thoroughly mix the miM, and work it until free from lumps finely kneaded and sticky enough to ad here to the surface of a planed board. If it is too dry to stick fast add a few drops of either glue or water, and vurk it up again. When the .P*per pulp is poor and the mache is inclinea to be lumpv, lay the mass upon a smooth board, take a hammer ana pound it bard to ffrind it up fine. If the papier mach^ is not sticky enott(cb to adhere firmlv to whatever it is rubbed upon, it is a failure, and requires mcirr fffue. In using it the mass should be kept in a lump and used as soon as possible after making. Keep the sur- face of the lump moist by means of a wet cloth laid over it, for if you do not, the surface will dry rapidly. If it is to be kept overniffht, or longer, wrap it op io several thicknesses of wet cotton doth, and put under an inverted bowL If it is desired to keep a lump for a week, to use daily, add a few drops of fflycerioe when making, so that it will &j more slowly. The papier mach^ made accordipi^ to this formtila has the following qualitie«. When tested by rubbing between the thumb and finger, it was sticky and cot- ered the thumb with a fine coatiiM:. (Had it left the thumb dean, it would have been because it ' contained too much water.) When rubbed upon a pane of glass it sticks tightly ana dries nard in 8 hours without cracking, sou can only be removed with a kai^. When spread in a laver as thin as writioc paper it dries in half an hour. A mass actually used dried hard enough to coat with wax in 18 hours, and, without cracking, became as hard as wood; ret a similar quantity wrapped in a wet dotb and placed under an inverted bowl kept soft and fit for use for an entire week. Parchment Paper. — I. — Dip white ub- sized paper for naif a minute in strung sulphuric add, spedfic gravity, IwSIl and afterwards in water containing a little ammonia. II. — Plunge unsized paper for a few seconds into sulphuric add diluted with half to a quarter its bulk of water (thi» solution being of the same temperature as the air), and afterwards wash with weak ammonia. Razor Paper. — I. — Smooth oniized paper, one of the surfaces of whtck. while in a slightly damp stale, has brro rubbed over with a mixture of osldned peroxide of iron and emery, both in im- palpable powder. It is cut up iato Digitized by VjOOQ IC PAPER 508 pieces (about 5x3 inches), and sold in packets. Used to wipe the rasor on, which thus does not require stropping. n. — Prom eiftery and quarts (both in impalpable^ powder), and paper pulp (estimated in the dry state), e^ual parts, made into sheets of the thickness of drawing paper, b^ the ordinary process. For use, a piece is pasted on the strop and moistened with a little oil. Safety^ Paper. — White paper pulp mixed with an equal quantity of pulp tinged with any stain easily affected by chlorine, acids, alkalies, etc., and made into sheets as usual, serves as a safety Kper on which to write checks or the e. Any attempt to wash out the writ- ing affects the whole surface, showing plainly that it has been tampered with. Tradng Paper. — Open a quire of smooth, unsixed white paper, and place it flat upon a table. Apply, with a clean sash tool to the upper surface of the first sheet, a coat of varnish made of equal parts of Canada balsam and oil of tur- pentine, and bans the prepared sheet across the line to dry; repeat the opera- tion on fresh sheets until the proper quantity is finished. If not sufficiently transparent, a second coat of yarnish may oe applied as soon as the first has become quite dry. Strenrtfaexied Filter Paper. — When or- dinary filter paper is dipped into nitric acid (specific ^avity, 1.42), thoroughly washed and dried, it becomes a tissue of remarkable properties, and one that de- seryes to be better known by chemists and pharmacists. It shrinks somewhat in nze and in weight, and gives, on burn- ing, a diminished ash. It yields no ni- trogen, nor does it in the slightest man* ner affect li(|uids. It remains perfectly EerTious to liquids, its filtering properties eing in no wise^ affected, which, it is needless to say, is very different from the behavior of the same (Miper "parch- mented" by sulphuric acid. It is as supple as a rag, vet may be very roughly bandied, even when wet, without tearinjo; or givinf way. These qualities make it %et7 valuable for use in filtration under pressure or exhaust.^ It fits closely to the funnel, upon which it may be used direct, without any supports, and it thus pre- vents undue access of air. As to strength, it is tncteased upward of 10 times. A strip of ordinary white Swedish paper, i o( an inch wide, will sustain a loaa of from i to } of a pound avoirdupois, ac- cording to the Quality of the paper. A similar strip of the toughened paper broke, in 3 trials, with 5 pounds, 7 ounces, and 8 drachms; 5 pounds, 4 ounces, and 86 grains: and 5 pounds, 10 'ounces re- spectively. These are facts that deserve to be better known than they seem to be to the profession at large. Blottinf Paper. — A new blotting paper which wul^ completely remove wet as well as dry ink spots, alter moistening the eiper with water, is produced as follows: issolve 100 parts of oxalic acid in 400 parts of alcohol, and immerse porous white paper in this solution until it is completely saturated. Next hang the sheets up separately to dry over threads. Such paper affords great advantages, but in its characteristic application is serviceable for ferric inks only, while aniline ink spots cannot be removed with it, after drying. Carbon Paper. — Many copying papers act by virtue of a detachaole pigment, which, when the pigmented paper is placed between two sheets of white paper, and when the uppermost paper is writ- ten on, transfers its pigment to the lower white sheet along lines which correspond to those traced on the upper paper, and therefore gives an exact copy of them on the lower paper. The pigments used are fine soot or ivory black, indigo carmine, ultramarine, and Paris blue, or mixtures of them. The pigment is intimately mixed w^ith ffrain soap, and then rubbed on to thin but strong paper with a stiff brush. Fatty oils, such as linseed or castor oil, may be used, but the grain soap is pref- erable. Graphite is frequently used for black copying paper. It is rubbed into the paper with a cotton pad until a uniform light-grajjr color results. All superfluous graphite is then carefully brushed off. It is sometimes desired to make a copy- ing paper which will produce at the same time a positive copy, which is not required to be reproduced, and a negative or re- versed copy from which a number of direct copies can be taken. Such paper is covered on one side with a manifolding composition, and on the other with a simple copying composition, and is used between 2 sheets of paper with the mani- folding side undermost. The manifolding composition is made by mixing 5 ounces of printers' ink with 40 of spirits of turpentine, and then mix- ing it with a fused mixture of 40 ounces of tallow and 5 ounces of stearine. When the mass is homogeneous, 80 ounces of the finest powdered protoxide of iron, first mixed with 15 ounces of pyrogallic Digitized by VjOOQ IC 004 PAPER acid and 5 ounces of gallic acid, are stirred in till a perfect mixture is ob- tained. This mass will give at least 50 copies on damp paper in the ordinary way. The copying composition for the other side of the prepared paper consists of the following ingredients: Printers' ink 5 parts Spirits of turpentine. 40 parts Fused tallow 30 parts Fused wax 8 parts Fused rosin 2 parts Soot «0 parts It goes without saying that rollers or stones or other hard materials may be used for the purpose under consideration as well as paper. The manifolding mass may be made blue with indigotin, red with magenta, or violet with methyl violet, adding 30 oupces of the chosen dve to the above quantities of pigment. If, however, they^ are used, the oxide of iron and gallic acids must be replaced by 20 ounces of carbonate of magnesia. Celloidin Paper.— Ordinary polished celluloid and celloidin paper are dif- ficult to write upon with pen and ink. If, however, the face is ruboed over with a chalk crayon, and the dust wiped off with a clean rag, writing becomes easy. Cloth Paper. — This is prepared bv covering gauze, calico, canvas, etc., with a surface of paper pulp in a Foudrinier machine, and then finishing the com- pound sheet in a nearly simuar manner to that adopted for orcfinary paper. Drawing Paper. — The blue drawing paper of commerce, which is frequently emploved for technical drawings, is not very durable. For the production of a serviceable and strong drawing paper, the following process is recommended. Mix a solution of Gum arabic 2 parts Ammonia iron citrate. S parts Tartaric acid 2 parts Distilled water 20 parts After still adding 4 parts of solution of ammonia with a solution of Potassium ferricyanide 2.5 parts Distilled water 10.0 parts allow the mixture to stand in the dark half an hour. Apply the preparation on the paper by means of a soft brush, in ar- tificial light, and dry in the dark. Next, expose the paper to light until it appears dark violet, place in water for 10 seconds, air a short time, wash with water, and finally dip in a solution of Eau de javelle 50 parts Distilled water 1,000 parU until it turns dark blue. Filter Paper. — This process consiilt in dipping the paper in nitric acid of 1.43S specific gravity, subseouently wasbioi it well and drying it. The paper tkerr- by acquires advantageous qualities. It shrinks a little and loses in weight, whiJr on burning only a small quantity of ash remains. It possesses no traces of nitro- • sen and does not in anv way attack \ht liquid to be filtered. Withal, this paprr remains perfectly pervious for the mutt varying li<)uids, and its filtering eaparitr is in no wise impaired. It is diffirnlt to tear, and still elastic and flexible likr linen. It clings completely to the f unocj. In general it mav be said that tbr strength of the filtering paper tiia* treated increases 100 per cent. Fireproof Papert. — I. — Ammooium sulphate, 8 parts, by weight: boraor acid, 3 PArts; borax, 2 parts: water, 100 parts. The temperature should be about 122* F. II. — For paper, either printed or as- printed, bills of exchange, deeds, htmi^ etc., the following solution is rerom- mended: Ammonium sulphate. 8 part«; boracic acid, 3 parts; sodium borate. 1.7 parts; water, 10,000 parts. The ••>• lution is heated to 122* F., and maj l>r used when the paper is manufaciurrd. As soon as the paper leaves the machiar it is passed through this solution, tbra rolled over a warm cylinder and dried. If printed or in sheets, it is simply im- mersed in the solution, at a temperalare of 122* F., and spread out to dry, fioallr pressed to restore the luster. HydrogFaphic Pftper. — This is paprr which majr be written on with timpl^ water or with some colorless liquid bal- ing the appearance of water. I. — A mixture of nut galls. 4 partft,aDfl calcined sulphate of iron. 1 part (both perfectly dry and reduced to very fia* powder), is rubbed over the surface of the paper, and is then forced iolo it* pores by powerful pressure, after wkirh the loose portion is brushed off. Tbr writing shows black when a pen dipped in water is used. II. — A mixture of persulphate of ima and ferrocyanide of potasaium nay h*' employed as in focmiua I. This writer blue. Irideacent Pftper. — Sal ammoniac and sulphate of indigo, of each I part, sulphate of iron, 5 parts; nut BaUa, h parts; gum arabic, | part. Bod Qieoi la water, and expose the paper waabrd with the liquid to (the fumea «0 m^ monia. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PAPER 505 Uthogrmphic Paper. — I. — Starch, 6 ounces; gum arabic, 2 ounces; alum, I ounce. Make a strong solutidn of each separately, in hot water, mix, strain through gauze, and apply it while still warm to one side of leaves of paper, with a clean painting brush or sponge; a sec- ond ana a third coat roust be given as the preceding one becomes dry. The psper must be, lastly, pressed, to make it smooth. II. — Give the paper 8 coats of thin size. 1 coat of jp^ood white starch, and 1 coat of a solution of gamboge in water, tlie whole to be applied cold, with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to drv before the other is applied. The solutions should be freshly made. Lithographic paper is written on with lithographic ink. The writing is trans- ferred simplv by moistening the back of the paper, placing it evenly on the stone, and then applying pressure. A reversed copy is obtained, which, when printed from, fields corrected copies resembling the original writing or drawing. In this way the necessity of executing the writ- ing or drawing in a reversed direction is obviated. MARBLING PAPER FOR BOOKS. Provide a wooden trough 2 inches deep and the len^h and width of any desired »hcet: boil in a hrtisa or copper pan a Quantity of linseed and water until a tiiick mucilage is formed; strain it into a trough, and let cool; then grind on a marble slab any of the following colors in small beer: For Blue. — Prussian blue or indigo. Red. — Rose pink, vermilion, or drop lake. Yellow. — King's yellow, yellow ocher, etc. White.— Flake white. Black. — Burnt ivory or lampblack. Brown. — Umber, burnt; terra di »ienna. burnt. Black mixed with yellow or red also makes brown. Green. — Blue and yellow mixed. Orange. — Red and yellow mixed. Purple. — Red and blue mixed. For each color have two cups, one for thr> color after grinding, the otner to mix it with ox gall, which must be used to thin the colors at discretion. If too much gall is used, the colors will spread. When they keep their place on the sur- face of the trough, when moved with a quill, they are fit for use. All things in readiness, the colors are successively sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick, according to taste. When the design is just formed, the book, tied tightly be- tween cutting boards of the same size, is lightly pressed with its edge on the sur- face of the liouid pattern, and then with- drawn and dried. The covers inay be marbled in the same way, only letting the liquid colors run over them. In mar- bling paper the sides of thepaper are gent- ly apmlied to the^ colors m the trough. The nlm of color in the trough may be as thin as possible, and if any remains after the marbling it may be taken off by ap- plying paper to it before you prepare tor marbling again. To ai versify the effects, colors are often mixed with a little sweet oil before sprinkling them on, by which means a light halo or circle appears around each spot. WATERPROOF PAPERS. I. — Wall papers may be easily ren- dered washaole, either before or after they are hung, by preparing them in the following manner: Dissolve 2 parts of borax and 2 parts of shellac in 24 parts of water, and strain through a fine cloth. With a brush or a sponge apply this to the surface of the paper, ana wnen it is dry, polish it to a nigh gloss with a soft brush. Thus treatea the paper may be washed without fear of removing the colors or even smearing or blurring them. II. — This is recommended for drawing paper. Any kind of paper is lightly primed with glue or a suitable binder, to which a finely powdered inorganic body, such as zinc wnite, chalk, lime, or heavy spar, as well as the desired coloring matter tor the paper, are added. Next the paper thus treated is coated with soluble glass — silicate of potash or of soda — to which small amounts oi magnesia have been admixed, or else it is dipped into this mixture, and dried for about 10 days in a temperature of 77® F. Paper thus prepared can be written or drawn upon with lead pencil, chalk, colored crayons, charcoal, India ink, and lithographic crayon, and the writing or drawing may be washed off 20 or more times, entirely or partly, without changing the {Miper materially. It offers the convenience that anything may be readily and quickly removed with a moist sponge and imme- diately corrected, since the washed places can be worked on again at once. Wax Paper. -~1. — Place cartridge paper, or strong writing paper, on a hot iron Digitized by VjOOQ IC 506 PAPER plate, and rub it well with a lump of beeswax. Used to form ei^tempora- neous steam or gas pipes, to cover the joints of vessels, and to tie over pots, etc. II. — For the production of waxed or ceresine paper, saturate ordinary paper with equal parts of stearine and tallow or ceresine. If it is desired to apply a business stamp on the paper before sat- uration and alter stamping, it should be dried well for 24 hours, so as to prevent the aniline color from spreading. Wrapping Paper for Silverware. — Make a solution of 6 parts of sodium hvdrate in sufficient water to make it sbow about 20® B. (si>ecific gravity , 1.60). To it add 4 parts zinc oxide, and boil together until the latter is dissolved. Now add sufficient water to reduce the specific gravity of the solution to 1.075 (10®. B.). The bath is now ready for use. Dip each sheet separately, and hang on threads stretched across the room, to dry. Be on your guard against dust, as particles of sand aonering to the paper will scratch the ware wrapped in it. Ware, either plated or silver, wrapped in this paper, will not blacken. Vamiihed Paper. — Before proceeding to varnish paper, card-work, pasteboara, etc., it is necessary to give it 2 or 3 coats of size, to prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any injury to the color or design. The size may be made by dis- solvinff a little isinglass in boiling water, or by Boiling some clean parchment cut- tinijs until the^ form a clear solution. This, after being strained through a piece of clean muslin, or, for very nice purposes, clarified with a little white of egg, is applied bv means of a small clean brush called oy painters a sash tool. A light, delicate touch must be adopted, especially for the first coat, lest the ink or colors be started or smothered. When the prepared surface is quite dry it may be varnished. Impregnation of Pftpen with Zapon Vamith. — For the protection of impor- tant papers against the destructive in- fluences of the atmosphere, of water fungi, and light, but especially against the* consequences of tne process of molding, a process has been introduced under the name of zapon impregnation. The zaponizing may be carried out by dipping the papers in zapon or by coating tlii*m with it by means of a brusn or pen- rjl. Hometimes the purpose may also be rrarhrd by dripping or sprinkling it on, but in the majority of cases a painting of the NhcetN will be the simplent method. Zapon in a liquid state is highly in* flammable, for wnich reason during the application until the evaporation of the solvent, open flames and fires should be kept away from the vicinity. When the drying is finished, which usually takes s few hours where both sides are coated, the zaponized paper does not so eastlj ignite at an open flame anv more or st least not more readily than non>ini* pregnated paper. For coating with and especially for dipping in zapon, a con- trivance which effects a convenient siu- pension and dripping off with collection of the excess is of advanta^. The zapon should be thinned accord- ing to the material to be treated. Fcr- bly sized papers are coated with ordinarr. i. e., undiluted zapon. For dipping pur- poses, the zapon should be mixed with ■ diluent, if the paper is hard and «rU sized. The weaker the sizing, the more careful should be the selection of the zapon. Zapon to be used for coating purpo«ef should be particularly thick, so that it can be thinned as desired. Unsized papers require an undiluted coating. The thick variety also furnishes sn excellent adhesive agent as cement for wood, ^ ijlass, porcelain, and metal* which is inioluble in cold and hot water, and binds verv firmly. Metallic sur- faces coated witn zapon do not oxidise ur alter their appearance, since the coatisfC is like glass and only forms a rerj thin but firmly adhering film, which, if ap- plied on pliable sheet metal, does not crack on bending. For the preparation of zapon the fol- lowing directions are given: Pour iO parts of acetone over 2 parts of colorlf^« celluloid waste — obtainable at the irllu- loid factories — and let stand several dav* in a closed vessel, shaking freqaently. until the whole has dissolvea into a dear, thick mass. Next admix 78 parts of aoiri acetate and completely daruv the sapun varnish by allowing to settle forweeks . Slate Parchment. — Soak good paper with linseed-oil varnish (boiled ofl) and apply the following mass, mentioned br- low, several times in succession: Copal varnish, 1 part, by weight; turpentine oil, 2 parts; finest sprinkling sand. 1 paH: powdered glass, 1 part; ground slate as used for slates, 2 parts; and lampblark. 1 part, intimately mixed together, and repeatedly ground very fine. After drying and hardening, the plates can he written upon with lead or slate penriU. Pnper Floor Cohering. — The floor i« carefully cleaned, and all holes and Digitized by VjOOQ IC PAPER— PARAFFINE 607 cracks are filled up with a mass which is prepared by saturating newspapers wito a paste that is made by mixing thoroughly 17| ounces wheat flour, 3.17 quarts water, and 1 spoonful of pulvenzed alum. The floor is coated with this paste throuffhout, and covered with a layer of manOla paper, or other strong hemp paper. If something very durable is desired, paint the paper layer with the same paste and put on another layer of paper, leaving it to dry thor- oughly. Then apply another coat of paste, and upon this place wall paper of any desired kind, in order to protect the wall paper from wear, give it 8 or more coats of a solution of 8| ounces white glue in 2.1 1 quarts hot water, allow them to drv, and finish the job with a coating of hard oil varnish. METALLIC PAPER. This paper, made by transferring, past- ing, or painting a coating of metal on ordinary paper, retains a comparatively dull and fiead appearance even after glazing or polishing with the burnisher or agate. Galvanized or electroplated metal paper, on the other hand, in which the metal has penetrated into the most minute pores of the paper, possesses an extraordinarily brilliant polish, fully equal to that of a piece of compact polished metal. It is much more ex- tensively used than the kind first men- tioned. The following solutions are recom- mended for maxing "galvanized" metal paper: I. — For sOver paper: Twenty parts argento-cyanide of potassium; 13 parts cyanide of potassium; 980 parts water. n. — For gold paper: Four parts auro- ryanide of potassium; 9 parts cyanide of potassium; 900 parts water. Moth Paper.— Naphthalene 4 ounces Parafline wax 8 ounces Mdt together and while warm paint uivsizcd paper and pack away with the goods. hemd Paper. — Lay rough drawing paper (such as contains starch) on an H per cent potassium iodide solution. After a moment take it out and dry. Next, in a dark room, float the paper txre downward on an 8 per cent lead ni- trate solution. This sensitizes the paper. Dry again. The paper is now ready for printing. This process should be car- ried on till all the detail is out in a grayish color. Then develop in a 10 per cent ammonium chloride solution. The tones obtained are of a fine blue black. Aluminum Paper. — Aluminum paper is not leaf aluminum, but real paper glazed with aluminum powder. It is said to keep food materials fresh. The basic material is artificial parchment, coated with a solution of rosin in alcohol or ether. After drying, the paper is warmed until the rosin has again sof- tened to a slight degree. The aluminum powder is dusted on and the paper then placed under heavy pressure to force the powder firmly into it. The metallic coating thus formed is not affected by air or greasy substances. PAPER. ALBUMEN: See Fnotography. PAPER (AHTI-RUST) FOR NEEDLES: See Rust Preventives. PAPER CEMENTS: See Adhesives. PAPER DISINFECTANT: See Disinfectants. PAPER. FIREPROOF: See fireproofing. PAPER. FROSTED: See Glass (Frosted). PAPER ON GLASS, TO AFFIX: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Ce- ments. PAPERS, IGNITING: See Pyrotechnics. PAPER ON METALLIC SURFACES, PASTING: See Adhesives. PAPER AS PROTECTION FOR IRON AND STEEL: See Rust Preventives. PAPERHANGERS' PASTES: See Adhesives. PAPER. PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography. PAPER VARNISHES: See Varnishes. PAPER WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. PAPIER MACHf: See Paper. PARAFFINE: Rendering ParafiSne Tnuuparent. — A process for rendering paraffine and its mixtures with other bodies (ceresine, etc.) used in the manufacture of transparent candles consists essentially in adding a Digitized by VjOOQ IC 508 PAIIAFFINE— PASSE-PARTOUT FRAMING naphthol, particularly beta-naphthol, to the material which is used for the manu- facture of the candles, tapers, etc. The quantity added varies according to the material and the desired effect. One suitable mixture is made by heating 100 parts of paraffine and 2 parts of oeta- naphthol at 1 TS"" to 1 95'' F. The material can be colored in the ordinary way. Removal of Dirt from Para£Eliie. — Fil- tration through felt will usually remove particles of foreign matter from paraf- fine. It mav be necessary to use a layer of fine sand or of infusorial earth. If discolored by any soluble matter, try freshly heated animal charcoal. To keep the paraffine fluid, if a large quantity is to be handled, a jacketed funnel will be required, either steam or hot water being kept in circulation in the jacket. Paraffine Scented Cakes. Paraffine, 1 ounce; white petrolatum, 2 ounces; heliotropin, 10 grains; oil of bergamot, 5 drops; oil of lavender, 5 drops; oil 3t cloves, 2 dfrops. Melt the first two substances, then add the next, the oils last, and stir all until cool. After settling cut into blocks and wrap in tin foil. This is a disseminator of perfume. It per- fumes where it is rubbed. It kills moths and perfumes the wardrobe. It is used by rubbing on cloth, clothes, and the handkerchief. PARAFFINE PAIHT: See Paint. PARCHMENT AND PARCHMENT PAPER: See Paper. PARCHMENT CEMENT: See Adhesives. PARCHMENT PASTE: See Adhesives. PARFAITS: See Ice Creams. PARFAIT D'AMOUR CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. PARIS GREEN: See Pigments. PARIS RED: See Polishes. PARIS SALTS: See Disinfectants. PARISIAN CEMENT: See Adhesives. PASSE-PARTOUT FRAMING. It is hardly correct^ to call the passe- partout a frame, as it is merely a binding together of the print, the glass, and thr backinf^ with a narrow edee of paprr. This simple arrangement lends to thr gicture wnen complete a much greatfr uish and a more important appearaocf than might be anticipated. In regard to the making of a vt^^t- partout frame, the first thing is to aecidr as to the width of the mount or matt to bf used. In some cases, of course, \he print is framed with no mount being um- ole; but, unless the picture is of Unrr size, it will usually be found more lir- coming to have one, especially hhouU the wall paper be of an ootrusive 6ei>\f:n. When the print and mount ace Uth neatly trimmed to the desired size, pro- cure a piece of dear white picture gla«*- most amateur framers will have iii«- covered that there is a variance in thr quality of this — and a piece of stout rarvj- board, both of exactly the same dimrn- sions as the picture. Next prepsrr nr buy the paper io be used for binaioK ilf edges together. This may now \ie bought at most all stationery stores in « great variety of colors. If it is prrpsr«^i 1^ home a greater choice of colur^ w available, and it is by no means • (lit> • cult task with care and sharp Bcissar^ The tint should be chosen to narmoDtrt^ with the print and the mount, taking a1^* into consideration the probable sur- roundings— brown for pnotomplu (•( brown tone, dark gray for DiacL, pair gray for lighter tones; dark green U alw a good color. All stationers keep o st- ored papers suitable for the pttrpi>«'. while plain wall papers or thin bru«n paper answers equally well. Cut the paper, rulins it carefully. int» even strips an inch wide, and then in*' four pieces, two of them the exact Iro/rtk of the top and bottom of the tnmr, an'l the other two half an inch longer thio the two sides. Make sure that the print is evenly sandwiched between the cl>^^* and the back. Cut some tiny Hrifs* f thin court-plaster, and with these hisd tif comers tightly together. Brush over • \ ■ two larger pieces of psper with mou'jt ant, and with them bind tightly to«H}i« ? the three thicknesses — print, glasA. *^'* cardboard — allowing the paper to pr- ject over about a third of an incb >•>' the face side, and the ends which mtrt left a little longer roust be neatlr tnrsrti over and stuck at the back. Theo. n the same manner, bind the lop and bot- tom edges together, mitrring tne contrt neatly. It should not be forgoHeo, hetorr binding the edges together, to mslr t*^* slits in the cardboard bark for thr pv** Digitized by VjOOQ IC PASTES— PERFUMES 509 pose of inserting little brass hangers, | having flat ends like paper fasteners, ( which may be bought for the purpose; or, where these are not available, two narrow loops of tape may be used in- stead, sticking the ends firmly on the inside of the cardboard by means of a little strong glue. These are the few manipulations necessary for the making of a simple passe-partout frame, but there are num- berless variations of the idea, and a great deal of variety may be obtained by means of using different mounts. Brown paper answers admirably as a mount for some subjects, using strips of paper of a darker shade as binding. A not too obtrusive design in pen and ink is occasionally drawn on tne mount, while a more am- bitious scheme is to use paint and brushes in the same way. An ingenious idea which suits some subiects is to use a piece of hand-blocked wall paper as a mount. PARQUET POLISH: See Polishes. PASTES: See Adhcsives for Adhesive Purposes. Pastes. Razor. — I. — From jewelers' rouge, plumbago, and suet, equal parts, melted together and stirred until cold. II. — From prepared putty powder (levigated oxide of tin), 3 parts; lard, it parts; crocus martis, 1 part; triturated together. III. — Prepared puttv powder, 1 ounce; powdered oxalic acia, J ounce; pow- dered gum, 20 grains; make a stiff paste with water, Quantity sufficient, and evenly and thinly spread it over the strop, the other side of which should be covered with any of the common greasy mixtures. With very little friction this paste gives a fine edge tb the razor, and its action is still further increased by slightly mois- tening it, or even breathing on it. Im- mediately after its use, the razor should receive a few turns on the other side of the strop. PASTE FOR PAPER: See Paper. PASTES FOR POLISHING METALS: See Soaps. PASTEBOARD CEMENT: See Adhesives. PASTEBOARD DEODORIZERS: See Household Formulas. PASTEBOARD WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. PASTILLES, FUMIGATING: See Fumigants. PATINAS: See Bronzing and Plating. PATENT LEATHER: See Leather. PEACH EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. PEARLS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. PEGAMOID. Camphor, 100 parts; mastic, 100 parts; bleached shellac, 50 parts; gun cotton, 200 parts; acetone, 200 parts; acetic ether, 100 parU; ethylic ether, 50 parts. PEN METAL: See Alloys. PENCILS, ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics. PENCILS FOR MARKING GLASS: See Etching, Frosted Glass, and Glass. PENS, GOLD: See Gold. PEONY ROOTS, THEIR PRESERVA- TION: See RooU. PEPPERMINT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. PEPSIN PHOSPHATE: See Beverages. PERCENTAGE SOLUTION. Multiply the percentage by 5; the prod- uct is the number of grains to be added to an ounce of water to make a solution of the desired percentage. This is cor- rect for anything less than 15 per cent. «*PEREPUSK": See Butter, Artificial. Perfumes DRY PERFUMES: Sachet Powders. — I. — Orris root 6 ounces Lavender flowers ... 2 ounces Talcum 4 drachms Musk 20 grains Terpinol 60 grains II. — Orange peel 2 ounces Orris root 1 ounce Sandalwood 4 drachms Tonka 2 drachms Musk 6 grains Digitized by VjOOQ IC 510 PERFUMES Lavender Sachets. — I. — Lavender flowers. . . 16 ounces Gum benzoin 4 ounces Oil lavender 2 drachms II. — Lavender flowers, 150 parts; orris root, 150 parts; benzoin, 150 parts; Tonka beans, 150 parts; cloves, 100 parts; "Neugenwerz,** 50 parts; sandalwood, 50 parts; cinnamon, 50 parts; vanilla, 50 parts; and musk, ) part. All is bruised nnely and mixed. Violet Sachet- Powdered orris root 500 parts Rice flour 250 parts Essence bouquet. . . 10 parts Spring flowers ex- tract 10 parts Violet extract 20 parts Oil of bergamot ... 4 parts Oil of rose 2 parts Berated Talcum. — I. — Purified talcum, N. F 2 pounds Powdered boric acid 1 ounce To perfume add the following: Powered orris root. . 1 } ounces Extract jasmine .... 2 drachms Extract musk 1 drachm II. — A powder sometimes dispensed under this name is the salicylated pow- der of talcum of the National Formulary, which contains in every 1,000 parts SO Earts of salicylic acid and 100 parts of oric acid. Rose. — I. — Cornstarch 0 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil of rose 80 drops Extract musk 2 drachms Extract jasmine .... 6 drachms II. — Potato starch 0 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil rose 45 drops Extract jasmine .... } ounce Rose Talc. — I. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil rose 50 drops Oil wintergreen .... 4 drops Extract jasmine .... 2 ounces II. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil rose.^ 32 drops Oil jasmine 4 ounces Extract musk 1 ounce Violet Talc— I. — Powdered talc 14 ounces Powdered orris root. 2 ounces Extract cassie ) ounce Extract jasmine | ounce Extract musk 1 drachm II.— SUrch 5.000 parts Orris root 1,000 psrti Oil of lemon 14 psrti Oil of bergamot . . 14 parts Oil of clove 4 parts Smelling Salts.— I.— FUl small gluwr^ having ground stopper with pieces of sponge free from sand and saturate with a mixture of spirit of sal ammonisc (0.010), 0 parts, and oil of lavender. 1 Sart. Or else fill the bottles with siD«tl ice of ammonium sesquicarbonste and pour the above mixture over them. II. — Essential oil of lav- ender 18 parti Attar of rose 2 parti Ammonium car- bonate 480 parts Violet Smellins: Salts.— I.— Moisten coarsely powdered ammonia carbonAte. contained in a suitable bottle, with a mixture of concentrated tincture of orris root, 2} ounces; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 drachm; violet extract, 5 drachms. II. — Moisten the carbonate, and add as much of the following solution as it will absorb: Oil of orris, 5 minims; oil of lavender flowers, 10 minims; violet extract, 80 minims; stronger water of ammonia, 2 fluidounces. To Scent Advertisliig Katter, etc— The simplest way of perfuming printed matter, such as calendars, caros, etc.. t« to stick them in strongly odorous sachet powder. Although the effect of a strong perfume is obtained thereby, there i^ i large loss of powder, which clings to the printed matter. Again, there are often little spots which are due to the essentiaJ oils added to the powder. Another way of perfuming, which t« used especially in France for scenting cards and other articles, is to dip them in very strong "extraits d*odeur, learinc them therein for a few days. Then the* cards are taken out and laid between 61* tering paper, whereupon they are pre&^ed vigorously, which causes them not only to dr^, but also to remain straight Tbey remain under strong pressure until cooi- pletely dry. Not all cardboard, however, can he subjected to this process, and in it* choice one should consider the perfvm- ing operation to be conducted. Nor can the cards be glazed, since spirit dissolw* the glaze. It is also preferable to hare lithographed text on them, since in the case of ordinary printing the letters often partly disappear or the colon are changed. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PERFUMES 511 For pocket calendars, priM lists, and Tolttminous matter containing more leaves than one, another process is recommended. In a tight closet, which should be lined with tin, so that little air c:an enter, tables composed of laths are plaiced on which nets stretched on frames are laid. Cover these nets with tissue Kper, and oroceed as follows: On the ttom of the closet sprinkle a strongly odorous and reperfumed powder; then cover one net with the printed matter to be perfumed and shove it to the closet on the lath. The next net again re- ceives powder, the following one printed matter, and so on until the closet is filled. After tightly closing the doors, the whole arrangement is left to itself. This process presents another advantage in that all sorts of residues mav be em- ployed for scenting, such as tne filters of the odors and infusions, residues of musk, etc. These are simply laid on the nets, and will thus impart their perfume to the printed matter. Such a scenting powder is produced as f<^ows: By weight Iris powder, finely ground 5,000 parts Residues of musk. . 1,000 parts Ylang-ylang oil. ... 10 parts Ber^amot oil 50 parts Artificial musk .... ft parts lonone 2 to 5 parts Tincture of benzoin 100 parts The powder may subsequently be employed for filling cheap sachets, etc. UQUID PERFUMES: Coloring Perfumes. — Chlorophyll is a suitable agent for coloring liquid per- fumes green. Care must be taken to pro- care an article freely soluble in the men- struum. As founcf in the market it is prepared (in form of solutions) for use in liquids strongly alcoholic; in water or weak alcohol; and in oils. Aniline greens of various kinds will answer the same purpose, but in a trial of any one of these it must be noted that very small quantities should be used, as their tinc- torial power is so great that liquids in which they are incautiously used may stain the handkerchief. Color imparted by chlorophyU will be found fairiy permanent; this term is a relative one, and not too much must be expected. Colors which may suffer but littie change by long exposure to diffused light may fade perceptibly by short ex- posure to the direct light of the sun. Chlorophyll mav \^ purchased or it may be preparea as follows: Digest leaves of grass, nettles, spinach, or other green herb in warm water until soft; pour off the water and crush the herb to a pulp. Boil the pulp for a short time with a half per cent solution of caustic soda, and afterwards precipitate the chlorophyll by means of dilute hydro- chloric acid; wash the precipitate thor- oughly with water, press and dry it, and use as much for the solution as mav be necessary. Or a tincture made from grass as follows may be employed: Lawn grass, cut fine . . 2 ounces Alcohol 16 ounces Put the grass in a wide-mouthed bottle* and pour the alcohol upon it. After standing a few days, a^tating occasion- ally, pour off the liouid. The tincture may be used with ooth alcoholic and aqueous preparations. Among tne anilines, spirit soluble malachite green has been recommended. A purple or violet tint may be pro- duced by using tincture of litmus or am- moniated cochineal coloring. The for- mer is made as follows: Litmus 2} ounces Boiling water 16 ounces Alcohol 8 ounces Pour the water upon the litmus, stir well, allow to stand for about an hour, stirring occasionallv, filter, and to the filtrate add the alcohol. The aniline colors "Paris violet" or methyl violet B may be similarly em- ployed. The amount necessary to pro- duce a desired tint must be worked out by experiment. Yellow tints may best be imparted by the use of tincture of turmeric or saffron, fustic, quercitron, etc. If a perfumed spirit, as, for instance, a moutn wash, is poured into a wine- glassful of water, tne oils will separate at once and spread over the surface of the water. Tnis liquid being allowed to stand uncovered, one oil after another will evaporate, according to the degree of its volatility, until at last the least vola- tile remains behind. This process sometimes requires weeks, and in order to be able to watch the separate fJuues of this evaporation correctly, it is necessary to use several glasses and to conduct the mixtures at certain intervals. The glasses must be numbered according to the day when set up, so that they may be readily identified. If we assume, for example, that a mouth wash is to be examined, we may probably prepare every day for one week a mixture of about 100 grams of water and 10 drops of the respective liquid. Hence, after a lapse of 7 days Digitized by VjOOQ IC 51S PERFUMES we will have before us 7 bouquets, of dif- ferent odor, according to the volatility of the oils contained in them. From these different bouquets the qualitative com- position of the liquid may be readily recognized, provided that one is familiar enough with the character of the different oils to be able to tell them by their odors. The predominance of peppermint oil — to^ continue with the aoove example — will soon be lost and other oils wiU rise one after the other, to disappear again after a short time, so that tne 7 glasses afford an entire scale of characteristic odors, until at last only the most lasting are perceptible. Thus it is possible with some practice to tell a bouquet pretty accurately in its separate odors. In this manner interesting results are often reached, and with some persever- ance even complicated mixtures can be analyzed and recognized in their dis- tinctiveness. Naturally the difficulty in recognizing each oil is increased in the case of oils whose volatility is approxi- mately the same. But even in this case changes, though not quite so marked, can be determined in the bouquet. In a quantitative respect this method also furnishes a certain result as far as the comparison of perfumed liquids is concerned. According to the quantity of the oils C resent the dim zone on the water is roader or narrower, and although the size of this layer may be changed oy the admixture of other substances, one gains an idea regarding the quantity of the oils by mere smelling. It is necessary, of course, to choose glasses with equally large openings and to count out the drops of the essence carefully by means of a dropper. When it is thought that all the odors have been placed, a test is made by pre- paring a mixture according to the recipe resulting from the trial. Not pure oils, always alcoholic dilu- tions in a certain ratio should be used, in order not to disturb the task by a sur- plus of the different varieties, since it is easy to add more, but impossible to take away. It is true this method requires patience, perseverance, and a fine sense of smell. One smelling test should not be consid- ered sufficient, but the glasses should be carried to the nose as often as possible. Fizinff Agents in Perfumes. — The secret of making perfumery lies mainly in the choice of the nxing agents — i. e., those bodies which intensify and hold the floral odors. The agents formerly em- ploved were musk, civet, and amber^^^. all having a heavy and dull animal odor. which is the direct antithesis of a flortl fragrance. A free use of these bodit^ must inevitablv mean a perfume which requires a label to tell what it is intended for, to say nothing of what it is. To-dir there is no evidence that the last of thc»r (ambergris) is being used at all in tb« newer perfumes, and the other two srf employed very sparingly, if at all. The result IS that the newer perfumes posses a fragrance and a fidelity to the flowen that they imitate which is far superior to the older perfumes. Yet the newer prr- fume is quite as prominent and lasting a» the old, while it is more pleasini;. It contains the synthetic odors, with bal- sams or rosinous bodies as fixatives, and employs musk and civet only in the n)o«t sparing manner in some of the morr sen- sitive odors. As a fixing agent benzoin is to be recommended. Only the hrM variety should be u.Hed, the Siamese, mhirh costs 5 or 6 times as much as that fmm Sumatra. The latter has a coarse pun- gent odor. Musk is depressing, and its use in cologne^ in even the minutest quantity will spoil the cologne. The musk lin^r% after the lighter odors have disappearnl. and a sick person is pretty sure to M its effects. Persons in vigorous health will not notice the depressing effects of musk, but when lassitude prevails the>f are very unpleasant. Moreover, it is n^i a necessity in these toilet accessories, either as a blending or as a fixing a|crnt Its place is better supplied by benioin for both purposes. As to alcohol, a lot of nonsense bx« been written about the necessity of ei- treme care in selecting it, such as crrta:n kinds requiring alcohol made fmm grapes and others demanding entrrpe punfication, etc. A reasonable attention to a good quality of alcohol, even at a slight increase in cost, will always par. but, other things being eaual, a go( composed of exacting connovcsenrs. and it does not appreciate extreme carr or expense in either particular. A food grade of alcohol, reasonably free from heavy and lingering foreign odora, will answer practically all the requiremeats. General Directioiis for Kakiiic Per- fumes.— It is absolutely essential Tor ob- taining the best results to see that all : vessels are perfectly clean. Alwsya em- , ploy alcohol, 90 per cent, deodorised hy Digitized by VjOOQIC PERFUMES 513 means of charcoal. When grain musk is used as an ingredient in li(]uid perfumes, first rub down with pumice stone, then digest in a little hot water for 2 or 3 hours; finally add to alcohol. The addition of 2 or S minims of acetic acid will improve the odor and also prevent accumulation of NHa. Civet and ambergris should also be thoroughly rubbed down with some coarse powder, and transferred directly to alcohol. Seeds, pods, bark rhizomes, etc., should be cut up in small pieces or pow- dered. Perfumes improve by storing. It is a good plan to tie over the mouth of the containing vessel some fairly thick por- ous material, and to allow the vessel to stand for a week or two in a cool place, instead of corking at once. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that as large a quantity as possible should be decanted, and then the residue filtered. This obviously prevents loss by evapora- tion. Talc or kieseleuhr (amorphous SiOt) are perhaps the oest substances to add to the filter in order to render liquid perfumes bright and clear, and more especially necessary in the case of aro- matic vinegars. The operations involved in making per- fumes are simple; the chief thing to be learned, perhaps, is to judge of the quality of materials. The term "extract," when used in roost formulas, means an alcoholic solu- tion of the odorous principles of certain flowers obtained by enfluerage; that is, the flowers are placed in contact with pre- pared grease wnich absorbs the odorous matter, and this grease is in turn macer- ated with alcohol which dissolves out the odor. A small portion of the grease is taken up also at ordinary temperatures; this is removed bv filtering the "ex- tract*' while "chillea'* by a freezing mix- ture. The extracts can be either pur- chased or made direcUy from the pomade (as the grease is called). To employ the latter method successfully some experi- ence may be necessary. The tinctures are made with 95 per cent deodorized alcohol, enouffh men- struum being added throiu^h tne marc when filtering to bring the finished prep- aration to the measure of the menstruum orijnnally taken. ^ The glycerine is intended to act as a "fixing agent — that is, to lessen the volatility of the perfumes. Tinctures for Perfumes. — o. Ambergris, 1 part; alcohol, 06 per cent, 13 parts. b. Benzoin, Sumatra, 1 part; alcohol, 06 per cent. 6 parts. c. Musk, 1 part; distilled water, 26 parts; spirit, 06 per cent, 25 parts. d. Musk, I part; spirit, 06 per cent, 50 parts; for very oleiferous composi- tions. e. Peru balsam, I part in spirit, 06 per cent, 7 parts; shake vigorously. /. Storax, 1 part in spirit, 06 per cent, 15 parts. g. Powdered Tolu balsam, 1 part; spirit, 06 per cent, 6 parts. h. Chopped Tonka beans, 1 part; spirit, 60 {Msr cent, 6 parts; for composi- tions containing little oil. t. Chopped Tonka beans, 1 part; spirit, 06 per cent, 6 parts; for composi- tions containing mucti oil. j. Vanilla, 1 part; spirit, 60 per cent, 6 parts; for compositions containing little oil. k. Vanilla, 1 part; spirit, 06 per cent, 6 parts; for compositions containing much oil. /. Vanillin, 20 parts; spirit, 06 per cent, 4,500 parts. m. Powdered orris root, 1 part; spirit, 06 per cent, 5 parts. n. Grated civet, 1 part in spirit, 06 per cent, 10 parts. Bay Rum. — Bay rum, or more prop- erly bay spirit, may be made from tne oil with weak alcohol as here directed: I. — Oil of bay leaves 8 drachms Oil of orange peel ... } drachm Tincture of orange peel 2 ounces Magnesium carbon- ate ) ounce Alcohol 4 pints Water 4 pints Triturate the oils with the magnesium carbonate, gradually adding the other ingredients previously mixed, and fil- ter. The tincture of orange peel is used chiefly as a coloring for the mixture. Oil of bay leaves as found in the mar- ket varies in Quality. The most costly will presumably be found the best, and its use will not make the product ex- pensive. It can be made from the best oil and deodorized alcohol and still sold at a moderate price with a good profit. Especial care should be taken to use only perfectly fresh oil of orange peel. As is well known, this oil deteriorates rapidly on exposure to the air, acquiring an odor similar to that of turpentine. The oil should be kept in bottles of sucli size that when opened the contents can be all used in a short time. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 514 PERFUMES II. — Bay oil, 15 parts; sweet orange oil, 1 part; pimento oil, 1 part; spirit of wine, 1,000 parts; water, 750 parts; soap spirit or quillaia bark, ad libitum. III. — Bay oil, 12.5 parts; sweet orange oil, 0.5 part; pimento oil, 0.5 part; spirit of wine, 200 parts; water, 2,800 parts; Jamaica rum essence, 75 parts; soap powder, 20 parts; quillaia extract, 5 parts; Dorax, 10 parts; use sugar color. Colognes. — In making cologne water, the alcohol used should be that obtained from the distillation of wine, provided a first-class article is desired. It is pos- sible, of course, to make a good cologne with Tery highly rectified and deodorized corn or potato spirits, but the product never eouals that made from wine spirits. Fossibly the reason for this lies in the fact that the latter always con- tains a varying amount of oenanthic ether. I. — Oil of bergamot . . 10 parts Oil of neroli 15 parts Oil of citron 5 parts Oil of cedrat 5 parts Oil of rosemary. . . 1 part Tincture of am- bergris 5 parts Tincture of ben- zoin 5 parts Alcohol 1,000 parts II. — The following is stated to be the "original" formula: Oil of bergamot. 06 parts Oil of citron 06 parts Oil of cedrat. ... 06 parts Oil of rosemary. 48 parts Oil of neroli 48 parts Oil of lavender. . 48 parts Oil of cavella. ... 24 parts Absolute alcohol. 1,000 parts Spirit of rose- mary 25,000 parts III. — Alcohol, 00 per cent 5,000 parts Bergamot oil 220 parts Lemon oil 75 parts Neroli oil. 20 parts Rosemary oil 5 parts Lavender oil, French 5 parts The oils are well dissolved in spirit and left alone for a few days with fre- quent shaking. Next add about 40 parts of acetic acid and filter after a while. IV.— Alcohol, 90 per cent 5,000 parts Lavender oil, French 85 parts Lemon oil ..... . 30 parts Portugallo oil ... . 30 parts Neroli oil 15 parts Ber|^amot oil 15 parts Petit grain oil ... . 4 parts Rosemary oil 4 parts Orange water. . . . 700 parts Coloffne Spirit! or Deodorized Alco- hol.— This is used in all toilet prepara- tions and perfumes. It is made thus: Alcohol, 05 per cent . . 1 gallon Powdered unslaked lime 4 drachms Powdered alum 2 drachms Spirit of nitrous ether 1 drachm Mix the lime and alum, and add thr m to the alcohol, shaking the mixture well together; then add the sweet spirit of niter and set aside for 7 days, shaking occasionaUy; finally filter. Florida Waten. — Oil of bergamot. . . 8 flttidounrrs Oil of lavender ... 1 fiuidoance Oil of cloves H fluidrachms Oil of cinnamon . . 2) fluidrachms Oil of neroli | fluidrachm Oil of lemon 1 fluidouncr Essence of jasmine 6 fluidounccs Essence of musk.. 2 fluidounces Rose water 1 pint Alcohol 8 pints Mix, and if cloudy, filter through mH' nesium carbonate. Layender Water. — This, the mo§t famous of all the perfumed waters. ws« originally a distillate from a mixture uf spirit and lavender flowers. This wa« tne perfume. Then came a compound water, or "palsy water,*' which was io- tended strictly for use as a medirtnr, but sometimes containing ambergris snd musk, as well as red sandera wood. Only the odor of the old compound rr- mains to us as a perfume* and this is the odor which all perfume compottodrn endeavor to hit. The most importsot precaution in making lavender water i* to use well-matured oil of laveodfr. Some who take pride in this perfume u«r no oil which is less than 5 years old, and which has had 1 ounce of rectified spirit added to each pound of oil before brine set aside to mature. After mixing, the perfume should stand for at least a month before filtering through gray fil- tering paper. This may be taken ts a general instruction: I. — Oil of lavender 1) ouicrs Oil of bergamot 4 drachm* Essence ambergris. . 4 drsriin^* Proof spirit 3 ptoU Digitized by VjOOQ IC PERFUMES 616 II. — Eofflish oil of laven- per 1 ounce Oil of bergamot .... 1 ) drachms Essence of musk (No. 2) i ounce Essence of amber- gris i ounce Proof spirit 2 pints III. — English oil of laven- der } ounce Oil of bergamot .... 2 drachms Essence of amber- gris 1 drachm Euence of musk (No. 1) 3 drachms Oil of angelica 2 minims Attar of rose 6 ininims Proof spirit 1 pint IV. — Oil of lavender 4 ounces Grain musk 15 grains Oil of bergamot .... 2) ounces Attar of rose 1 1 drachms Oil of neroli } drachm Spirit of nitrous ether 2} ounces Triple rose water. . . 12 ounces Proof spirit 5 pints Allow to stand 5 weeks before filtering. UQUID PERFUMES FOR THE HAND- KERCHIEF, PERSON, ETC. : AcacU Extract. — French acacia 400 parts Tincture of amber (1 in 10) 8 parts Eucalyptus oil 0.5 parts Lavender oil 1 part Bergamot oil 1 part Tincture of musk ... 2 parts Tincture of orris root 150 parts Spirit of wine, 80 per cent 500 parts Btsbop EaMnce. — Fresh green peel of unripe oranges . . 60.0 grams Curasao orange peel 180.0 grams Malaga orange peel 90.0 grams Ceylon cinnamon. . 2.0 grams Cloves 7.5 grams Vanilla 11.0 grams Orange flower oil . . 4 drops Spirit of wine 1,500.0 grams Hungarian wine . . . 720.0 grams A dark-brown tincture of (feasant taste and ameil. Caroline Bouquet. — Oil of lemon 15 minims Oil of bergamot 1 drachm Essence or rose 4 ounces Essence of tuberose . . 4 ounces Essence of violet 4 ounces Tincture of orris 2 ounces Alexandra Bouquet. — Oil of bergamot 3) drachms Oil of rose geranium i drachm Oil of rose | drachm Oil of cassia 15 minims Deodorized alcohol. . . 1 pint Nayy Bouquet. — Spirit of sandal wood . . 10 ounces EjEtract of patchouli . . 10 ounces Spirit-of rose 10 ounces Spirit of vetivert 10 ounces Extract of verbena ... 12 ounces Bridal Bouquet. — Sandal oil, SO min- ims; rose extract, 4 fluidounces; jas- mine extract, 4 fluidounces; orange flower extract, 16 fluidounces; essence of vanilla, 1 fluidounce; essence of musk, 2 fluidounces; tincture of storax, 2 fluid- ounces. (The tincture of storax is pre- pared with liquid storax and alcohol [00 per cent], 1:20, by macerating for 7 days.) Iriah Bouquet. — White rose essence . 5,000 parts Vanilla essence .... 450 parts Rose oil 5 parts Spirit 100 parts Eiaence Bouquet. — I. — Spirit 8,000 parts Distilled water .... 2,000 parts Iris tincture 250 parts Vanilla herb tinc- ture. 100 parts Benzoin tincture. . . 40 parts Bergamot oil 50 parts Storax tincture .... 50 parts Clove oil 15 parts Palmarosa oil 12 parts Lemon-grass oil . . . 15 parts n. — Extract of rose (2d) . . 64 ounces Extract of jasmine (2d) 12 ounces Extract of cassie (2d) . 8 ounces Tincture of orris (1 to 4) 64 ounces Oil of bergamot ) ounce Oil of cloves 1 drachm Oil of ylang-ylang. ... ) drachm Tincture of benzoin (lto8) 2 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Bouquet Canang. — Ylang-ylang oil. .. 45 minims Grain musk 8 grains Rose oil 15 minims Tonka beans S Cassie oil 5 minims Tincture orris rhi- zome 1 fluidounce Digitized by VjOOQ IC 516 PERFUMES Civet 1 grain Almond oil i minim Storax tincture ... 3 fluidradmis Aicohol,90 per cent 0 fluidounces Mix, and digest 1 month. The above 18 a ver^ delicious perfume. Cassie oil or otto is derived from the flowers of Acacia farnesiana Mimosa farnesiana, L. (N. O. Leguminosie, sub- order Mimosese). It must not be con- founded with cassia otto, tUe essential oil obtained from Cinnamomum cassia. Cashmere Nosegay. — I. — Essence of violet, from pomade 1 pint Essence of rose, from pomade 1 i pints Tincture of benzoin, (lto4)..... i pint Tincture of civet (1 to 64) J pint Tincture of Tonka (1 to 4) i pint Benzoic acid ) ounce Oil of patchouli .... i ounce Oil of sandal | ounce Rose water ) pint II. — Essence violet 120 ounces Essence rose •;••;• 180 ounces Tincture benjamin (1 in 4) 60 ounces Tincture civet (1 in 62) 80 ounces Tincture Tonka (1 in 4) SO ounces Oil patchouli 3 ounces Oil sandalwood 6 ounces Rose water 60 ounces Clove Pink. — I. — Essence of rose 2 ounces Essence of orange flower ■ • • • ® ounces Tincture of vanilla. . 3) ounces Oil of cloves 20 minims II. — Essence of cassie 5 ounces Essence of orange flower 5 ounces Essence of rose 10 ounces Spirit of rose 7 ounces Tincture of vanilla . . 3 ounces Oil of cloves 12 minims Frangipanni. — I. — Grain musk 10 grains Sandal otto 25 minims Rose otto 25 minims Orange flower otto (ne roll) 30 minims Vetivert otto .... 5 minims Powdered orris rhizome ) ounce Vanilla 30 grains Alcohol (90 per cent) 10 fluidottnce» Mix and digest for 1 month. This h a lasting and favorite perfume. II. — Oil of rose 2 drachms Oil of neroli 2 drachms Oil of sandalwood . . 2 drachms Oil of geranium (French). ....... 2 drachms Tincture of vetivert (l}to8) 96 ounces Tincture of Tonka (1 to 8) 16 ounces Tincture of orris (1 to 4) 64 ounces Glycerine 6 ounces Alcohol 61 ounces Handkerchief Perfumes. — I. — Lavender oil 10 parts Neroli oil 10 parts Bitter almond oil . . 2 part.«i Orris root 200 parts Rose oil 5 parts Clove oil 5 parts Lemon oil 1 part Cinnamon oil 2 parts Mix with 2,500 parts of best alrohi>l. and after a rest of 8 days heat moder- ately on the water bath, and filter. II. — Bergamot oil 10 parts Orange peel oil 10 parts Cinnamon oil ..... . 2 parts Rose geranium oil . . 1 part Lemon oil 4 parts Lavender oil 4 part^ Rose oil 1 part Vanilla essence 5 parts Mix with 2,000 parts of best spirit, and after leaving undisturbed for S aay.«. hrsl moderately on the water bath, and filter. Honeysuckle. — Oil of neroli 12 minima Oil of rose 10 minima Oil of bitter almond . . 8 minims Tincture of storax. ... 4 ounces Tincture of vanilla. . . 6 ounce* Essence of cassie 16 ounces Essence of rose 16 ounces Es.oiled out with hydrochloric acid, washed with water, and dried at red heat. This process doubtless would prove valuable for many other purposes. Violet Waters.— I. — Spirit of ionone, 10 percent } drachm Distilled water 5 ounces Orange flower water 1 ounce Rose water 1 ounce Cologne spirit 8 ounces Add the spirit of ionone to the alcohol and then add the waters. Let stand sod filter. II. — Violet extract 2 ounces Cassie extract 1 ounce Spirit of rose } ounce Tincture of orris | ounce Green coloring, a sufficiency. Alcohol to 20 ounces. PERFUICED PASTILLES. These scent tablets consist of a com- pressed mixture of ' rice starch, m^- nesium carbonate, and powdered orn» root, saturated with heliotrope, vioM, or lilac perfume. Violet— Ionone 50 parts Ylang-ylang oil 60 parts Tincture of musk, extra strong 200 parts Tincture of benaoin . 200 parts Heliotrope. — Heliotropin 200 parts Vanillin 50 parts Tincture of musk. . . 100 parts Tincture of benzoin. 200 parts Lilac— Terpineol 200 parts Muguet 200 parts Tincture of musk . . . 200 parts Tincture of benxoin .200 parts Sandalwood 2 dracbnu Vetivert 2 drachma Lavender flowers .. . 4 drachms Oil of thvme } drachm Charcoal 2 ouncfs Potassium nitrate. . . ) oaoce Mucilage of tragacmntb, a sufficient quantity. Perfumes for Hair Oils. — I. — Heliotropin 8 grains Coumann 1 graio Oil of orris 1 drop Oil of rose 15 miniin« Oil of bergamot ..., SO minioui II. — Coumarin 2 grains Oil of cloves 4 drops Oil of cassia 4 drops Oil of lavender flow- ers 15 minimi Oil of lemon 45 minims Oil of bergamot .... 75 minims Soap Perfumes. — See also Soap. I. — Oil of lavender ) osncr Oil of cassia SO minims Add 5 pounds of soap stock. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PETROLEUM 621 II. — Oil of caraway Oil of clove Oil of white thyme. . Oil of cassia Oil of orange leaf (neroli petit grain) Oil of lavender 1} dradims of each Add to 5 pounds of soap stock. PERFUMES (FUBaGAHTS): S«e Pumigants. PERSPIRATI9N REMEDY: S«c Cosmetics. PESTLE CEMENTS: See Adhesives. Petroleum (See also Oils.) The Prepuation of Emulsioiis of Cmde Petroleum. — Kerosene has long Iteen recognized as a most efficient insec- ticide, but its irritating action, as well as the very considerable cost involved, has prevented the use of the pure oil as a (oral application in the various parasitic skin diseases of animals. In order to overcome these objections various expedients have been resorted to, all of which have for their obiect the dilu- tion or em unification of the kerosene. Probably the best known aiid most gen- erallv employed method for accomplish- ing; tliis result is that which is based upon the u^e of soap as an emuLsifying agent. The formula which is used almost uni- versally for making the kerosene soap emulsion is as follows: Kerosene 2 gallons Water 1 gallon Hard soap ) pound The soap is dissolved in the water with the aid of neat, and while this solution is j«till hot the kerosene is added and the whole agitated vigorously. The smooth white mixture which is obtained in this way i« diluted before use with sufficient water to make a total volume of 20 gallons, and i» usually applied to the skin of animals c^r to trees or other plants bv means of a »pra^ pump. This method of applica- tion IS %ised because the diluted emulsion separates quite rapidly, and some me- chanical device, such as a self-mixing 9-prmy pomp, is required to keep the ou in suspension. It will be readily understood that this emalsioD would not be well adapted either for use as a dip or for application hy hand, for in the one case the oil, which rapidly rises to the surface, would »otassium) will yield flat, foggy nega- tives. A developer too cold is retarded in its action, and causes thin negatives. Uniform temperature is necessary for uniform results. If development is continued too long, the negative will be too dense. In warm weather, the developer should be diluted; in cold weather, it should be stronger. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 524 PHOTOGRAPHY The negative should not be exposed to white light until 6xation is complete. The negative should be left fully 5 minutes longer in the fixins bath than is necessary to dissolve out ue white bro- mide of silver. In hot weather a chrome alum fixing bath should be used to prevent frilling. Always use a fresh hypo or fixing bath. Hypo is cheap. Plates and plate holders must be kept free from dust, or pinholes will result. After the negative is fixed, an hour's washing is none too much. The plate should be dried quickly in warm weather else the film will become dense and coarse-grained. Do not expect clean, faultless negatives to come out of dirty developing and fix- ing solutions and trays. Pyro and Soda Developer. — I. — Pure water 30 ounces Sulphite soda, crys- tals 5 ounces Carbonate soda, Gtystals 2) ounces II. — Pure water 24 ounces Oxalic acid. .^ 15 grains Pyrogallic acid 1 ounce To develop, take of Solution No. 1 1 ounce Solution No. II ) ounce Pure water 3 ounces More water may be used in warm weather and less in cool weather. If solution No. I is made bv hydrom- eter te.st, use equal parts of the follow- ing: Sulphite soda testinj^. 80®. Carbonate soda testing, 40®. One ounce of this mixture will be equiv- alent to 1 ounce of solution No. I. Pyro and PotaBsium Developer. — I. — Pure water 32 ounces Sulphite soda, crys- tals 8 ounces Carbonate p o t a s - sium, dry 1 ounce II. — Pure water 24 ounces Oxalic acid 15 ounces Pyrogallic acid 1 ounce To develop, take of Solution No. 1 1 ounce Solution No. II i ounce Pure water 8 ounces When the plate is fully developed, if the lights are too thin, use less water in the developer; if too dense, use more water. Pyro and Metol Developer. — Good for short exposures: I. — Pure water 57 ounrei Sulphite soda, crys- tals 2§ ouncTf Metol 1 ounce II. — Pure water 57 ouncr^ Sulphite soda, crys- tals 2 1 ounm Pyrogallic acid | ounce III. — Pure water 57 oun<^ Carbonate potas- sium 2) ounrrft To develop, take of Pure water 3 ouncrs Solution No. 1 1 ouncr Solution No. II 1 ouncr Solution No. III. ... 1 ouorr This developer may be used rrpraJ- edly by adding a little fresh developer &« reouired. Keep the used developer in a ^paratf bottle. Rodinal Developer. — One part nxliml to 30 parts pure water. Use repeatedly, adding fre.4h a* rt- quired. Bromo-Hydrochinon Developer.— F<*r producing great contrast and intenMt>. also for developing over-exposed plstt^ I. — Distilled or ice water 25 ounrr« Sulphite of soda, crys- tals 3 oaDcr% llydrochinon } ouncr Bromide of potas- sium I ouncT Dissolve by warming, and let coul br> fore use. II. — Water 25 onnrr* Carbonate of soda, crystals 6 ounce* Mix Nos. I and II, equal part*, for u^^ Eikonogen Hydrochinon Developer.— I. — Distilled or pure well water 32 onom Sodium sulphite, crystals 4 ouncM Eikonogen 240 grains liydrocninon 60 grains II. — Water 32 oaarrs Carbonate of potash 4 oaorr« To develop, take No. 1 2 ounrrt No. II 1 ouarr ♦Water 1 ounrr •For dottbl9«oal«l pUt«» m» 5 uus— < wa(«r. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 5S5 By hydrometer: L — Sodium sulphite. solution to test 30 34 ounces Eikonoeen 240 grains Hydrochinon 60 grains II. — Carbonate of pot- ash solution to test 50 To develop, take No. I 2 ounces No. II 1 ounce ♦Water 1 ounce Hydrochinon Developer. — I. — Hydrochinon 1 ounce Sulphite of soda, crystals 5 ounces Bromide of potas- sium. 10 grains Water (ice or dis- tilled) 55 ounces II. — Caustic potash 180 grains Water 10 ounces To develop: Take of I, 4 ounces; II, } ounce. Af- ter use pour into a separate bottle. This can be used repeatedly, and with uni- formity of results, by the addition of 1 drachm of I and 10 drops of II to every 8 ounces of old developer. In using this developer it is important to notice the temperature of the room, as a slight variation in this respect causes a very marked difference in the time it takes to develop, much more so than with f)yro. The temperature of room should KT from 70«» to 75° F. Metol Developer. — I. — Water 8 ounces Metol. 100 grains Sulphite of soda, crystals 1 ounce II. — Water 10 ounces Pota-ssium carbonate 1 ounce Take equal parts of I and II and 6 fiartx of water. If more contrast is nerdeiU take equal parts of I and II and 3 parts of water, with 5 drops to the ounce of a -i\r solution of bromide of pot&fsium. Metol and Hydrochinon Developer. — I. — Pure hot water 80 ounces Metol 1 ounce Hydrochinon | ounce Sulphite soda, crys- tals 6 ounces * For double-ooated piates use 5 ounces of II. — Pure water 80 ounces Carbonate soda, crystals 5 ounces To develop, take of Pure water 2 ounces Solution No. 1 1 ounce Solution No. II 1 ounce Metol -Bicarbonate Developer. — Thor- oughly dissolve Metol 1 ounce In water 60 ounces Then add Sulphite of soda, crystals 6 ounces Bicarbonate of soda. 3 ounces To prepare with hydrometer, mix Sulphite of soda so- lution, testing 75. . 30 ounces Bicarbonate of soda solution, testing 50 30 ounces Metol 1 ounce Dissolved in 12 ounces water. Ferrous-Ozalate Developer. — For transparencies and opals. I. — Oxalate of potash ... 8 ounces Water 30 ounces Citric acid 60 grains Citrate of ammonia solution 2 ounces II. — Sulphate of iron .... 4 ounces Water 32 ounces Sulphuric acid 16 drops III. — Citrate of ammonia solution saturated. Dissolve 1 ounce citric acid in 5 ounces distilled water, add liquor ammonia un- til a slip of litmus paper just loses the red color, then add water to make the whole measure 8 ounces. Add 1 ounce of II to 2 of I, and } ounce of water, and 3 to 6 drops of 10 per cent solution bromide potassium. To develop, first rinse developing dish with water, lay film or plate down, and flow with sumcient developer to well cover. Careful attention must be given to its action, and when detail is just showing in the face, or half-tone lights in a view, pour off developer, and well wash the film before placing in the fixing bath. Tolidol Developer. — Standard formula for dry plates and films: Water 16 ounces Tolidol 24 grains Sodium sul- phite 72 (144) grains Sodium car- bonate 96 (240) grains The figures in parenthesis are for crys- tals. It will be seen that in every case Digitized by VjOOQ IC 626 PHOTOGRAPHY the weight of sulphite required in crys- tals is double tnat of dry sulphite, while the weight of carbonate crystals is 8) times as much as dry carbonate. For tank development Dr. John M. Nicol recommends the standard formula diluted with 6 times the amount of water, and the addition of 1 drop of retarder to every ounce after dilution. To obtain very strong negatives: Water 16 ounces Tolidol 50 to 65 grains Sodium sul- phite 80 (160) grains Sodium car- bonate 190 (SOO) grains On some brands of plates the addition of a little retarder will be necessary. If stock solutions are preferred, they may be made as follows: SoluHon A Water 32 ounces Tolidol 1 ounce Sodium sulphite. . 1 (2) ounce Solution B Water S2 ounces Sodium sulphite. . 2 (4) ounces Solution C Water 82 ounces Sodium carbonate 4 (10) ounces If preferred, stock solutions B and C can be made by hydrometer, instead of by weight as above. The solutions will then show: Solution B Sodium sulphite. ... 40 Solution C Sodium carbonate . . 75 Or if potasnium carbonate is preferred instead of sodium: Solution C Potassium carbonate 60 For standard formula for dry plates and films, mix Solution A 1 part Solution B 1 part Solution C 1 part Water 7 parU For strong negatives (for aristo-pla- tino): Solutionis l)to2 parts Solution B 1 part Solution C 1 part Water 4 to 4) parts For tank development: Solution A 1 part Solution B 1 part Solution C I part Water 35 parts For developing paper: Solution A 2 parts Solution B 2 parts Solution C 1 part The reading of the hydrometer for stock solutions is the same whetbfr dried chemicals or crystals are ujr«l. No water is used. Pyrocatechin-Pfaoiphftt* Dewlopcr.— Solution A Ciystaliised sulphite of soda. 386 grains Pvrocatechin 77 grains Water 8 ounces Solution B Ordinary crystal phosphate of so- dium 725 grains Caustic soda (puri- fied in sticks). ... 77 grains Water 8 ounref Mix 1 part of A with 1 part of B sad from 1 to 3 parts of water. If the ti- posure is not absolutely normal «r recommend to add to the above drrrloo- er a few drops of a solution of bromidr of potassium (1.10). Pyrocatechin Developer (One Sola- tion). — Dissolve in the following range: Sulphite of soda crya- tallised 25) drachm* Caustic soda (puri- fied in sticks) .... 3) drarhmt Distilled water 14 onom Pyrocatechin 308 grains The pyrocatechin must not be sddnj until the sulphite and caustic toda sre entirely dissolved. For use the roo- centrated developer is to be diluted vith from 10 to 20 tiroes as much water. Tbr normal proportion is I part of developrr in 15 parts of water. VogePi Pmcetechin ComUned Dt- ▼eloper and Fixing Solution. — Sulphite of soda crystallised 468 grains Water 2| ounrm Caustic potash (purified in sticks) 108 graias Pyrocatechin 108 grains Mix for a formally fixing plate U 5x7 inches. Developer 3 drachm* Fixing soda solution (1:5) 5) drachms Water 1 ounrv The process of developing and fitiag with this solution is accomplished ia a Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 527 few minutes. The picture first appears usually, strengthens very ({uickly, and shortly after the fixing is entirely done. Ellon'i Pyrocatechin Developer. — Pyrocatechin, « per cent solution (2 grams pyrocatechin in 100 cubic centi- meters ox water). Carbonate of potassium, 10 per cent solution (10 grams carbonate in 100 cubic centimeters of water). For use take equal parts and add water as desired. Imperial Standard Pyro Developer. — I. — Metabisulphite of potassium 120 grains Pyrogallic acid .... 55 grains Bromide of potas- sium 20 grains Metol 45 grains Water 20 ounces II. — Carbonate of soda. 4 ounces Water 20 ounces For use mix equal parts I and II. Bardwell'8 Pyro-Acetone Developer.— Water 4 ounces Sulphite of sodium (saturated solu- tion) 4 drachms Acetone 2 drachms Pyro 10 grams HanlTfl Adtirol Developer.— One so- lution. Water 10 ounces Sulphide of sodium, crystals 4 ounces Carbonate of potas- sium 3 ounces Adurol } ounce For studio work and snap shots take 1 part with 3 parts water. For time exposures out-door take 1 part with 5 parts water. or, flat negative is good enough to yield a bromide print, but this is not so. A negative of good printing Quality on printing-out paper will also yield a good print on bromide paper, but considerable care and skill are necessary to obtain a f(ood result from a poor negative. The above developer will not keep in solution, and should oe freshly prepared as re- quired. The same formula will also be found useful for the development of lantern plates, but will only yield black- toned slides. PLAHHUM PAPERS: Genenl Instructioiia. — ^To secure the most brilliant results the sensitized paper, before, during, and after its exposure to light, must be kept as dry as possible. The paper is exposed to daylight, in the printing frame, for about one- third of the time necessary for ordinary silver paper. The print is then immersed m the developer for about 30 seconds, then cleared in 8 acid baths containing 1 part of muriatic acid C. P. to 60 parts of water, washed for a short time in running water, the whole operation of printing, clearing, and washing being complete in about half an hour. As a general rule all parts of the pic- ture except the highest lights should be visible when the exposure is complete. When examining the prints in the printing frames, care should be taken not to expose^ them unduly to light; for the degradation of the whites of the paper due to slight action of light is not vuible until after development. Antco Platinum Paper. — Print until a trace of the detail dented is slightly visi- ble in the high lights. DevelopiMtU. — Best results are ob- tained with the temperature of the de- veloper from 60® to 80® F. Immerse the print in the developer with a ouick ia solution supplied for this purpose, sbti proceed as described for black paper. The solution must be heated to a temperature of 150"" to 160* P., to obtjiir. the greatest amount of brilliance and thr warmest color, but very good results can be obtained by using a cooler developer VariAtiona of the Sepia DeTelopcr. - Primarily the object of the sepia sinlutn-ft in the developer is to increase thr brightness of the prints, as, for examplr. when the negative is thin and fiat, *>r pense and flat, the addition of the sepu solution to the developer clears up, to some extent, the flatness of the pnat ' / taking out traces of the finer detail in t^r higher lights, which is often a deri » half, or even a quarter, of the qusoti^i of the sepia solution recommended a* i". addition to the developer will he su** cient, depending altogether upon ^^*' strength of the negatives. Pnott *i* veloped without the solution have le«« -•' the sepia qualitv but are very agrr'4i of getting a fine quality of slides i» t-* make raUier strong esrposores to mt* develop, and then to redfuce with persul- phate of ammonium. The popular methods of makiiig thr exposure are: First, by contact in thf printing frame, just as prints are made on velox or other dev«Joping paper, p^*- vided the subiect on the neMtire t« *-l the right sice for a lantern slide: and t^*' other and better method i% the cancta Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 583 method, by which the subject of any negative, large or small, or anv part thereof, can be reduced or enlarged, and thua brought to the proi>er size de- sired for the slide. This is quite a knack« and should be considered and studied by the slide maker very care- fully. llard and tnflexiUe rules cannot be laid down in this relation. Portrait studies of bust or three-fourths fisures or baby figures need not be made for a larger opening than 1) by 2 inches, and often appear to good advantage if made quite a bit smaller. Figure or group compositions, with considerable oack- ground or accessories, may, of course, nave a larger opening to suit the par- ticular circumstances. Monuments, tall buildings, and the like should have the benefit of the whole height of mat open- ing of 2} inches, and should be macfe of a sise to fill it out properly, providing, however, for sufficient foreground and a proper sky line. Landscapes and marine views ffenerally can be made to fill out the fuD length of mat opening, which, however, should not exceed Sf inches, and may be of any height to suit the sub- ject, up to 2f inches. The subject should be well centered on the plate and the part intended to be shown as the picture should be well within the size of the mat opening de- cided upon, so that with a slight varia- tion of the placing of the mat no part of the picture will be cut off by the carrier in the stereopticon. The horizon line in a landscape, and more particularly in a marine view, should always be in proper position, either below or above the center line of the slide, as may suit the subject, but should never divide the picture in the middle and should not appear to be run- ning either up or down hul. And the ver- ticsJ^ lines in the pictures should not be leanin|;, but should run parallel with the side lines of the mat; this refers espe- cially to the vertical lines in architecture, rxc^pU however, the Tower of Pisa and kindred subjects, which should in every case be shown with their natural inclina- tions. As to time of exposure, very little can be said. That vanes with the different CDakes of plates, with the quality of the light* ana the nature and density of each individual negative. Therefore every one muat be a judge unto himself and make as good a guess as he can for the first trial from each negative and gauge further exposures from the results thus obtained; but this much may 'be said, that a negative strong in contrast should be given a long exposure, close to the light, if artificial light is used, or in strong daylight, and developed with a weak or very much diluted developer to make a soft slide with full tone values. And a flat, weak negative will yield bet- ter results if exposed farther from the light or to a weaker light, and developed by a normal or more aggressive de- veloper. Over exposure and under ex- posure show the same results in slide plates as in negative plates, and the treat- ment should be similar in both kinds of plates except that, perhaps, in cases of under exposure of slide plates, the better plan would be to cast them aside and make them over, as very little can be done with them. For getting bright and clear effects it is now well understood that better and more satisfactory results are obtained by backing the slide plates as well as by backing negative plates. This is accomplished by coating the back or glass side of the plate with the follow- ing mixture: Gum arabic ) ounce Caramel 1 ounce Burnt sienna 2 ounces Alcohol 2 ounces Mix and apply with small sponge or wad of absorbent cotton. It should coat thin and smooth and dry hard enough so it will not rub off when handled. If the plates are put into a light-proof grooved box as fast as backed, they can be used about half an hour after being^ coated. Before devel- . opin^, this backing should be removed ; this is best done by first wetting the film side of the plate under the tap; which will prevent staining it, and then letting the water run on the backing, and, with a little rubbing, it will disappear in a few moments, when development may proceed. Other preparations for this purpose, ready for use, may be found at the stock houses. The mat should be carefully selected or cut of a size and shape to show up the subject to best advantage, and should cover every- thing not wanted in the picture. The opening should not exceed 2} x 2} inches in any case, and must not be ragged or fuzzy, but clean cut and symmetrical. The lines of the opening of square mats should be parallel with the outside lines of the plate. Oval, or round, or other variously shaped^ mats, should be used sparingly, and in special cases only where the nature of the subject will war- rant their use. Statuary shows up to best advantage when the background is blocked out. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 584 PHOTOGRAPHY This is easily done with a small camel's- hair artist's brush and opaque or india ink, in a retouchine frame, a good eve and a stead)r hand oeing the only addi- tional requirements. This treatment may also be applied to some flower studies and other botanical subjects. Binding may be performed with the aid of a stationer's spring clamp, such as is used for holding papers together, and can be purchased for 10 cents. Cut the binding strips the length of the sides and ends of the slide, and gum them on separately, rubbing them firmly in con- tact with the glass with a piece of cloth or an old handkerchief, which might be kept handy for that purpose, so that the binding may not loosen or peel off after the slides are handled but half a dozen times. Before storing the slides away for future use they should be properly labeled and named. The name label I should be affixed on the right end of the face of the slide as you look at it in its proper position, and should contain the maker's name and the title of the slide. The thumb label should be affixed to the lower left-hand corner of the face of the slide, and may show the number of the slide. HOW TO UTILIZE WASTE MA- TERIAL. Undoubtedly spoiled negatives form the greatest waste. The uses to which a ruined negative may be put are mani- fold. Cut down to 3} inches square and the films cleaned off, thry make excellent cover glasses for lantern slides. An- other use for them in the same popular branch of photography is the following: If, during development, you see that your negative is spoiled through uneven density, over exposure, or what not, ex- pose it to the light and allow it to blacken all over. Now with sealing wax fasten a needle to a penholder, and by means of this little tool one can easily manufacture diagram slides from the darkened film (white lines on black ground). Take a spoiled negative, dissolve out all the silver with a solution of potassium ferricyanide and hypo. Rinse, dry, rub with sandpaper, and you will have a splendid substitute for ground glass. Remove the silver in a similar manner from another negative, but this time wash thoroughly. Squeegee down on this a print, and an opaline will be your rewara. From such an opaline, by ce- menting on a few more glasses, a tasteful letter weight ma^ soon be made. An- other way in which very thin negatives may be used is this: Bleach them in bichloride of mercury, back them «ilh black paper, and positives will rrMilt Old negatives also make good trimming boards, the film preventing a rapid blunt- ing of the knife, and they may be «• recover the mc^l. Printing paper of any sort is anothrr l^reat source of waste, cMpecially to the inexperienced photographer. Prints arr too dark or not dark enough sucro'^ fully to undergo the subseauent oprra- tions. Spoiled material or this Lifiil. however, is not without its usrs in photography. Those who swear bv the 'combined bath," will find that scraps • / printing-out paper, or any silver pap^^r. are necessary to start the tonin|( action Spoiled mat surface, printing -• it paper, bromide paper, or plaCinot^v }«- should be allowed to blacken all nvtr Here we have a dead-black surface «•«- ful for many purposes. A leak in th** bellows when out in the field mar rr repaired temporarily by moisteiiinc a piece of mat printing>out paperand «ti< I* mg it on the leak; the gelatin will cau^ it to adhere. These papers mar al-* be used to back plates, platinotypri. of course, requiring some aahesive miilurr to make them stick. In every photographer^s po»Ne«»*i«»i there will be found a small perrentajrr • ' stained prints. Instead of thrttmiic these away, they may often be lurnn! !•• gc)od account in the following maDnrr; Take a large piece of cardUiArd. u*n*r mountant, and the prints. Now pror. Often, in making blueprints bV sun- light, the exposure is too long, and « km the frame is o|>ened the white line* *"( the print are faint or obscure. Upuallv these prints are relegated to the iia«tr basket; but if, after being washed a« usual, thev are sponsed with a wrak solution of chloride or iron, their rrHa- mation is almost certain. When the lin<^ reappear, the print should be thorougklj rinsed in dear water. Often a drawing, from which prints have al readv been made, requitrs chant- ing. The olueprints then on hand are worthless, requiring more time to correct Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 687 than it would take to make a new print. An economical way of using the worth- less prints is to cancel the drawing al- ready thereon, sensitize the reverse side, and use the paper again. How to ICake Picture Postal Cards and Photographic Letter Heads. — I. — Well-sized paper is employed. If the siting should be insufficient, resizing can l>e done with a 10 per cent gelatin solu- tion, with a ^ per cent arrowroot paste, or with a 50 per cent decoction of carra- geeo. This size is applied on the crude paper with a brush and allowed to dry. The well-sized or resized papers are superior and the picture becomes strong- er on them than on insufficiently sized paper. Coat this paper uniformly with a solution of 154 grains of ferric oxalate in 3} fluidounces of distilled water, using a brush, and allow to dry. Next, apply the solution of 15} grains of silver nitrate in SA fluidounces of water with a second brush, and dry again. Coating and dry- ing must be conducted with ruby light or in the dark. The finished paper keeps several days. Print deep so as to obtain a strong pic- ture and develop in the following bath: Distilled water.. . 8} fluidounces Potassium oxal- ate (neutral) . . 340 grains Oxalic acid 4 grains After developing the ^ well-washed prints, 6x them preferably in the follow- ing bath: Distilled water . . 3} fluidounces Sodium thiosul- phate 75 grains Gold chloride • solution (1 in 100) 80 minims Any other good bath may be em- ployed. II. — Starch is dissolved in water and the solution is boiled until it forms a thin paste. Carmine powder is added, and the mixture is rapidly and assidu- ously stirred until it is homogeneous throughout. It is now poured through niii«lin and spread by means of a suit- able pencil on the paper to be sensitized. I«et dry, then float it, prepared side down oil a solution of potassium chroroate, SO parts in 5!i0 parts of distilled water, being careful to prevent any of the licjuid from getting on the back or reverse side. Dry in the dark room, and preserve in dark- ne-««. When desired for use lay the neg- ative on the face of the paper, and expose to the full sunlit^ht for 5 or 6 minutes (or about an hour in diffused light). Wash- ing in plenty of water completes the proc- ess. A Simple Emulsion for Mat or Print- ing-Out Paper. — One of the very best surfaces to work upon for coloring in water color is the carbon print. Apart from its absolute permanencv as a base, the surface possesses the right tooth for the adhering of the pigment.^ It is just such a surface as this that is required upon other prints than carbon, both for finished mat surfaces and for the pur- poses of coloring. The way to ob- tain this surface upon almost any kind of paper, and to print it out so that the correct depth is ascertained on sight, will be described. Some of the crayon drawing papers can be utilized, as well as many other plain photographic papers that may meet the desires of the pho- tographer. If a glossy paper is desired, the emulsion should be coated on a barvta-coated stock. There will be required, in the first place, ^ 2 half-gallon stoneware crocks with lids. The best shape to employ is a crock with the sides running straight, with no depressed ridge at the top. One of these crocks is for the preparation of the emulsion, the other to receive the emulsion when filtered. An enameled iron saucepan of about 2 gallons capac- ity will be required in which to stand the crock for preparing the emulsion, and also to remelt the emulsion after it has become set. The following is the formula for the emulsion, which must be prepared and mixed in the order given. Failure will be impossible if these details are scrupulously attended to. Having procured 2 half-gallon stone- ware crocks with lids, clean them out well with hot and cold water, and place into one of these the following: Distilled water 10 ounces Gelatin (Heinrich's, hard) 4 ounces Cut the gelatin into shreds with a clean pair of scissors. Press these shreds beneath the water with a clean strip of glass and allow to soak for 1 hour. Now proceed to melt the water-soaked gelatin by placing the crock into hot water in the enameled saucepan, the water standing about half way up on the outside of the crock. Bring the water to boiling point, and keep the gelatin oc- casionalfv stirred until it is completely diHsolvecf. Then remove the crock to allow the contents to cool doii^n to 120® F. Now prepare the following, which can be done while the gelatin is melting: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 5S8 PHCXrOGRAPHY No. 1 Rochelle salts 90 grains Distilled water 1 ounce No. 2 Chloride of ammo- nium 45 grains Distilled water 1 ounce No. 8 Nitrate of silver, 1 ounce and 75 grains Citric acid (crushed crystals) 95 grains Distilled water 10 ounces No. 4 Powdered white alum 90 grains Distilled water (hot) . . 5 ounces The latter solution may be made with boiling water. When these solutions are prepared, pour into the hot gelatin solution No. I, stirringall the while with a clean glass rod. Then add No. 2. Rinse the vessel with a little distilled water, and add to the gelatin. Now, while stirring gradually, add No. 3, and lastly add No. 4, which may be very hot. This will cause a decided change in the color of the emulsion. Lastly add 2 ounces of pure alcohol (photographic). This must be added very gradually with vigorous stirring, because if added too quickly it will coagulate the gelatin and form insoluble fumps. The emul- sion must, of course, be mixed under a light not stronger than an ordinary anall E as-jet, or under a yellow light obtained y covering the windows with yellow paper. The cover may now be placed upon the crock, and tne emulsion put aside for 2 or 3 da^s to ripen. At the end of this time the contents of the crock, now formed into a stiff emul- sion, may be remelted in hot water by placing tne crock in the enameled sauce- pan over a gas stove. The emulsion may be broken up by cutting it with a clean bone or hard -rubber paper cutter to facilitate the melting. Stir the mix- ture occasionally until thoroughly dis- solved, and add the following as soon as the emulsion has reached a temperature of about 150*» P.: Distilled water 4 ounces Pure alcohol 1 ounce The emulsion must now be filtered into the second crock. The filtering is best accomplished in the following man- ner: Take an ordinary plain-top kero- sene lamp chimney, tie over the small end two thicknesses of washed cheese cloth. Invert the chimney and insert a tuft of absorbent cotton about the size of an ordinary egg. Press it carefully down upon the cheese cloth. Fix thr chimney in the ring of a retort stand ;or cut a hole about 3 inches in diameter in s wooden shelf), so that the crock idst stand conveniently beneath. In thr chimney place a strip of glass, resting upon tne cotton, to prevent the cotton from lifting. Now pour in the hot emul- sion and allow the whole of it to filter through the absorbent cotton. Tlii« accomplished, we are now ready far coating the paper, which is best done in the following manner: Cut the paper into strips or she^t*. say 12 inches wide and the full length (if the sheet. This will be, let us support. 12 X 26 inches. Attach, by means of thr well-known photographic dips, a strip of wood at each end of the paper upon the back. Three clips at each end vill be required. Having a number uf sheets thus prepared, the emuUioti should be poured into a porcelain pan or tray, kept not by standing within anuthrr tray containing hot water. The emul- sion tray being, say, 11 x 14 size, ibr paper now is easily coated by holdini^ the clipped ends in each band, then hold- ing the left end of the paper up, and thr right-hand end lowered so that the cur^r of the paper just touches the emuUioo. Then raise the right hand, at the lamr time lowering the left hand at the ssmr rate. Then Tower the right hand, liftinf the left. Repeat this operation once more: then drain the excess of emoUi^m at one comer of the tray, say, thr Irft- hand corner. Just as soon as the emul- sion has drained, the coated sheet uf paper may be hung up to dry, by the nooks attached to the clips, upon a pirre of copper wife stretched from side 1" side oi a spare closet or room that cao k kept darkened until the paper is dry. lo this way coat as much paper as maj l<«* reauired. When it is dry it mar U rolled up tight or kept flat under pressurr until needed. If any emulsion remains it msv U kept in a cool place for 2 weeks, and «1 i be good for coating. Be sure to clnr out all the vessels^ used ^before the emul- sion seta, otherwise this will prr«rnt « diflicult task, since the emulsion srti iotn an almost insoluble condition. This emulsion is so made that it r« not require to be washed. If it is vsftbrc it will become spoiled. It is ea«y \o make and easy to use. If it is df*irr*l that only small sheets of paper are to ht coated, they may be floated on the emul- sion, but in this case the paper mutt Ix* damp, which is easily accomplished h} Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 539 wetting a sheet of blotting paper, then co*»eriiig this with two dry sheets of blot- ting paper. Place the sheets to be coated upon these, and place under pressure during the ni^ht. Next day they will be in good condition for floating. VVhen the coated paper is dry it may be printed and toned just the same as any other printing-out paper, with any toning bath, and fixed in hyposulphite of soda as usual. Toning may be carried to a rich blue black, or if not carried too far will remain a beautiful sepia color. After well washing and drying, it will be observed that the surface corresponds with that of a carbon print; if the paper has been of a somewhat absorbent char- arier, the surface will be entirely mat, and will f^ive an excellent tooth for coloring or finishing in sepia, black and white, etc. How to Sensitize Photographic Print- ing Papers.— I. — The older form of paper is one in which the chemicals are hc-ld by albumen. Silver is said to com- bine with this, forming an albuminate. Firtures printed on this would be too sharp in their contrasts, and conse- nu4*ntty "hard**; this is avoided by intro- ducing silver chloride. To prepare this form of paper, beat 15 ounces of fresh egg albumen with 5 ounces of distilled water, dissolve in it 300 grains of ammonium chloride, set a%ide for a time, and decant or filter. Suitable oaper is coated with this solu- tion by floating, and then dried. The paper is "sensitized" by floating it on a solution of silver nitrate in distilled water, about 80 ^ains to the ounce, with a drop of acetic acid. The paper is dried as before, and is then ready for printing. The ^ sensitizing must, of course, be done in the dark room. The reaction between the ammonium chloride present in the albumen coating produces a certain quantity of silver chlo- ride, the purpose of which is shown above. Of course, variations in the proportions of this ingredient will give ciifferent de- f^re<*s of softness to the picture. II. — The bromide and chloride papers w bicb are now popular consist of the or- dinary photographic paper sensitized by inr'ans of a thin coating of bromide or rhiortde emulsion. In "Photographic Pnnting Methods.** by the Rev. W. H. BiirbanK, the following method is given for bromide paper: A, — Gelatin (soft) .... 4«} grains Bromide of potassium 26 grains Distilled water I ounce B. — Nitrate of silver SSJ grains Distilled water 1 ounce Dissolve the bromide first, then add the gelatin and dissolve by gentle heat (95° to 100** F.). Bring the silver so- lution to the same temperature, and add in a small stream to the gelatin solution, stirring vigorously, of course in non-ac- tinic light. Keep the mixed emulsion at a temperature of 105° F. for half an hour, or according to the decree of sensitive- ness required, previously adding 1 drop of nitric acid to every 5 ounces of the emulsion. Allow it to set, squeeze through working canvas, and wash 2 hours in running water. In his own practice he manages the washing easily enough by breaking the^ emulsion up into an earthen jar filled with cold water, and placed in the dark room sink. A tall lamp chimney standing in the jar immediately under the tap conducts fresh water to the bottom of the jar, and keeps the finely divided emulsion in con- stant motion: a piece of muslin, laid over the top of the jar to prevent any of the emulsion running out, completes this simple, inexpensive, but eflicient wash- ing apparatus. ^]ext melt the emulsion and add one- tenth of the whole volume of glycerine and alcohol; the first to prevent trouble- some cockling of the paper as it dries, the second to prevent air bubbles and hasten drying. Then filter. with the emulsion the paper may be coated just^ as it comes from the stock dealer, plain, or, better still, given a substratum of insoluble gelatin, made as follows: Gelatin 1 J grains Water 1 ounce Dissolve and filter; then add 11 drops of a 1 in 50 filtered chrome alum solution. The paper is to be floated for half a minute on this solution, avoiding air bubbles, and then hung up to dry in a room free from dust. The purpose of this substratum is to secure additional brilliancy in the finished prints by keep- ing the emulsion isolated from the sur- face of the paper. The paper should now be cut to the size desired. We do not know of these processes having been applied to postal cards, but unless there is some substance in the sizing of the card which would interfere, there is no reason why it should not be. Of course, however, a novice will not get the results by using it that an experienced hand would. Ferro-Prussiate Paper. — The follow- ing aniline process of preparing sensitive paper is employed by the Prussian and Hessian railway administrations. The Digitized by VjOOQ IC 540 PHOl'OGRAPHY ordinary paper on reels is used for the purpose, and sensitized as follows: Two hundred and fifty parts, by weight, of powdered potassium bichro- mate are dissolved in water; the solution should be completely saturated; 10 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, 10 parts of alcohol (062), and SO parts of phos- phoric acid, are added successively, and the whole stirred together. The solu- tion is sponged over the paper. It is not necessary to have the room absolutely dark, or to work by a red light, still the light should be obscured. The drying of the paper, in the same place, takes about 10 minutes, after which the tracing to be reproduced and the paper are placed in a frame, as usual, and exposed to daylight. On a sunn^ day, an ex- posure of 36 seconds is enough; in cloud v weather, 60 to 70 seconds; on a verv dark day. as much as 5 minutes. After exposure, the paper is fixed by suspending it for 20 mmutes upon a bar in a closed wooden box, on the bottom of which are laid some sheets of blotting paper, sprinkled with 40 drops of ben- zine ana 20 of crude aniline oil. The vapors g[iven off will develop the design. Several impressions may be taken at the same time. For fixin||^, crude aniline oil is to be used (anilmum purum), not refined (purissimum), for the reason that the former alone contains the substances necessarv for the operation. The re- produced design is placed in water for a few minutes, and hung up to dry. Pigment Paper for Immediate Use. — Pigment paper is usually sensitized in the bichromate solution on the evening before it is desired for use. If it is not then used it will spoil. By proceeding as follows the paper may be used within a quarter of an hour after treating it in the bichromate bath. Make a solu- tion of Ammonium bi- chromate 76 grains Water 8i fiuidounces Sodium carbonate 15 grains Mix 0.35 ounces of this solution with 0.7 ounces alcohol, and with a broad brush apply to surface of the pigment paper, as evenly as possible. Dry this paper as quickly^ as possible in a pasteboard box of suitable size, 15 minutes being usuallv long enough for the purpose. It may tnen be used at once. Photographing on Silk. — China silk is thoroughly and carefully washed to free it from dreM.stng, and then immersed in the following solution: Sodium chloride. ... 4 paris Arrowroot 4 parts Acetic acid 15 parts Distilled water 100 parU Dissolve the arrowroot in the water by warming gently, then add the remaining ingredients. Dissolve 4 parts of tannin in 100 parts of distilled water and mix tbr solutions. Let the silk remain in tbc bath for 8 minutes, then hang it carp- fully on a cord stretched across iht room to dry. The sensitising mixturr is as follows: Silver nitrate 00 parts Distilled water 750 parts Nitric acid 1 part Dissolve. On the surface of this so- lution the silk is to be floated for 1 minute, then hung up till superficiill; dry, then pinned out carefully on a fl«t board until completely drv. This mwU of course, be clone in tne dark room. Print, wash, and tone in the usual duuh ner. TOimrG BATHS FOR PAPER* The chief complaints made a^in^^ separate baths are (1) the pa«sil)ilit( of double tones, and (2) that the print* sometimes turn yellow and renain ^ Such obstacles may easily be removed \*} exercising a little care. Double tonr* may be prevented by soaking the print* in a 10 ner cent solution of common ult before tne preliminary washing, and h\ not touching the films with the fin^r«: and the second obiection could not t< raised provided fresn solution were OM-ii« with no excess of sulphocyanide, if iH*"^ be the bath adopted. A very satisfactory solution mar U made as follows: Sodium phosphate. . . 90 grains Gold chloride I ) grains Distilled (or boiled) water 10 ounce* This tones very quickly and errnU. and the print will be, when fixed, exsrti; the color it is when removed from Of bath. Good chocolate tints majr ^** obtained, turning to purple gray oo pru- longed immersion. ^ Next to this, as regards ease of na- nipulation, the tungstate bath mar ** placed, the following being a good for- mula: Sodium tungstate. ... 40 grain* Gold chloride t grains Water Iff ounrr* The prints should be toned a li*t'^ further than required, as thry rh*»«c color, though only slightly, in the byf*' Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 541 ProTided that ordinarr care be ex- ercised, the sulphocyanide bath cannot well be im Droved upon. The formulas given by toe various makers for their respective papers are all satisfactory, ana differ very little. One that always acta well is Ammonium sulpho- cyanide 28 grains Distilled water 16 ounces Gold chloride 2} grains For those who care to try the various baths, and to compare their results, here is a table showing the quantities of dif- ferent agents that may be used with sufficient water to make up 10 ounces: Gold dUo- ride. 1 KT. to 1 OS. water Borax tkxi. bicar- bonate, f^od. car- (w>nat« 12 dr. 60 cr. 16 dr. 10 sr. 16 dr. 20ar. 11 dr. 20gr. 11 dr. 40 gr. Udr. Hod. phoa- phate. Hod. tttOK- atate... Amm. mil- phocya- mde . . . 17.5 gr. We may take it that any of these sub- stances reduce gold trichloride, AuCli to AuCl; this AuCl a|>parently acts as an electrolyte, from which gold is deposited on the silver of the image, and at the same time a small quantity of silver combines with the chlorine of the gold chloride thus: AuCl + Ag - AgCl + Au When toning has been com|>leted, the prints are washed and placed in the fix- ing bath, when the sodium thiosul phate present dissolves any silver chloride that has not been affected by light. Besides the well-known, every-day tones we see, which never outstep the narrow range between chocolate brown and purple, a practically infinite variety of color, from chalk red to black, may be obtained b^ a little careful study of ton- ing baths instead of regarding them as mere unalterable machines. Most charm- ing tints are produced with platinum btttbs, a good formula being Strong nitric acid .... 5 drops Water 4 ounces Chloro-platinite of po- tassium 1 grain The final tone of a print cannot be judged from its appearance in the bath, but some idea of it may be got by holding it up to the light and looking through it. A snort immersion gives various reds, while prolonged toning gives soft j^rays. Results verj^ similar to platinotj^pe may be obtained with the following combined gold and platinum bath: A. — Sodium acetate 1 drachm Water 4 ounces Gold chloride 1 grain B, — Chlon>-platinite of po- tassium 1 grain Water 4 ounces Mix A and B and neutralize with nitric acid. (The solution will be neutral when it just ceases to turn red litmus paper blue.) Another toning agent is stannous chloride. Two or three grains of tin foil are dissolved in strong hvdrochloric acid with the aid of heat. The whole is then made up to about 4 ounces with water. Toning Baths for Silyer Bromide Paper.— -The picture, which has been exposed at a distance of 1 } feet for about 8 to 10 seconds, is developed in the cus- tomary manner and fixed in an acid fixing bath composed of Distilled water.. 1,000 cubic centimeters Hyposulphite of soda 100 grams Sodium sulphite 20 grams Sulphuric acid. . 4 to 5 grams First dissolve the sodium sulphite, then add the sulphuric acid, and nnally the hyposulphite, and dissolve. Blue tints are obtained by laving the picture in a bath composed as follows: A. — Uranium ni- trate 2 grams Water 200 cubic centimeters B. — Red prus- siate o f potash. .. 2 grams Water 200 cubic centimeters C. — A nn m o n i a- iron-alum 10 grams Water 100 cubic centimeters Pure hydro- chl or ic acid 15 cubic centimeters Immediately before the toning, mix Solution ^. . 200 cubic centimeters Glacial ace- tic acid ... 20 cubic centimeters Solution £.. 200 cubic centimeters Solution C. 30 to 40 cubic centi- meters Brown tints. Use the following so- lutions: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 542 PHOTOGRAPHY A, — Uranium ni- trate 12 grams Water 1,000 cubic centimeters B. — Red Prus- sia t e of potash. . . 0 grams Water 1,000 cubic centimeters And mix immediately before use Solution A. . 100 cubic centimeters Solution B. . 100 cubic centimeters Glacial ace- tic acid ... 10 cubic centimeters Pictures toned in this bath are then laid into the following solution: Water 1,500 cubic centimeters Pure hydro- chloric arid 5 cubic centimeters Citric acid. . SO grams To Turn Blueprints Brown. — A piece of caustic soda about the size of a oean is dissolved in 5 ounces of water and the blueprint immersed in it, on which it will take on an orange-yellow color. When the blue has entirely left the print it should be washed thoroughly ana im- mersed in a bath composed of 8 ounces of water in which has been dissolved a heaping teaspoonf ul of tannic acid. The prints m this bath will assume a brown color that mav be carried to almost any tone, after wnich they must again be thoroughly washed and allowed to dry. COMBINED TONING AND FIXING BATHS. The combined toning and fixing bath consists essentially of five parts — (1) water, the solvent; (2) a soluble salt of gold, such as |(old chloride; (3) the fixing agent, sodium thiosulphate; (4) a compound which will readily com- bine with "nascent" sulphur — i. e.. sul- phur as it is liberated — this is usually a soluble lead salt, such as the acetate or nitrate, and (5) an auxiliary, such as a sulphocyanide. The simplest bath was recommended by Dr. John Nicol, and is as follows: Sodium thiosulphate. S ounces Distilled water 16 ounces When dissolved, add Gold chloride. ... 4 grains Distilled water ... 4 nuidrachms A bath which contains lead is due to Dr. Vogel, whose name alone is sufficient to warrant confidence in the formula: Sodium thiosulphate 7 ounces Ammonium sulpho- cyanide 1 ounce I^ad acetate 67 grains Alum 1 ounce Gold chloride 12 grains Distilled water 35 fluidouncrs A bath which contains no lead is one which has produced excellent wmjI!* and is due to the experimental rrsearrb of Dr. Liesegang. It is as follows: Ammonium sul- phocyanide. ... } ounce Sodium chloride . . 1 ounce Alum. J ounce Sodium thiosul- phate 4 ounces Distilled water. . . S4 fluidouore« Allow this solution to stand for f4 hours, during which time the prcripj- tated sulphur sinks to the bottom of tiir vessel; decant or filter, and add Gold chloride. ... 8 grains Distilled water. . . 1 fluidouncr It is curious that, with the two hat)i« last described, the addition to them of some old, exhausted solution makes thcin work all the better. ENLARGElfENTS. TlUEB OF ENLAIlGE3iE.VT AND ReDTCTIo^ m «a A « 1 « » « y^°, 0; 4^ 0/ o & 1. & JS JS US JS JS JC ^ o o o o o o w ;. §g -2 a c c C 0 e .2 C«J^ 1-4 6 00 8 iT ««J o f « 4 12 i 14 16 l'^ 2 4 5 3 7J 23 10 12} 25; 2J 21 HI 2i 15 174 20 . 5 sj n 3J 3 2.^a 2? i\ 6 0 'h 15 18 21 24 i7 3 6 4^ 4 3J 31, 8J 3^ n 3^ 5 104 14 Uh 21 24i is 31! 5\ 4§ 4J 4i 4^ 4 S- . 8 li 16 20 24 I iH 32 36 ^ 8 6 5i 5 *1 *1 4( 4} 4ii 9 ISi 18 22* 27 31 i 36 40 ( 6] 6 15 '<0 51 25 5X 5J 5i, 5 . K 1 10 30 85 40 . 5 1 10 7J 63 61 6 5S 5? 5: K\ *' I6i^i 27* 33 38) 6i! 6A 44 ' 491 6»j «>i 5i 11 «i, n 61 6 H 18 24 30 36 1 42 4S 34 U 9 8 7* 7^ 7 61 6} 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 tS lOJ 91 8} SS 81 8 :; u , 16i4 ,32 ** 1 16 H ilOf 40 48 56 64 U 10 45 9^ 9) 9i 9 72 . M n '« 27 36 54 j 63 ; ^ 18 13^ 12 IH m 10* io»! loj Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 543 The object of this Uble is to enable an J manipulator who is about to enlarge (or reduce) a copy any given number of times to do so without troublesome cal- culation. It is assumed that the pho- tographer knows exactly what the focus of nis lens is, and that he is able to meas- ure accurately from its optical center. The use of the table will be seen from the following illustration: A photogra- pher has a carie to enlar^ to four times «ts size, and the lens he intends employ- ing is one of 6 inches equivalent focus. He must therefore look for 4 on the upper horizontal line and for 6 in the first vertical column, and carry his eve to where these two join, which will be at 30-74* The greater of these is the dis- tance the sensitive plate must be from the center of the lens; and the lesser, the distance of the picture to be copied. To reduce a picture any given number of times, the same method must be fol- lowed; but in this case the greater num- ber will represent the distance between the lens ana the picture to be copied, the Utter that between the lens and the siensitive plate. This explanation will be sufficient for every case of enlargement or reduction. If the focus of the lens be 12 inches, as this number is not in the column of focal lengths, look out for 6 in this column and multiply by 2, and so on with any other numbers. To make a good enlargement five points should be kept constantly in view, vuE.: 1. Most careful treatment of the orig- inal negative. 2. Making a cUapositive complete in all its parts. S. Scrupulous consideration of the size of the enlargement. 4. Correct exposure during the proc- ess of enlargement 5. The most minute attention to the details of development, including the chemical treatment of the enlargea neg- atii-e. The original negative should not be too dense, nor, on tne contrary, should it be too thin. If necessary, it should be washed off. or strengthened, as the case may be. Too strong a negative is usu- ally weakened with ammonium per- suJpbate, or the fixing hypo solution is ouite sufficient. All spots, points, etc., should be retouched with the pencil and rarmine. The diapositive should be produced bv contact in the copying apparatus. A border of black paper should be used lo prevent the entry of light from the side. The correct period of exposure de- pends upon the tnickness of the negative, the source of the light, its distance, etc. Here there is no rule, experience alone must teach. For developing one should use not too strong a developer. The metol-soda developer is well suited to this work, as it gives especially soft lights and half tones. Avoid too short a development. When the finger laid behind the tnickest spot, and held toward the li^ht, can no longer be detected, the negative is dense enough. The denser negatives should be ex- posed longer, and the development should be auick, while with thin, light negatives the reverse^ is true; the ex- posure should be^ briefer and the de- velopment long, using a strong developer, and if necessarv with an addition of po- tassium bromide. The silver chloro-bromide diapositive plates, found in the shops, are totii Uy unsuited for enlargements, as they give overdone, hard pictures. To produce good artistic results in enlarging, the diapositive should be kept soft, even somewhat too thin. It should undergo, also, a thorough retouching. All improvements are easily carried out on the smaller positive or negative pic- tures. Later on, after the same have been enlarged, corrections are much more diffictut and troublesome. VAIUnSHES: Cold Varnish.— I. — Pyroxylin 10 grains Amyl alcohol I ounce Amyl acetate 1 ounce Allow to stand, shaking frequently till dissolved. Label: The negative should be thoroughlv dried before this solution is applied, which mav be done either by flowing it over the solution or with a flat brush. The negative should be placed in a warm place for at least 12 nours to thoroughly dry. Label: In applving this varnish great care should be taken not to use it near a light or open fire. It can be flowed over or brusned on the negative. Black Varniah.— Brunswick black ... 1 ) ounces Benzol 1 ounce Label: The varnish should be applied with a brush, care being taken not to use it near a light or open fire. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 644 PHOTOGRAPHY Dead Black Varnish.— Borax 30 grains Shellac 60 grains Glycerine 80 minims , Water 2 ounces Boil till dissolved, filter, and add ani- line black, 120 grains. Label: Apply the solution with a brush, and repeat when dry if necessary. Ordinary Negative Varnish. — Gum sandarac 1 ounce Orange shellac } ounce Castor oil 00 minims Methyl alcohol 1 pint Allow to stand with occasional agita- tion till dissolved, and then filter. Label: The negative should be heated before a fire till it can be comfortably borne on the back of the hand, and then the varnish flowed over, any excess being drained off, and the negative should then be again placed near the fire to drv. Water Varnish. — It is not only in con- nection with its application to a wet col- lodion film that water varnish forms a valuable addition to the stock of chem- icals in all-round photographv; it is almost invaluable in the case of gelatin as with wet collodion films. In the case of gelatin negatives the water varnish is applied in the shape of a wash directly alter the negatives have been washed to free their films from all traces of hypo, or in other words, at that stage when the usual drying operation would begin. After the varnisn has been applied the films are dried in the usual manner, and its application will soon convince anyone that has experienced the difficultv of re- touching by reason of the want of a tooth in the film to make a lead-pencil bite, as the saying goes, that were this the onl^ benefit accruing from its application it is well worthy of being employed. The use of water varnish, however, does^ away with the necessity of em- plojring collodion as an additional pro- tection to a negative, and is, perhaps, the best known remedy against damage from silver staining that experienced workers are acquainted with. As a var- nish it is not costly, neither is it difficult to make in reasonably small quantities, while its application is simplicity itself. The following formula is an excellent sample of water varnish: Place in a clean, enameled pan 1 pint of water, into which insert 4 ounces of shellac in thin flakes, and place the vessel on a fire or gas stove until the water is raised to «1«** F. When this tempera- ture is reached a few drops of hot, sat- urated solution of borax is dropped into the boiling pan containing the sbelUc and water, taking care to stir vigorouftlv with a Ions strip of glass until the shelUc is all dissolved. Too much borax should not be added, only just sufficient to cause the shellac to dissolve, and it i^ better to stop short, if anvthing, before all the flakes dissolve out tnan to add too much borax. The solution is then fil- tered carefully and, when cold, the watpr varnish is ready for use. FADED PHOTOGRAPHS AHD THEIR TREATMEIIT: Restoring Faded Photographs. — I.— As a precaution against a disaster fir«t copy the old print in the same size. Soak the fadecf photograph for several hours in clean water and, after separating print from mount, immerse the former in nitric acid, highly dilute (1 per cent), for a few minutes. Then the print is krpt in a mercury intensifier (mercuric chlo- ride, } ounce; common salt, ) ounce; hot water, 16 ounces, used cold), until bleached as much as possible. After half an hour's rinsing, a very weak am- monia solution will restore the photo- graph, with increased vigor, the upper tones being much improved, though the shadows will show some tendency to clog. The net result will be a deoded improvement in appearance; but, at this stage, any similarly restored photo- graphs should be recopied if their tm- portance warrants it, as mercury tnteii' sifier results are not permanent. It msjr be suggested that merely rephotogrsph- ing and printing in platinotype will probably answer. II.— Carefully remove the jMcture from its mount, and put it, in a solution of the following composition: By weight Hydrochloric acid. ... ^ parts Sodium chloride 8 parts Potassium bichromate 8 parts Distilled water 850 parts The fluid bleaches the picture, but photographs that have been toned «ith gold do not quite vanish. Riiue with plenty of water, and develop again with very dilute alkaline developer. MOUlfTAHTS: See also Adhesives. I. — If buckling of the mount is to be cured, the prints must be mounted in s dry state, and the film of mountani borne by the print must be just sufficirnt lo attach it firmly to the mount and no more. The great virtue of the method Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 545 here described consists of the msr- ▼eiouslv thin film of tenacious mountant appliea to the print in its dr^ condition, snrinkaffe bv this means being entirely obviated. A drawing board with a per- fectly smooth surface and of fair dimen- sions, an ivory or bone burnisher at- tached to a short handle, with some common glue, are the principal reoui- sites. Take, say, a quarter of a pound of the glue broken into small pieces and rover it with water in a clean gallipot. Urge enough to allow for the subsequent swelling of the glue. Place on one side until the glue nas become thoroughly permeated by the water, then pour on the excess and dissolve the glue in the water it has absorbed, by placing the gallipot in a vessel of hot water. The solution tested with a piece of blue lit- mus paper will show a distinctly acid reaction, which must be carefully neu- tralized by adding some solution of car- bonate of soda. The amount of water absorbed by the glue will probably be too little to give it the best working con- sit be s«> hard or smooth as to make coating difficult, nor so porous as to ab- sorb or let the coating sink in too much; but a few trials will sliow just what sur- face is best. Till that experien<*e is ac- quired it ma^v be said that most of What- man's or Mtchallc*t*s drawing papers, to be had at any artist's materials store, will be found all that can be desired; or, failing these, the sizing of almost any good paper will make it almost as suit- able. For sizing, a weak solution of gelatin is generally employed, but arrowroot is better; half an ounce to a pint of water. It should be beaten into a crcum with a little of the water, the rest adiled, and brought to the boil. When cold it may be applied with a sponge or tuft of cotton, going several times, first in one direction and then in the other, and it saves a little future trouble to pencil mark the noii-Mzcd side. The quality of the gum is of less im- portance than is generalty supposed, *n long as it is the genuine gum arabic. and in round, clean "tears.' To make 1h^ solution select an 8-ounce, wide>mout)i<>i1 bottle, of the tall rather than the squit variety, and place in it 6 ounces of wslt^ Two ounces of the gum are then ti«J loosely in a piece of thin muslin and «u>- pended in the bottle so as to be alN«ut two-thirds covered by the water. Solu- tion begins at once, as may be seen hv the heavier liquid descending, and if kept at the ordinary temperature of tlir room may not be complete for «4 or nrn 48 hours; but the keeping qualities of ihr solution will be greater than if the tim^ had been shortened by heat. When all that will has been dissolved, there »il! still be a quantity of gelatinous matter lo the muslin, but on no account must it 1^ squeezed out, as the semi-soluble matter thus added to the solution would be lo- jurious. W'ith the addition of a ff « drops of carbolic acid and a gd c writers would lead us to believe. Tulc water colors are convenient and save thr trouble of grinding, but the cheap color* in powder take a better grip and m^* richer images. The best prints are maik with mixtures of common laropblsrk. red ocher, sienna, umber, and Vand^kf brown, the only objection to their eing the ne<*essity of rsthr*' carefully grinding. This may be tU*nr with a stiflish spatula and a shec4 of finely ground glass, the powder Dit«ii with a little gum solution and mbU'^l with the spatula till snit>olh, but lirttrr still is a glass paper weight in the yhai^ of a cone with a base of about 1 ) in« hr* in diameter, bought in the stationer's U^ iS cents. The sensitiser is a 10 per cent sctlution of potassium bichromate, and wbalr^ff lie the pif^ment or whate%*er the meth*«s of preparing the coating, it may ht ««rf ul to keep in mind that the right fttrengt i. or proportion, or at least a strength ttf coating that answers very well, is c«iual parts of that and the gum solution. In preparing the coating measure t^** gum solution in a cup from a toy tea ^n that holds exactly I ounce, it being ea«Kr to get it all out of this than out uf a n*n*> - al graduate. From itO to SO grains *^ the (M>lor or mixture of colors in pi>«drr >« placed on the slab — the ground wuiA*^ of an **opal** answers well — and eaoiorH of the gum added to moi«ten it, aad «\*rk the paper weight *'muller/* aided by tkc Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 547 «patuia» as long an any grittiness remains, or till it is perfectly smooth, adding; more and more gum till it is like a thick cream. It is then transferred to a squat teacup and 1 ounce of the bichromate solution (gradually added, working it in with one of the brushes to perfect homogeneity. Of course, it will be understood tnat this mixture should be used all at once, or rather only as much as is to be used at once should be made, as notwithstanding what has been said to the contrary, it will not keep. After each operation, both or all of the brushes should be thoroughly cleaned before putting them away. Not the least important are the bru^hc^i; one about 2 inches wide and soft for laying on the coating, the other, unless for small work, twice that breadth and of what is known as **badger*' or a giMic! imitation thereof, for softening. The paper can be bought in sheets of alK>ut 17 X 22 inches. Cut these in two, roatinf^ pieces of about 17 x 11. The idiect IS fastened to a drawing board by tl rawing pins, one at each corner. The coating brush — of camel's hair, but it is ftai«l that hog*s is better — is filled with the creamy mixture, which has been transferred to a saucer as more con- venient, and with even strokes, first one way and then the other, drawn all over the paper. It is easier to do than to de- jirribe, but all three joints, wrist, elbow, and shoulder take part, and unless the surface of the paper is too smooth, there is reallv no dimcultv to speak of. By the time the wnole surface has been cHivered the paper will have expanded to an extent that makes it necessary to re- move three of the pins and tighten it, and then comes the most important and the only really difficult part of the work, the softening. The softener is held exactly a^ one holds the pen in writing, and the motion confined alto(|[ether to the wrist, bringing only the pomts of the hair in contact with the coating, more like stip- pling than painting. if much of the coating has been laid on, and too much is less of an evil than t(M> little, the softener will soon have taken up so much as to require washing. This is done at the tap, drying on a soft cloth, and refieat the operation, the Mrokes or touches f^adually becoming lighter and lighter, till the surface is as smooth and free from markings as if it had been floated. Just how thick the coating should be is most easily learned by experience, but as, unlike ordinary carbon, development begins from the exposed surface, it must be as deep; that is, as dark on the paper as the deepest shadow on the intended print, and it should not be deeper. While it is true that the bichromate colloid is not sensitive while wet, the coating is best done in subdued light, indeea, generally at night. Hang the sheets to dry in the dark room. Exposure should be made with some form of actino-meter. Development may be conducted in various ways, and is modified according to the extent of the exposure. Float the exposed sheet on water at the ordinary temperature from the tap. The expo- sure should admit of complete, or nearly complete, development in that position in from 6 to 10 minutes; although it should not generally be allowed to go so far. By turning up a corner from time to time one may see how it goes, and at the suitable stage depending on what one really wants to do, the otherwise plain outcome of the negative is modified, gently withdrawn from the water, and pinned up to dry. The modifying operation may be done at once, where the exposure nas been long enough to admit it, but generally, ana cs|)eciallv when it has been such as to admit of the best result, the image is too soft, too easilv washed off to make it safe. But after naving been dried and again nioistened bpr immersion in water, the desired modification may be made with safety. The moistened print is now placed on a sheet of glass, the lower end of which rests on the bottom of the developing tray, and supported by the left hand at a suitable angle; or, better still, in some other way so as to leave both hands free. In this position, and with water at va- rious temperatures, camePs-hair brushes of various sizes, and a rubber syringe, it is possible to do practically anything. TABLES AND SCALES: ComparatiTe Exposures of Various Subjects. — Open panorama, with fields and trees .•••♦. ^ Snow, ice, marine views 1 Panorama, with houses, etc 2 Banks of rivers S Groups and portraits in open air (diffused light) 6 Underneath open trees 6 Groups under cover 10 Beneath dense trees 10 Ravines, excavations 10 Portraits in light interiors 10 Portraits taken 4 feet from a win- dow, indoors, diffused light 30 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 548 PHOTOGRAPHY TABLE SHOWING DISPLACElfENT ON GROUND GLASS OF OBJECTS IN MOTION By Hemy L. Tolnian From the Photographie Timet Lens 6-inch Equivalent Focus, Ground Glass at Principal Focus of Lens DiBtanoeon Same Same MUaa Ffwt Ground GUub. with with Ob- fi^. perHeo- in inohes, with eol^eet ject 120 ond. Object 30 Feet ^eet away. away. away. 1 U .29 .15 .073 2 S .59 .29 .147 S 44 .88 .41 .220 4 6 1.17 .59 .293 5 74 1.47 .78 .367 6 0 1.76 .88 .440 7 104 2.05 l.OS .513 8 12 2.35 1.17 .587 9 IS 2.64 1.S2 .660 10 144 2.93 1.47 .733 11 16 S.23 1.61 .807 12 174 3.52 1.76 .880 IS 19 3.81 1.91 .953 14 204 4.11 2.05 1.027 15 22 4.40 2.20 1.100 20 29 5.87 2.9S 1.467 25 S7 7.3S 3.67 1.833 SO 44 8.80 4.40 2.200 35 51 10.27 5.13 2:567 40 59 11.7S 5.97 2.933 W. D. Kilbey, in the American Annual of Photography, gives still another table for the exposure that should be given to objects in motion. According to his method the table is made out for a distance from the camera 100 times that of the focus of the lens; that is, for a 6-inch focus lens at 50 feet, a 7-inch at 58 feet, an 8-inch at 67 feet, a 9-inch at 75 feet, or a 12-inch at 100 feet. Toward At Riffht the Anales to Camera, the Camera. Man walking slowly, street scenes ^ sec. ^ sec. Cattle grazing Vy •• A " Boating.. A " A •• Man walking, children playing, etc A " jh ** Pony and trap, trot- ting T»Tr " ih " Cvchng, ordmary.. .. riw " ik " Man running a race and jumping rb " xib " Cycle racing ihv " f^d " iiorscs galloping f^g •• ^o •• If the object is twice the distance, thf length of allowable exposure is doubled, ana vice versa. To Reduce Photographs. — When one wishes to copy a drawing or photograph he is usually at a loss to know how bi^h the plate will be when any particular ba>e is selected. A plan which has the merit of being simple and reliable has been io use in engravers' offices for years. Here are the details: Reducins Scale fur Copyinc PhotocrApbt. Turn the drawing face down and rule a diagonal line from the left bottom to the right top corner. Then measure from the left, on the bottom line, the width required. Rule a vertical line from that point until it meets the diagonal. Rule from that point to the left, and tbr resulting figure will have the exact pn>- portions of the reduction. If the depth wanted is known, and the width i* rr- quired, the former should be measurrd on the left upright line, carried to thr diagonal, and thence to the lower bun* zon. The accompanying diagram ex- plains the matter simply. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY: A Three-Color Process. — Prepare 7 solutions, 4 of which are usc;d for ctil* wliich tne originally beautiful red i* «>»n- verted into a dirty turbid bluish rr^i somewhat viscid fluid; add — Solution V Picric acid 4 grams Absolute alcohol. 30 cubic oentiniHef% Shake well, and add to the whol^ ?>.i cubic centimeters ammonia (^prri!i>- gravity, 0.01), wherewith the beautji li red color is restored. After the filtration call this Solution VI. This solution keeps well. TIk* slight deposit formed is redi&ftolved on shaking. The plates arc sensitized as f(»ll«»*" The plate to be sensitized is first laid in i tray of distilled water for i2 or 3 miiiutr>. then bathed in a mixture of I cubic cm- ti meter ammonia for 1 minute and final '^ for 2 minutes in a bath composed of tb*- following: Color Solution VI 10 cubic cmtiineirr* Distilled water. . . 800 cubic eeiitimetrr^ The plate is well drained and drinl »n a |)erfectly dark room. These pUti* keep well for several months. MICROPHOTOGRAPHS. The instruments used are an ubjrr*iir of very short focus and a small i-nnit-ra with a movable holder. This camirt and the original negative to be rrtmrr*' are fastened to the oppi>sitc end^ of a long, heavy board, similar to th* .»r- rangement in use for the makini! «( I. »- tern slides. The camera must \te rr.'i- able in the direction of the objerti^r a\i». and the negative must Ih» fas?ene«i to * vertically stationary stand. It i* tliri» uniformly lighted from the reversed M'!*- by either daylight or artificial liifht. S»tr.' difficulty is experienced in getlinx » sharp focus of the picture. The or-'*- nary ground glass cannot be used, ^«•t Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 551 being fine enough, and the best medium fur this purpose is a perfectly plain piece of glass, coated with prettjr strongly iodized collodion, and sensitized in tlie silver bath, the same wa^ as in the wet process. The focusinj^ is done with a jiniall lens or even with a microscope. The plate intended for the picture has, of course, to lie in exactly the same plane a^ the plate used for focusing. To be certain on this point, it is best to focus upon the picture plate, inserting for this purpose a yellow ^lass between objective and plate. If satisfactory sharpness has been obtained, the apparatus is once for ail in order for these distances. Bromide of silver gelatin plates, on account of their comparatively coarse grain, are not suitable for these small pictures, and the collodion process has to come to the rescue. Dagron, in Paris, a prominent spe- cialist in this branch, gives the following directions: A glass plate is well rubbed on both sides witn a mixture of 1,000 parts of water, 50 parts powdered chalk, and 200 parts of alcohol, applied with a cot- ton tuft, after which it is gone over with a dry cotton tuft, and thereafter cleaned with a fine chamois leather. The side used for taking the picture is then finally cleaned with old collodion. The collo- dion must be a little thinner than ordi- narily used for wet plates. Dissolve Ether 400 parts Alcohol 100 parts Collodion cotton .... 3 parts lodideammonia. . . . 4 parts Bromide ammonia. . 1 part The plate coated herewith is silvered in a silver bath of 7 or 8 per cent. From 12 to 15 seconds arc sufficient for this. The plate is then wa.«ihed in a tray or under a faucet with distilled water, to liberate it from the free nitrate of silver and is afterwards placed upon blotting paper to drip off. The still moist plate u tlien coated with the albumen mixture: Albumen 150 cubic centimeters Add Water 15 cubic centimeters Iodide potassium 8 grams Ammonia 5 grams White sugar 2 grams Iodine, a small cake. With a wooden quirl this is beaten to snow (foam) for about 10 minutes, after which it must stand for 14 hours to settle. The albumen is poured on to the plate the same as collodion, and the surplus filtered back. After drying, the plate is laid for 15 seconds in a silver bath, con- sisting of 100 parts of water, 10 parts nitrate of silver, and 10 cubic centimeters of acetic acid. The plate is then care- fully washed and left to dry. If care- fully kept, it will retain its properties for ^ears. To the second silver bath, when it assumes a dirty coloration, is added 25 parts kaolin to each 100 parts, hy^ shak- ing the same well, and the bath is then filtered, after which a little nitrate of silver and acetic acid is added. After each exposure the plate holder is moved a certain length, so that 10 or more reproductions are obtained upon one and the same plate. The time of exposure depends upon the density of the negative and differs according to li^ht. it varies between a second and a minute. The developer is composed as follows: Water 100 parts Gallic acid 0.3 parts Pyro 0.1 part Alcohol 2.5 parts The exposed plate is immersed in this bath, and after 10 to 20 seconds, from 1 to 2 drops of a 2 per cent nitrate of silver solution are added to each 100 cubic centimeters of the solution, whereby the picture becomes visible. To follow the process exactly, the plate has to be laid — in yellow light — under a weakly enlarg- ing microscope, and only a few drops of the developer are put upon the same. As soon as the picture has reached the desired strength, it is rinsed and fixed in a fixing soda solution, 1 to 5. Ten to 15 seconds are sufiicient generally. Finally it is washed well. After the drying of the plate, the .sev- eral small pictures are cut with a dia- mond and fastened to the small enlarg- ing lenses. For this purpose, the latter are laid upon a metal plate heatehite, for Gelatin D17 Plates.— Whiten the negative in the saturated solution of mercuric chloride, wash sod blacken with a solution of sulphite of sodium, 1 in 5. Wash well. The reduction is perfect, with a po«- tive black tone, Intensifier with Iodide of Mercmy.— Dissolve 1 drachm of bichloride of lDf^ cury in 7 ounces of water and S drachms of todide of potassium in 8 ounces of water, and pour the iodide solution into the mercury till the red precipitate formed is completely dissolved. For use; dilute with water, flow oxrt the negative till the proper density !< reached, and wash, when tne deposit «ill turn yellow. Remove the yellow coK>r by flowing a 5 per cent solution of h?Du over the plate, and give it the final wssn- ing. A^ bitensifier. — One part of a^s solution in 9 parts water (10 per ceal solution). Immerse negative from 4 to 6 minutes. Intensifying Negatives Witlumt Her* CU17. — Dissolve 1 part of iodine aad i parts of potassium iodide in 10 parts ol water. When required for use, dilute t part of this solution with 100 parts U water. Wash the negative well sod place in this bath, allowing it to renuin until it has become entirely vellow. sud the image appears purely dbrk yellov ua a light-yellow ground. The negative should then be washed in water untd the latter runs off dearly, when it U floated with the following solution until the whole of the image has become uni- formly brown: Schlippe*s salt 60 grains Water I ounce Caustic soda solution, 10 per cent 6 drops Finally the negative b sftnin thor^ oughly washed and dried. The addi- tion of the small ouantity of oatt«tir soda is to prevent surface crystaIlisatH»a. It is claimed that with this intensifler lh« operation may be carried out to a greater Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY 558 extent than with bichloride of mercury; that it gives clear shadows, and that it possesses the special advantage of re- moving entirely any yellow stain the negative may have acquired during de- velopnient and fixing. Furthermore, with this intensifying method it is not necessary to wash the negative, even after fixing, as carefully as in the case of the intensifying processes with mercury, because small traces of hypo which may have been left in the film will be rendered innocuous by the free iodine. The iodine solution ma^ be employed repeatedly if its strength is kept up bjr the addition of concentrated stock solution. Uranium Intensifier. — Potassium ferricya- nide X washed) 48 grains Uranium nitrate 48 grains Sodium acetate 48 grains Glacial acetic acid 1 ounce Distilled water to 10 ounces. Label: Poison. Immerse the well- washed negative till the desired intensi- fication is reached, rinse for 5 minutes and dry. This intensifier acts very strongly and should not therefore be allowed to act too long. MISCELLAllEOnS FORMULAS: Renovating a Camera. — The follow- ing formula should be applied to the mahogany of the camera by means of a soft rag, rubbing it well in, finally polishing lightly with a clean soft cloth: Raw linseed oil 6 ounces White wine vinegar. . . 8 ounces Methylated spirit .... 8 ounces Butter of antimony. . . ) ounce Mix the oil with vinegar by degrees, shaking well to prevent separation after each addition, tnen add the spirit and antimony, and mix thoroughly. Shake before using. Exclusion of Air from Soiuttons. — Water is free from air only when it has been maintained for several minutes in bubbling ebullition. In order to keep out the air from the bottle, when using the crontents, the air-pressure contriv- ances are very convenient; one glass tube^ reaching through the rubber stop- per into the bottle to the bottom, while the second tube, provided with a rubber preasing-ball, only runs into the flask above. If the long bent tube is fitted with a rubber tube, a sin^^le pressure suf- fices to draw off the desired quantity of the developer. It is still more convenient to pour a thin layer of good swet t oil on top of the developer besides. The de* veloper is not injured thereby, and the exclusion of air is perfect. Bottle Wax. — Many ready-prepared solutions, such as developers and other preparations from which light has to be excluded, should be packed in bottles whose neck, after complete drying of the stopper, is dipped in a pot with molten sealing wax. A good recipe is the fol- lowing, pigments being added if desired: For black take: Colophony, 6 parts; paraffine, 3 parts. Melt together and add 20 parts of black. For yellow, only 7 parts of chrome yellow. For blue, 7 parts of ultramarine. Bleaching Pfaotogxmphic Prints White. — To make a salt print, ink over it with waterproof ink, then bleach out white all but the black lines. Sensitize demon's mat surface paper on a 40-grain bath of nitrate of silver. After fuming and printing, the print is thoroughly fixed in hyposulphite of soda solution, and washed in running water until every trace of the hypo is out of the print. On this the permanency of the bleaching op- eration depends. The bleaching bath is: Bichloride of mercury 1 ounce Water 5 ounces Alcohol 1 ounce Hydrochloric acid.. .. 1 drachm If the drawing has been made with non-waterproof ink, then alcohol is sub- stituted for the water in the formula. For safety, use an alcoholic solution of mercury. The bleachin||[ solution is poured on and off the drawing, and, when the print is bleached white, the mercury is washed off the drawing by holding it for a few moments under running water. Photographs bleached in this way will keep white for years. To Render Negatives Permanent. — A fine negative, one that we would like to E reserve, may be rendered permanent y placing it, after it has been fixed, in a 10 per cent solution of alum, and letting it remain a few minutes. This makes the plate wonderfully clear and clean, and absolutely unalterable. The alum acts upon the gelatin, rendering it in- soluble. Stripping Photograph Films. — This is generallv done by immersing the plate in formaldehyde solution untU the film has become almost insoluble and im- permeable. Then it is placed in a solu- tion of sodium carbonate until the gela- tin has absorbed a sufficient quantity of it. When the negative is immersed in weak hydrochloric acid» carbon di- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 554 PHOTOGRAPHY oxide is liberated, and the little bub- bles of gas which lodse themselves be- tween the film and the glass cause a separation of the two, so that the film may be stripped off. After having har- dened the nlm with formaldehyde, it is a lenfl|;thy process to get it saturated with sooium carbonate. It is advisable to use a combined bath of 1 part of car- bonate, S of 40 per cent formaldehyde, and 20 of water; its tanning action is en- hanced by the alkaline reaction, and two operations are superseded by one. Af- ter 10 minutes* soaking, the surface of the film must be wiped and the plate dried. A sharp knife is then used to cut all around the film a slight distance from the edge, and when this is done the negative is put into a 5 per cent solution of nydrochloric acid, wnen the film will probably float off unaided; but, if neces- sary, may be assisted by gently raising one corner. Phosphorescent Photographs. — The necessary chemicals belong to the class of phosphorescent bodies, among others, calcium sulphite, strontium sulphite, barium sulpnide, calcareous spar, fluor- spar. These placed in the magnesium light or sunlight, acquire the property of giving forth, for a shorter or longer time, a light of their own. The best examples of these substances are the well-known "Balmains light colors,'* which yield a very clear and strong light after ex- posure. They consist of calcium sul- phide, 10,000 parts; bismuth oxide, 13 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 1,000 parts. According to Professor Schnauss, plates for phosphorographs are prepared as follows: Dissolve 10 parts of pure gelatin in 50 parts of hot water, add and dissolve 30. parts of "light" color (as above), and 1 part of glycerine. If a plate or a paper, prepared as above detailed, be placed under a dia- positive, in a copying apparatus, and submitted to the action of sunlight for a few minutes, when taken out in a dark room a phosphorescent picture of the diapositive will be found. It is also a known fact that duplicate negatives or positives may be made with this phos- phorograph by simply bringing the latter in contact in a copviiig apparatus, with the ordinary silver bromide plate for 30 seconds, in the dark room, and then de- veloping the same. Printing Names on Photographs. — The name or other matter to be printed on tlie photograph is set up in t^pe, and printecf on cardboard; from this make an exposure on a transparency plate. developing it strongly. After the pnnt has been made from the regular printing negative, it is placed unoer the den%e transparency of the regular negative, and the name printed^ in. The only precaution necessary is to time the transparency negative properly, and d^ velop strongly, so as to get good ron- trast. Photographers will find thi» 4 much easier and quicker method tb^n the old one of printing on tissue p«{>«*r and fastening the paper to the negative by means of varnish; moreover, the result is black instead of white, usuaJJr much more pleasing. Spots on Photogxmphic Plates. — Spot< on photographic plates mav be cauH orj^anisms, with aflirmative results, but with one slight difference, namely. th;it in the inoculated film, on micrusmptc examination, no dust particle was TtMUe in the center of each spot, which had formerly been the case. As these mimv organisms do not exist in tlie air as i***- lated units, but travel upon small or lan:^ dust particles in the case under cormxI- eration, the carnring medium iD<«*t probably is the nne impalpable B« present. No means for the prrresitiua of this troublesome defect is sugsestrd. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PHOTOGRAPHY— PIGMENTS 555 mos-t dry-plntc manufacturers use the precaution to acid a small quantity of a chemical anti.septic to the emulsion, but it is not possible to employ a sufficient quantity to destrojr any organisms that may be present without damaging the plate for photographic purposes. To Remove Pyro Stains from the Fin- gerv. — Make a strong solution of chlori- nated lime: dip the fingers which are stained in this, and rub the stains with a Urge crystal of citric acid. Apply the lime solution and acid alternately until the «tain is removed; then rinse with water. To Remove P^ Stain from Nega- tives.— Immerse in a clearing bath as follows: Protosulphaieof iron. S ounces Alum 1 ounce Citric acid 1 ounce Water 20 ounces Prevention is better than cure, how- ever; therefore immerse the negatives in the above directly they are taken from the fixing bath. After clearing the neg- atives, they should be well washed. PHOTOGRAPHY WITHOUT LIGHT: See Catatypy. PIA90 POLISHES: See Polishes. PICKLE FOR BRASS: See Brass and PUting. PICXXE FOR BRONZE: See Bronze Coloring. PICKLE FOR COPPER: See Copper and Plating. PICKLE VINEGAR: See Vinegar. PICKLING OF GERMAN-SILVER ARTICLES: See Plating. PICKLING IRON SCRAP BEFORE ENAMELING: See Enameling. PICRIC ACm STAINS, TO REMOVE: St*e Cleaning Preparations and Meth- lor. yellow tvhrr. adding raw umber and black for d^rt streaks. POSITIVE COLORS: Blue.— -Twelve parts borate of Kror: « parts oxide of zinc; 10 parts lilhaigr; 9 {mrt* leldspar; 4 parts oxide of cobalt. Blue Black A. — Nine parts Ump* black; 1 part Chinese or Prussian blue Blue Black B.— ^Nineteen parts dn>p black; 1 part Prussian blue. Bright Mineral.^Nine narts Ugbt Ve- netian red; 1 part red lead. Brilliant Green. — Nine parts P«n« green; 1 part C. C. chrome grern, light. Bronze Green, Ught — Thrre par^^ raw Turkey umber; I part meoiupi chrome yellow. Bronze GrecOi Medium. — Five pB^>* medium chrome yellow; S parts bun: Turkey umber; 1 part lampolack. Bronze Green, Dark. — Twenty part* drop black; St parts medium chromr jr' low; and 1 part dark orange chromr. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PIGMENTS 657 Bottle Green. — Five parts commercial chrome sreen, medium, and 1 part drop black. Brown. — ^Ten parts crude antimony; 12 parta^ litharjge; 2 parts manganese; 1 part oxide of iron. Brown Stone. — Eighteen parts burnt umber; 2 parts dark golden ocher; and 1 part burnt sienna. Cherry Red.~Equal parts of best imitation vermilion and No. 40 carmine. Citron A. — Three parts medium chrome yellow and 8 parts raw umber. Citron B. — Six parts commercial chrome grren, light, and 1 part medium chrome yellow. Coffee Brown. — Six parts burnt Tur- key umber; « parts French ocher; and 1 part burnt sienna. Emerald Green. — Use Paris green. Green. — ^Twenty parts litharge; 12 parts flint; 2 parts oxide of copper; 2) parts ^und gla^a; 8) parts whiting; 1) parts oxide of diFume. Flesh Color. — Nineteen parts French ocher; I part deep English vermilion. Fern Green. — Five parts lemon chrome yellow and 1 part each of light chrome green and drop black. Foliage Green. — Three parts medium chrome yellow and 1 part of ivory or drop black. Foliage Brown. — Equal parts of Van- dyke brown and orange chrome yellow. Golden Ocher. — Fourteen parts French yellow ocher and I part medium chrome yellow for the light shade, and 9 parts Oxford ocher and 1 part orange chrome yellow for the dark snade. Gold Russet. — Five parts lemon chrome yellow and 1 part light Venetian red. Gold Orange. — £<]ual parts of dry orange mineral and light golden ocher in oil. Indian Brown. — Equal parts of light Indian red, French ocher, and 4a mp bUck. Mshogsny, Cheap. — Three parts dark g<»ldcn ocher and 1 part of dark Venetian red. Maroon, Light. — Five parts dark Ve- netian red: 1 part drop black. Maroon, I>ark. — Nine parts dark In- iltan red; 1 part lampblacK. Olive Green. — Seven parts light golden or-lier; I part drop black. Ochrous Olive. — Nine parts French ocJier; 1 part raw umber. Orange Brown. — Equal parts burnt sienna and orange chrome yellow. Oriental Red. — Two parts Indian red, light, in oil; 1 part dry red lead. Purple A. — Eight parts crocus martis; 2 parts red hematite; 1 part oxide of iron. Purple B.—Two parts rose pink; 1 part Ultramarine blue. Purple Black. — Three parts lamp- black and 1 part rose pink, or 9 parts drop black and 1 part rose pink. Purple Brown. — Five parts Indian red, dark, and 1 part each of ultramarine blue and lampblack. Roman Ocher. — Twenty-three parts French ocher and 1 part each burnt sienna and burnt umber. Royal Blue. Dark. — Eighteen parts ultramarine blue and 2 parts Prussian blue. To lighten use as much white lead or sine white as is required. Royal Purple. — Two parts ultramarine blue; 1 part No. 40 carmine or carmine lake. Russet. — Fourteen parts orange chrome yellow and 1 part C. P. chrome green, medium. Seal Brown. — Ten parts burnt umber; 2 parts golden ocher, light; I part burnt sienna. Snuff Brown. — Equal parts burnt um- ber and golden ocher, light. Terra Cotta. — Two parts white lead; 1 part burnt sienna; also 2 parts French oafaer to 1 part Venetian red. Turkey Red. — Strong Venetian red or red oxide. Tuscan Red. Ordinary. — Nine parts Indian red to 1 part rose pink. Brilliant. — Four parts Indian red to 1 part red madder lake. Violet — Three parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts rose lake; 1 part best ivory black. Yellow. — Four and one-half parts tin ashes; 1 part crude antimony; 1 part litharge; and 1 part red ocher. Yellow, Amber. — Ten parts medium chrome yellow; 7 parts burnt umber; S parts burnt sienna. Yellow, Canary. — Five parts white lead; 2 parts permanent yellow; 1 part lemon chrome yellow. Yellow, Golden. — Ten parts lemon chrome yellow; S parts orange chrome, dark; 5 parts white lead. Yellow, Brimstone. — Three parts white lead; 1 part lemon chrome yellow; 1 part permanent yellow. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 558 PIGMENl^ Azure Blue—Fifty parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue. Blue Gray. — One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts Prussian blue; 1 part lamp- black. Bright Blue.— Twenty parts zinc white; 1 part imitation cobalt blue. Blue Grass. — Seven parts white lead; 2 parts Paris green; 1 part Prussian blue. Deep Blue. — Fifteen parts white lead; 1 part Prussian blue or Antwerp blue. French Blue. — Five parts imitation cobalt blue; 2 parts French zinc white. Green Blue. — One hundred parts white lead; 5 parts lemon chrome yellow; 3 parts ultramarine blue. Hazy Blue. — Sixty parts white lead; 16 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part burnt sienna. Blineral Blue. — Five parts white lead; 4 parts imitation cobalt blue; 2 parts red madder lake; 1 part best ivory or drop black. Orient Blue. — Twenty-five parts white lead; 2 parts Prussian blue; 1 part lemon chrome yellow. Royal Blue. — Thirty-four parts white lead; 19 parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts Prussian blue; 1 part rose madder or rose lake. Sapphire Blue. — Two parts French zinc white and 1 part best Chinese blue. Sky Blue. — One hundred parts white lead; 1 part Prussian blue. Solid Blue.— Five parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue. Turquoise Blue. — Twenty parts white lead; 3 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part lemon chrome yellow. RED TINTS: Cardinal Red. — Equal parts of white lead and scarlet lake. Carnation Red. — Fifteen parts white lead; 1 part scarlet lake. _ Claret. — Twenty-one parts oxide of zinc; 4 parts crocus martis; 4 parts oxide of chrome; 3 parts red lead; 3 parts bor- acic acid. Coral Pink. — Fifteen parts white lead; 2 parts bright vermilion; 1 part deep orange chrome. Deep Rose. — Ten parts white lead; 1 part red lake. Deep Purple.-— Five parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue; 1 part rose pink. Deep Scarlet. — Fifteen parts bright vermifion; 2 parts red lake; 5 parts white lead. Flesh Pink. — One hundred parts white lead; 1 part orange chrome yeUu»; 1 part red lake. Indian Pink. — One hundred part* white lead; 1 part light Indian red. Lavender. — Fifty parts white leail: i parts ultramarine blue; 1 part red luLi. Light Pink.— Fifty parts white lea.l. I part oright vermilion. Lilac. — Fifty parts white lead; 1 part best rose pink. Mauve. — Fifteen parts white lead i parts ultramarine blue; I part carmiii<- lake or red lake. Orange Pink. — Two parts white leail; 1 part dark orange chrome or Amenrau vermilion. Purple. — Five parts white lesd: i parts ultramarine blue; 1 part red maiJ- der lake. Royal Pink. — Five parts white lea.l; 1 part carmine lake or red madder Ukr. Royal Rose. — Twenty parts whitr lead; 1 part rich rose lake. Red Brick.— Ten parts white lead: i parts light Venetian red; I part yHlo* ocher. Reddish Terra Cotta. — Two par*^ white lead; 1 part rich burnt sienna. Salmon. — Fifty parts white lead; .» parts deep orange chrome. Shell Pink.— Fifty parts white lea.l: i parts bright vermilion; 1 part uranjr chrome; 1 part burnt sienna. Violet. — Fifteen parts white lea«i: * Carts ultramarine blue; 3 parts n»»* ike; 1 part drop black. GREEN TnVTS: Apple Green. — Fifty parts white In ' 1 part chrome green, light or metirj'J shade. Citrine Green. — One hundred fart* white lead; 2 parts medium chrt«n.f yellow; 1 part drop black. Citron Green. — One hundred fur** white lead; 3 parts medium <»hn»t.'«" yellow: 1 part lampblack. Emerald Green.— Ten parts «^'.'' lead; 1 part Paris (emerald) green. Grass Green A. — Five parts •*?' lead; 7 parts Paris green. Grass Green B.— Ten parts oxidr f chrome; 2 parts tin ashes: 5 part* "^ * ing; 1 part crocus martb; 1 pari *'»- chromate potash. Gray Green. — Five part* while lr»^ 1 part Verona green. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PIGMENl^ 559 Mftxine Green. — Ten parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine green. Nile Green. — Fifty parts white lead; 6 parts medium chrome green; 1 part Prussian blue. OliTe Green. — Fifty parts white lead; 2 parts medium chrome vellow; 3 parts raw umber; 1 part drop black. Olive Drab. — F'dty parts white lead; 8 parts raw umber; 5 parts medium chrome green; 1 part drop black. Pea Green. — Fifty parts white lead; 1 part light chrome green. Satin Green. — Three parts white lead; 1 part Milori green. Sage Green. — One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts medium chrome green; 1 part raw umber. Sea Green. — Fifty parts white lead; 1 part dark chrome green. Stone Green. — Twenty-five parts white lead ; S parts dark chrome green ; 3 parts raw umoer. Velvet Green. — Twenty parts white lead; 7 parts medium chrome green; 2 parts burnt sienna. Water Green. — Fifteen parts white lead; 10 parts French ocher; 1 part dark chrome green. BROWN TINTS: Chocolate. — Twenty-five parts white lead; 3' parts burnt umber. Cocoanut. — Equal parts white lead and burnt umber. Cinnamon. — Ten parts white lead; 2 parts burnt sienna; 1 part French ocher. Dark Drab. — Forty parts white lead; 1 part burnt umber. Dark Stone. — Twenty parts white lead: 1 part raw umber. Fawn. — Fifty parts white lead; 3 parts burnt umber; 2 parts French Of her. Golden Brown. — Twenty-five parts white lead; 4 parts French ocher; I part burnt sienna. Hazel Nut Brown. — Twenty parts white lead; 5 parts burnt umber; 1 part me- dium chrome yellow. Mulberry. — Ten parts manganese; 2 parts cobalt blue; 2 parts saltpeter. Purple Brown. — Fiftv parts white lead; 6 parts Indian red: 2 oarts ultra- marine blue; 1 part lampblack. Red Brown. — ^Twelve parts hematite ore; 3 parts manganese; 7 parts litharge; 2 parts yellow ocner. Seal Brown. — Thirty parts white lead; 5 parts burnt umber; 1 part medium chrome yellow. Snuff Brown. — Twenty-five parts white lead; 1 part burnt umber; 1 part Oxford ocher. GRAY TINTS: Ash Gray. — Thirty parts white lead; 2 parts ultramarine blue; 1 part burnt sienna. Cold Gray. — Five hundred parts white lead; 6 parts lampblack; 1 part Antwerp blue. Dove Color. — Twelve parts manga- nese; 5 parts steel filings; 3 parts whiting; 1 part oxide of cobalt. Dove Gray. — Two hundred parts white lead; 5 parts ultramarine blue; 2 parts drop black. French Gray. — One hundred and fifty parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; I part orange chrome yellow; 1 part chrome red (American vermilion). Lead Color. — Fifty parts white lead; 1 part lampblack (increase proportion of white lead for light tints). Lustrous Gray. — Ten parts white lead; 1 part grapnite (plumbago). Olive Gray. — Two hundred parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 1 part medium chrome green. Pure Gray. — One hundred parts white lead; 1 part drop black. Pearl Gray. — One hundred parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue; 1 part drop black. Silver Grav. — One hundred and fifty parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 3 parts Oxford ocher. Warm Gray. — One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts drop black; 2 parts French ocher; 1 part lignt Venetian red. Note. — For inside work and whenever desirable, the white lead may be replaced by zinc white or a mixture of the two white pigments may be used. Be it also remembered that pure colors, as a rule, will produce the cleanest tints^ and that fineness of fj^rinding is an important factor. It will not be amiss to call at- tention to the fact that the excessive use of driers, especially of dark japans or liquid driers, with delicate tints is bad practice, and liable to ruin otherwise go perfedy reduced or badly sifted grain« of pigment or real gritty admixtures. To Detennine the Covering Pamtr of Pigments. — To determine the covering; power of white lead, or any other pig- ment, take equal quantities of several varieties of white lead and mix then with a darker pigment, black, blue, etr . the latter also in equal proportions. T'te white lead which retains the lightest color is naturally the mmt opaque. la a similar manner, on the other hand, tie mixing power of the dark pigments cms be ascertained. If experiments are made with a variety of white lead or zinc white, by the admixture of dark iiifi* ments, the color which tints the unite lead or sine white most, also pone««e5 the greatest covering or mixing power. To Detect the Presence of Anilias is a Pigment. — Lay a little of the cuU*f upon letter paper and pour a drop ^fi spirit on it. If it is mixed with anili'M' tne paper is colored right throu|^ there- by, while a pure pigment does not alter the shade of the paper and will &e«vr penetrate it Vehicle for Oil Colors. — Petrolrum, M to SO pounds; tallow, S to 3 po«A ophony, 5 to 7 pounds. The pigmrfit* Digitized by VjOOQ IC PIGMENTS— PLASTER m having been ground up with this mix- ture, the mixed paint can be made still better bjr adding to it about a sixth uf its weight of the following mixture: Vegetable oil, 8 to 20 pounds; saponified rosm, 6 to 16 pounds; turpentine, 4 to 30 ounces. Frankfort Black. — Frankfort black, also known as German black, is a name applied to a superior grade of lamp- black. In some districts of Germany it is said to be made by calcining wine Ires and tartar. The material is heated in large cylindrical vessels having a vent in the cover for the escape of smoke and vapors that are evolved during the proc- ess. When no more smoke is observed, the operation is finished. The residuum in the vessels is then washed several times in boiling water to extract the salts con- tained therein and finally is reduced^ to the proper degree of fineness by grinding on a porphyry. Paris Green. — Emerald or Paris green is rather permanent to light, but must not be mixed with pigments containing sulphur, because of the tendency to blacken when so mixed. It will not re- sist acids, ammonia, and caustics. nCliElIT PAPER: See Photography. PILE OUrrMENTS. I.— "Extract" witch- hazel 8 fluidounces Lanum 2 ounces Petrolatum 6 ounces Glycerine 4 fluidounces Tannic acid 1 drachm Powdered opium . I drachm II. — Tannic acid 20 grains Bismuth subni- trate 1 drachm Powdered opium . 10 grains Lanum 3 drachms Petrolatum 5 drachms PINE SYRUP: S<*e Essences and Extracts. PINEAPPLE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts. PINEAPPLE LEMONADE: See Beverages. ^ PING PONG FRAPP£: See Beverages, under Lemonades. PINS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers* Formulas. PINION ALLOY: Sec Watchmakers* Formulas. PINK SALVE: See Ointments. PINKEYE: See Veterinary Formulas. PIPE-JOINT CEMENT: See Cement. PIPE LEAKS: See Leaks. PIPES, RUST-PREVENTIVE FOR: See Rust Preventives. PISTACHIO ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts. PIVOTS. REPAIRING OF: See Watchmakers' Formulas. PLANTS: Temperature of Water for Watering Plants. — Experiments were made sev- eral years ago at the Wisconsin Agri- cultural Experiment Station to determine whether cold water was detrimental to plants. Plants were grown under glass and in the open field, and in all cases the results were similar. Thus, coleus planted in lots of equal size and vigor were watered with water at 35**, 60**, 65**, and 86^ F. At the end of 60 days it was impossible to note any difference, and when the experiment was repeated with water at 32**. 40**, 70^ and 100** F., the result was the same. Beans watered with water at 32**. 40**, 70**, and 100** F., were equally vigorous; in fact, water at 32** and 40** F. gave the best results. Lettuce watered with water at 32** F. yielded slightly more than the other lots. From these experiments it was concluded that for vegetable and flowering plants com- monly grown under glass, ordinary welt or spring water may be used freely at any time of the year without warming. PLANT PRESERVATIVES: See Flowers. Plaster (See also Gypsum.) Therapeutic Grouping of Medicinal Plasters. — The vehicle for medicated plasters requires some other attribute than simply adhesiveness. From a study of the therapy of plasters thev may be put in three groups, similarly to the ointments with reference to their general therapeutic uses, which also g[overns the selection of the respective vehicles. 1. — Epidermatic: Supportive, protec- tive, antiseptic, counter-irritant, vesi- cant. Vehicle: Rubber or any suitable Digitized by VjOOQ IC 562 PLASTER adhesive. Official^ plasters: Emp. ad- hesivum, E. capsici. 2. — Endermatic: Anodyne, astrin- gent, alterative, resolvent, sedative, stimulant. Vehicle: Oleates or lead plaster, sometimes with rosins or gum rosins. Official plasters: Emp. Bella- donna, E. opii, E. plumbi, E. saponis. S. — Diadermatic: For constitutional or svstemic effects. Vehicle: Lanolin or plaster-mull. Official plasters: Emp. hydrargyri. Methods of Prepariiig Rubber PUs- teiB. — Mechanic Roller mssure Method. — This method of incorporating the rub- ber with certain substances to give it the necessarv bodv to serve as a vehiple is at present tne only one employed. But since It requires the use of the heaviest ma- chinery— some of the apparatus weighing many tons — and enormous steam power, its application for pharmaceutical pur- poses IS out of the question. As is well known, the process consists in: I. Purification of the rubber by mascerating and pressing it and re- moving foreign impurities oy elutriating it with water. 2. Forming a homoge- neous mass of the dried purified rubber by working it on heated revolving rollers and incorporating sufficient quantities of orris powder and oleoresins. S. In- corporating the medicinal agent, i. e., belladonna extract, with the rubber mass by working it on warmed revolving rollers. 4. Spreading the prepared plaster. Solution m VoUtile Solvents.— This process has been recommended from time to time, the principal objection being the use of so relatively large quan- tities of inflammable solvents. The German PharmacopGeU Method* — The following is the formula of "Arz- neibuch fUr das Deutsche Reich," 1900: Emplastrum adhesivum: Lead plaster, waterfree, 40 parts; petrolatum, 2.5 parts; liquid petrolatum, 2.5 parts, are melted together, and to the mixture add rosin, 35 parts; dammar, 10 parts, previously melted. To the warm mixture is added caoutchouc 10 parts; dissolved in ben- zine, 15 parts, and the mixture stirred on the water-bath until all the. benzine is lost by evaporation. The Coleplastrum adhesivum of the Austrian Society is still more complex, the formula containing the following: Rosin oil, empyreumatic, 150 parts; co- paiba, 100 partH; ro»in, 100 parts; lard, 50 parts; wax, SO parts; dissolved in ether, 1,200 parts, in which caoutchouc, 250 parts, l»s been previously dissolved; to this is then added orris powder. 820 parts; san- darac, 50 parts; ether, 400 parts. The mixture, when uniform, is spread oa cloth. Solution of Rubber in IKsed Solfcot: Petrolatum and Incorporation with Lca4 Acetate. — India rubber dissolves, thou^tli with difficulty, in petrolatum. The hrst required to melt the rubber being com- paratively Kigh, usually considershly more than 212® P., as stated in the U. S. P., it is necessary to melt the rubber first and then add the petrolatum, in order to avoid subjecting tne latter to the higher temperature. The mixture of equal parts of rubber and petrolatum t< of a soft jelly consistence, not especislir adhesive, but when incorporated witn the lead oleate furnishes a very adhesire plaster. While at first 5 per cent of esrh rubber and petrolatum was used, it hji* been found that the petrolatum would melt and exude around the ^$c^b of the plaster when applied to the skin, and the quantity was tnerefore reduced to i per cent of each. This mass affords a pu.«- ter which is readilv adhesive to the bodr, does not run nor become too soft PU»- ters spread on cloth have been kept for months exposed to the sun in the sum- mer weather without losing their sUbil- ity or permanency. The lead oleate^ made by the intrt- action of hot solution of soap and lead acetate, thoroughly washed with hot water, and freed from water by workiag the precipitated oleate on a hot tile, is much to oe preferred to the lead planter made by the present official process. The time-honorea method of boiling litkarvr. olive oil, and water is for the requirement* of the pharmacists most tedious and oa- satisfactory. Since in the beginnini^ of the process, at least, a temperature higher than that of SIS'" P. is reouired, the vster bath cannot be employed, and in the ab- sence of this limiting device the prodnrl » usually ''scorched.**^ When the steam bath under pressure can be used this objrctios does not apply. But the boiling prum« requires from S to 4 hours, with more nr less attention, while the precipitatitMi method does not take over half an hour. Besides, true litharge is difficult to ut»- tain, and any other kind will produce att- satisfactory results. , The following is the process emplojed: Lead oleate (Emplastrum piumbt): Soap, granular and dried 100 parts Lead acetate Of I parts Distilled water, a suffirirnt quan* tity. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLASTER 568 Dissolve the soap in 850 parts hot distilled water and strain the solution. Dissolve the lead acetate in 250 parts hot distilled water and filter the solution while hot into the warm soap solution, stirring constantly. When tne precipi- tate which has formed has separated, decant the liauid and wash the precipi- tate thoroughly with hot water. Remove the precipitate, let it drain, free from water com|Jetely by kneading it on a warm slab, form it into rolls, wrap in paraffine paper, and preserve in tightly closed con« tainers. Emplastrum adhesivum: Rubber, cut in small pieces 20 parts Petrolatum 20 parts Lead plaster 960 parts Melt the rubber at a temperature not exoeedini^ 302®. F., add the petrolatum, and continue the heat until the rubber M dissolved. Add the lead plaster to the hot mixture, continue the neat until it becomes liquid; then let it cool and stir until it stinens. Court Plaster or Stickinff PUster.—I. — Brush silk over with a solution of bin« l^lsss, in spirits or warm water, dry and repeat several times. For the last ap- plication apply several coats of balsam i»f Peru* Tnis is used to close cuts or wounds, by warming and appljring it. It does not wash off until the skin par- tially heals. II. — Isinglass, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, strain the solution, and gradu- ally add to it of tincture of benzoin, 2 parts; apply this mixture gently warmed, by means of a camelVhair brush, to the surface of silk or sarcenet, stretched on a fiame, and allow each coating to dry before applying the next one, the appli- cation being repeated as often as neces- sary; lastly, give the prepared surface a mating of tincture of oenzoin or tincture of balsam of Peru. Some manufacturers apply this to the unprepared side of the plaster, and others add to the tincture a few drops of essence of ambergris or rs9«nce &i musk. III. (peschampB).-^A piec? of fine muslin, linen, or silk is fastened to a flat >Miard, and a thin coating of smooth, strained flour paste is given to it; over this, when dry, two coats of colorless r«*Utin. made into sixe with water, f^tiantity sufficient, are applied warm, baid to be superior to the ordinary court planter. Coloring of Modeling Plaster. — I. — If burnt gypsum is stirred up with water con- taining formaldehyde and with a little alkali, and the <)uantitv of water necessary for the induration of tne plaster contain- ing in solution a reducible metallic salt is aoded thereto, a plaster mass ofperf ectlv uniform coloring is obtained. The hara- ening of the plaster is not affected there- by. According to the concentration of the metallic salt solutions and the choice of the salts, the most varying^ shades of color, as black, red, brown, violet, pearl ffray, and bronze mav be produced. The color effect may be enhanced by the addjtion of certain colors. For the production of a gray-colored gypsum mass, for example, the mode of pro- cedure is as follows: Stir 15 drachms of plaster with one-fourth its weight of water, containing a few drops of formal- dehyde and a little soda lye and add 10 drops of a one-tenth normal silver solu- tion, which has previously been mixed with the amount of water necessary for hardening the gypsum. The mass will immediately upon mixing assume a pearl-gray shade, uniform throughout In order to produce red or copper-like, black or bronze-like shades, gold salts, copper salts or silver salts, bismuth salts or lead salts, singly or mixed, are used. Naturally, these colorings admit of a large number of modifications. In lieu of formaldehyde other reducing agents may be employed, such as solu- tions of sulphurous acid or hvdrogen peroxide with a little alkali. Metals in the elementary state may likewise be made use of, e. g., iron, which, stirred with a little copper solution and plaster, produces a brown mass excelling in special hardness, etc. This process of coloring plaster is distinguished from the former methods in that the coloration is caused by metals in the nascent state and that a very fine division is obtained. The advantage of the dyeing method consists in that colorings can be produced with slight quantities of a salt; besides, the fine contours of the figures are in no way affected by this manner of coloring, and another notable advantage lies in the mass being colored throughout, whereby a great durability of the color against outside actions is assured. Thus a peel- ing off of the color or other wav oi be- coming detached, such as by rubbing off, is entirelv excluded. II. — Frequently, in order to obtain colored plaster objects, ocher or pow- dered colors are mixed with the plaster. This method leaves much to be desired, because the mixture is not always per- fect, and instead of the expected uniform color, blotches appear. Here is a more Digitized by VjOOQ IC £64 PLASTER certain recipe: Boil brazil wood, log- wood, or jrellow wood, in water, according to the desired color, or use extracts of the woods. When the dve is cold mix it with the plaster. The aye must be passed through a cloth before use. One may also immerse the plaster articles, medals, etc., in this dye, but in thb case they must be left for some time and the oper- ation repeated several times. Treatment of Fresh PUster. — Freshly plastered cement surfaces on walls may be treated as follows: The freshly plastered surface first remains without any coatinff for about 14 days; then it is coated witn a mixture of 50 parts water and 10 parts ammonia carbonate dissolved in hot water; leave this coat alone for a day, paint it again and wait until the cement nas taken on a uniforni gray color, which takes place as a rule in 12 to 14 days. Then prime the surface thus obtained with pure var- nish and finish the coating, after drying, with ordinary varnish paint or turpentine paint. Plaster for Foundry Models. — Gum lac, I part; wood spirit, 2 parts; lamp- black in sufficient quantity to dye. PUster from Spent Gas Lime. — Spent lime from gas purifiers, in which the sul- phur has been converted into calcium sulphate, b^ exposure to weather, if necessary, is mixed with clay rich in alumina. The mixture is powdered, formed into balls or blocks with water, and calcined at a temperature below that at which the setting qualities of cal- cium sulphate are destroyed. Slaked lime, clay, and sand are added to the calcined product, and the whole is finely powdered. Plaster Mold. — Nearly all fine grades of metals can be cast in plaster molds, provided only a few pieces of the cast- ings are wanted. Dental plaster should be used, with about one-half of short asbestos. Mix the two well together, and when the mold is complete let it dry in a warm place for several days, or until all the moisture is excluded. If the mold is of considerable thickness it will answer the purpose better. When ready for casting, the plaster mold should be warmed, and smoked over a sas light; then the metal should be poured in, in as cool a state as it will run. Cleaning of Statuettes and Other PUster Objects. — Nothing takes the dust more freely than plaster objects, more or less artistic, whicn are the modest orna- ments of our dwellings. They rapidly contract a yellow-gray color, of unplf*5> ant appearance. Here is a prartu'^ methoa for restoring the wiuiroe«%: Take finely powdered starch, qaiu white, and maice a thick JpMte with hot water. Apply, when still hot, with a flexible spatula or a brush on the pUcter object. The layer should be quite tint v Let it dry slowly. On dryinc, tbe starch will split and scale off. All th<> soiled parts of the plaster will adbrrr. and be drawn off with the scales. 71:^ method of cleaning does not detract fr<« : the fineness of the model. Hardening and Toughening PUster of Paris.— L— Plaster of Paris at tioi'» sets too rapidly; therefore the fotlovrf recipe for toughening and deUjriaf dr. ing will be useful. To caleiBcd plAo^T of Paris add 4 per cent of its wetc^^ powdered marshmallow loot, wk>c\ « keep it from setting for about aa hutr and augment its hardness when wl. ^ double the quantity of marsh ouli > root powder, and the plaster will htcx*'-' very firm, and may be worked i or 5 hours after mixing, and may be c*nes to efi^t.*^ its being an impalpable powder 'I*« ensure thorough mixing, niass the cnr bined powders through Uie hair »•-" three times. Make up with water «c ' cient for the required model ormoti'-^ Should any of the powder be lefl o\r* ' may be kept by being put in an air>U;:t box and placed in a warm room. The marshmallow root powder nu.i be replaced by dextrin, gum arahH*. ' glue. The material treated b tuit^:'" while yet in a soft state, for rolling. (eU«» tube developing, making plates, etc. II. — Plaster of Paris may be csii»rd ♦•• set more ouickly if some alum he J:^ solved in the water used for renden&c • plastic. If the gypsum is firat moifirL* : with a solution of alum and then ax* ' burned, the resulting compound tris >^ '- quickly and becomes as hard as ma;^ ' Borax may be similariy employed, i - objects may also be be treated with a • * tion of caustic baiyta. But it h«» l**^ found that no matter how deep thi« i*- ^ etrates, the baryta b again «in*; toward the surface when the »»*'' evaporates, a portion efilure«eiiMe on ' ' outside, and only a thin layer mnftin.r** in the outer shell, where it b <>oo%rr<»" into carbonate. This at the nmr biu Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLASTER— PLATING 566 stops up the pores, rendering it impos- sible to repeat the operation. It was later found that the whole mass of the cast might be hardened by applying to it with a brush made of glass bristles, a hot solution of baryta. To prevent sepa- ration of the crystallized baryta at the surface, the object must be raised to a temperature oM40*» to 175* F. To pro- duce good results, however, it is neces- sary to add to the plaster before casting certain substances with which the baryta can combine. These are silicic acid in M»me form, or the sulphates of zinc, magnesium, copper, iron, aluminum, etc. With some of these the resulting object may be colored. As it is, how- o'cr, difficult to insure the production of uniform tint, it is better when employing salts producing color, to mix the plaster « ith about 5 per cent of quicklime, or, l»etter, to render it plastic with milk of lime^ and then to soak the object in a solution of metallic sulphate. Preseryation of Plaster Casts. — Upon complete drying, small objects are laid for a short while in celluloid varnish of 4 per cent, while large articles are painted with it, from the top downward, using a soft brush. Articles set up outside and exposed to the weather are not protected by this treatment, while others can be readily washed off and cleaned with water. To cover 100 square feet of surface, 1} pints of celluloid varnish are required. To Arrest the Setting of Plaster of Paris. — Citric acid will delay the setting of plaster of Paris for several hours. One ounce of acid, at a cost of about 5 cents, will be sufficient to delay the setting of 100 pounds of plaster of Paris for 2 or 3 hours. Dissolve the acid in the water before mixing the plaster. Weatfaerproofing Casts. — I. — Bre- thauer's method of preparing plaster of Paris casts for resisting the action of the weather is as follows: Slake 1 part of finely pulverized lime to a paste, then mix gypsum with limewater and intimately mix both. From the compound thus prepared the figures are cast. When perfectly dry they are painted with hot linseed oil, repeating the operation sev- eral times, then with linseed-oil varnish, and finally with white oil paint. Stat- ues, etc., prepared in this way have been constantlv exposed to the action of the vreatber for 4 years without suffering any change. II. — Jacobsen prepares casts which retain no du8t» and can be washed with lukewarm soap water by immersing them or throwing upon them in a fine spray a hot solution of a soap prepared from stearic acid and soda lye in ten times its quantity, by weight, of hot water. Reproduction of Plaster Originals. — This new process consists in making a plaster mold over the original in the usual manner. After the solidification of the plaster the mass of the original is removed, as usual, by cutting out and rinsing out. The casting mold thus obtained is next filled out with a ceramic mass consisting of gypsum, 1 part; pow- dered porcelain, 5 parts; and flux, I part. After the mass has hardened it is baked in the mold. This renders the latter brittle and it falls apart on moistening with water while the infusion remains as a firm body, which presents all the de- tails of the original in a true manner. PLASTER ARTICLES, REPAIRING OF: See Adhesives and Lutes. PLASTER GREASE: See Lubricants. PLASTER, PAnVTS FOR: See Paints. PLASTER OF PARIS, MOLDS FOR CASTING: See Casting. PLASTIC COMPOSITIONS: See Celluloid and Matrix Mass. PLASTER, IRRITATING : See Ointments. PLATES, CARE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography. PLATINA, BIRMINGHAM: See Alloys, under Brass. Plating The plating of metal surfaces is ac- complished in four different ways: (1) By oxidation, usually involving dipping in an acid bath; (2) b>[ electrodeposition, involving suspension in a metallic solu- tion, through which an electric current is passed; (3) by applying a paste that is fixed, as by burning in; (4) by pouring on molten plating metal and rolling. For convenience the methods of plating are arbitrarily classified below under the fol- lowing headings: 1. Bronzing. 2. Coloring of Metals. 3. Electrodeposition Processes. 4. Gilding and Gold- Plating. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 566 PLATING 5. Oxidizing Processes. 6. Patina Oxidizing Processes. 7. Platinizing. 8. Silverinff and Silver- Plating. 9. Tinned L.ead-Plating. 10. Various Recipes. BRONZING: Art Bronzes. — These are bronzes of different tints, showing a great variety according to the taste and fancy of the operator. I.^After imparting to an object a coating of vert antique, it is brushed to remove the verdigris, and another coat is applied with tne following mixture: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; pow- dered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts, by weight. Finish with a waxed brush and a coat of white varnish. 11. — Cover the object with a mixture of vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; pow- dered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts, by weight; sal am- moniac, 32 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 jMtrts, by weight; sea sut, 32 parts, by weight. Finish as above. Antique Bronzes. — In order to give new bronze castings the a{>pearance and fMtina of old bronze, various comoosi- tions are employed, of which the foUow- ing are the principal ones: I. — Vert Antique: Vineear, 1,000 parts, by weight; copper sulphate, 10 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; mountain green (Sanders green), 70 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, 30 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight. II. — Vert Antique: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weieht; copper sulphate, 16 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; mountain green, 70 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight. III.— Dark Vert Antiaue: To obUin darker vert antique, add a little plum- bago to the preceding mixtures. IV. — Vinegar, 1,000 Darts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 8 parts, by weight; potas- sium bioxalate, 1 part, by weight. Brass Bronzing. — I. — Immerse the articles, freed from dirt and grease, into a cold solution of 10 parts of potassium permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate, 5 parts of hydrochloric acid, in 1,000 parts of water. Let remain 30 seconds; then withdraw, rinse off, and drv in fine, soft sawdust. If the articles nave be- come too dark, or if a reddisb-brovn color be desired, immerse for about I minute into a warm (60® C. or 140^ Y solution of chromic acid, 10 iiarts; b> drochloric acid, 10 parts; potassium prr- manganate, 10 parts; iron sulphate, J« parts; water, 1,000 parts. Treat as br- lore. If the latter solution alone U used the product will be a brighter duri yellow or reddish-brown color. By brat ing in^ a^ drying oven the tone of the colors is improved. II. — Rouge, with a little chloride i>f Elatinum and water, will form a cbper Bronzing. — I. — After cleaninc the pieces, a mixture made as follov»> i« passed over them with a brush: Ca«t«>r oil, 20 parts; alcohol* 80 parts; ^*H soap, 40 parts; water, 40 parts. The d.« after application, the piece has becvm' bronzed; and if the time is proloncr^i. the tint will change. Thus, an aflinit) of shades ajmeable to the e^e can U Srocured. The piece is dried in hut w«- ust, and colorless varnish m'ith large b'I dition of alcohol is passed over it Thi« formula for bronzing galvanic appar»t i« imparts any shade desired, from B^r- bodienne bronze to antique green, pnv vided the lic|uid remains for some tini< in contact with the copper. II. — Acetate of copper, 6 parts: «aJ ammoniac, 7 parts; acetic add. I pari, distilled water, 100 parts. Dissolve a.- in water in an earthen or porcdain vr>.'^-' Place on the fire and hent slightly; nr\t. with a brush give the objects «» I*' bronzed 2 or 8 coats, according to tbr shade desired. It is necessary that r«i I coat be thoroughly dry before applyiojc another. Bronzinf of Oas Ffxtores. — Gas fix- tures whicn have become dirty or tar- nished from use may be improved n appearance by painting with lm*n-r paint and then, ii a still better fint*b >« required, varnishing after the paint »• thoroughly dry with some light-colnrr«l varnish that will give a hard and briliUnt coating. If the bronze paint is made up wit^ ordinary varnish it is liable to become discolored from acid which may ^ present in the varnish. ^ One mc4hi-: proposed for obviating ;this is to mi% f-r varnish with about 6 times its volusir i«( spirit of turpentine, add to the mixlQre dried slaked lime in the propottioo *( about 40 grains to the pint, agitate wn.'. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 667 repeating the agitation several times, and 6nal]y allowing the suspended matter to settle and decanting the clear liquid. The object of this is, of course, to neu- tralize any acid which may be present To determine how effectively this has been done, the varnish may be chem- ically tested. Iron Broiudiig. — I. — The surface of a casting previousJv cleaned and polished is evenly paintea with a vegetable oil, c. g.. olive oil, and then weU TOated, care heing^ taken that the temperature does not rise to a point at which the oil will bum. The cast iron absorbs oxygen at the moment when the decomposition of the oil beffins, and a brown layer of oxide is formeu which adheres firmly to the surface and which may be vigorously polished, giving a bronze-like appearance to the surface of the iron. n. — To give polished iron the ap- pearance of bronze commence by clean- ing the objects, then subject them for about 5 minutes to the vapor of a mix- ture of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids; then smear them with vase- line and heat them until the vaseline be- Eins to decompose. The result is a fine ronsing. liquid for Bronze Powder.— ^Take ft ounces gum animi and dissolve in \ pint linseed oil by adding gradually while the oil is being heated. Boil, strain, and dilute with turpentine. Bronzing Metals. — I. — The following composition is recommended for bronz- ing metal objects exposed to the air: Mix about equal parts of siccative, recti- fied oil of turpentine, caoutchouc oil, and dammar varnish, and apply this com- position on the objects, using a brush. This bronze has been found to resist the influences of the weather. II. — Cover the objects with a light layer of linseed ofl, and then heat over a coal fire, prolon^ng the heat until the de- sired shade is reached. III. — Expose the objects to be bronzed for about 5 minutes to the vapors of a bath composed of 50 parts of nitric acid and 50 parts of concentrated hydro- chloric acid. Then rub the articles with vaseline and heat until the vaseline is ilecomDosed. The objects to be bronzed must always be perfectly polished. IV. — To bronze iron articles they should be laid in highly heated coal dust; the articles must be covered up in the glowing dust, and the heat must be the same throughout. The iron turns at first yellow, then blue, and finally rather black. Withdraw the objects when they have attained the blue shade or the black color; then while they are still hot, rub them with a wad charged with tallow. V. — For electrolytic bronzing of metals the baths employed differ from the brass baths only in that they contain tin in solution instead of zinc. Accord- ing^ to Eisner,^ dissolve 70 parts, by weight, of cupric sulphate in 1,000 parts of water and add a solution of 8 parts of stannic chloride in caustic lye. For a positive pole plate put in a bronze plate. The batn works at ordinary tempera- ture. VI. — A good bath consists of 10 parts of potash, 2 parts of cupric chloride, 1 part of tin salt, 1 part of cyanide of potas- sium dissolved in 100 parts of water. VII.— Mix a solution of 32 parts of copper sulphate in 500 parts of water with 64 parts of cyanide of potassium. After the solution has become clear, add 4 to 5 parts of stannic chloride dissolved in potash lye. VIII. — Precipitate all soda from a solution of blue vitriol by phosphate of sodium, wash the precipitate well, and dissolve in a concentrated solution of pyrophosphate of copper. Also, satu- rate a solution of the same salt with tin salt. Of both solutions add enough in such proportion to a solution of 50 parts,* by weight, of pyrophosphate of sodium in 1,000 parts of water until the solution appears clear and of the desired color. A cast bronze plate serves as an anode. From time to time a little soda, or if the precipitate turns out too pale, copper so- lution should be added. Tin Bronzing. — The pieces are well washed and all grease removed; next plunged into a solution of copperas (green vitriol), 1 part; sulphate, 1 part; water, 20 parts. When dry they are plunged again into a bath composed of verdigris, 4 parts; dissolved in distilled wine vinegar, 11 parts. Wash, dry, and polish witn English red. Zinc Bronzing. — The zinc article must be first electro-coppered before proceed- ing to the bronzing. The process used is always the same; the different shades are, however, too numerous to cover all of them in one explanation. The bronzing oi zinc clocks is most frec^^uently done on a brown ground, by mixing graphite, lampblack, and sanguine stirred in water in which a little Flanders Dutch glue is dissolved. The application is made by means of a brush. When it is dry a Digitized by VjOOQ IC 668 PLATING spirit varnish is applied; next, before the varnish is perfectly dry, a little powdered bronze or sanguine or powdered bronze mixed with sanguine or with graphite, according to the desired shades. For green bronze, mix green sanders with chrome yellow stirred with soirit in which a little varnish is put. When the bronzing is drv, put on the varnish and the powdered bronze as above described. After all has dried, pass the brush over a piece of wax, then over the bronzed article, bein|[ careful to charge the brush frequently with wax. COLORIKG OF METALS: Direct Coloratioii of Iron and Steel by Cupric Selenite. — Iron precipitates cop- per and selenium from their salts. Im- mersed in a solution of cupric selenite, acidulated with a few drops of nitric acid, it precipitates these two metals on its sur- face in the form of a dull black deposit, but slightly adherent. But, if the object is washed with water, then with alcoLol, and rapidly dried over a gas burner, the deposit becomes adherent. If rubbed with a cloth, this deposit turns a blue black or a brilliant black, according to the composition of the bath. The selenite of copper is a greenish salt insoluble in water, and but slightly soluble in water acidulated with nitric or sulphuric acid. It is preferable to mix a solution of cupric sulphate with a solu- tion of selenious acid, and to acidulate with^ nitric acid, in order to prevent tlie precipitation of the selenite of copper. This process, originated by Paul Mal- herbe, is quite convenient for blackening or bluing small objects of iron or steel, such as metallic pens or other small pieces. It does not succeed so well for objects of cast iron; and the selenious acid is costly, which is an obstacle to its employment on large metallic surfaces. The baths are quickly impoverished, for insoluble yellow selenite of iron is deposited. Brilliant Black Coloration. — Selenious acid, 6 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 0 |jarts. Blue- Black Coloration. — Selenious arid, 10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parU; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts. By immersing the object for a short time the surface of the metal can be col- ored in succession yellow, rose, purple, violet and blue. Coloration of Copper and Braas with Cupric Selenite.-^ vV hen an object of copper or brsHs is immersed in a solution of selenite of copper acidulated with nitric acid, the following colore srr ob- tained, according to the time of the im- mersion: Yellow, orange, rose, purplr. violet, and blue, which is the last culur which can be obtained. In general, tb^ solution should be slightly acid; other- wise the color is fugacious and punctate. b. 2.l»part» 6.5 M.0 parti «.5 psrb 1.000.0 part« Selenious add Sulphate of copper 12.5 Nitncacid i.O Water 1,000.0 Production of Rainbow Colon on Metala (iron, copper, brass, sine, rlr \ - I. — The following process of iri»sti.»D is due to Puscher. It allows of covenri the metals with a thick layer (if melalhf sulphide, similar to that met with id d«- ture — in galena, for example. These compounds are quite solid tnA are not attacked by concentrated a()«i« and alkalies, while dilute reagents art without action. In 5 minutes tnou«ao^« of objects of brass can be colored «itk the brightest hues. If thev have Umt Sreviously cleaned chemically, the cul(»ri eposited on the surface adhere with %n* V strength that they can be worked vitk the burnisher. Forty-five parts of sodium hyposulphite are dissolved in 500 parts of water: s solution of 15 parts of neutral acetate -^ lead in 500 parts of water is poured in. The clear mixture, which u» compuftnl of a double salt of hyposulphite of lead sntl of sodium, possesses, when heated \oi\i F., the property of decomjMsing ■l«»»tT and of depueuting brown Oakes of \*m* sulphide. If an article of gold, «iUrr copper, brass, tomlwc, iron, or mxim » put into this bath while the preripitAti«<'« IS takinff place, the object will be rufrn"! with a film of lead sulphide, which «''< give varied and brilliant colors, acrordirw: to its thickness. For a uniform ntlurt- tion, it is necessary that the piece« «liouitl be heated quite uniformly. IIo«e«^r. iron assumes under this treatment otil« a blue color, and sine a bronie o>l>>' On articles of copper the first cuM om.< which appears is defective. Lead an cent brown, with iridescent points *4 greenish red. The latter coating is faint permanent Zinc is not colored in thia solutioB, aad Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 669 precipitates in it a quantity of flakes of greenish brown (cupric sulphide), but if about one-third ot the preceding so- lution of lead acetate is added, a solid black color is developed, which, when covered with a light coating of wax, fains much in intensity and solidity, t is also useful to apply a slight coating of wax to the other colors. II. — Beautiful designs may be ob- tained, imitating marble, with sheets of copper plunged into a solution of lead, thicKened by the addition of gum traga- canth, and heated to 212® T. After- wards the^ are treated with the ordinary lead solution. The compounds of an- timony, for example the tartrate of anti- mony and potash, afford similar colora- tions, but require a longer time for their development. The solutions mentioned do not change, even after a long period, and may be employed several times. III. — By mixing a solution of cupric sulphate with a solution of sodium hypo- sulphite, a double hyposulphite of sodi- um and of copper is obtained. If in the solution of this double salt an article of nickel or of copper, cleaned with nitric acid, then with soda, is im- mersed, the following colors will appear in a few seconds: Brilliant red, green, rose, blue, and violet. To isolate a color, it is sufficient to take out the object and wash it with water. The colors obtained on nickel present a moire appearance, similar to tnat of silk fabrics. IV. — Tin sulphate affords with so- dium hyposulphite a double salt, which » reduced by heat, with production of tin sulphide. The action of this double salt on metallic surfaces is the same as that of the double salts of copper and lead. Mixed with a solution ot cupric sulphate, all the colors of the spectrum will be readily obtained. V. — Coloration of Silver.— The ob- jecU of copper or brass are first covered with a layer of silver, when they are dipped in the following solution at the temperature of 205* to 212*» F.: Water, 3,000 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 300 parts; lead acetate, 100 parts. VI. — Iron precipitates bismuth from its chlorhydric solution. On heating this deposit, the colors of the rainbow are obtained. Coloration by Electrolysis. — I. ^Col- ored Rings by Electrolysis (Nobili, Bec- c^uerel).— -In order to obtain the Nobili rings it is necessary to concentrate the current coming from one of the poles of the battery through a platinum wire. whose point alone is immersed in the liquid to be decomposed, while the other pole is connected with a plate of metal in the same liouid. This plate is placed perpendiculariv to the direction of the wire, and at about 0.04 indies from the point. Solutions of sulphate of copper, sul- phate of zinc, sulphate of manganese, ace- tate of lead, acetate of copper, acetate of potassium, tartrate of antimony and potash, phosphoric acid, oxalic acid, carbonate of soda, chloride of manga- nese, and manganous acetate, may be em- ployed. II. — A process, due to M. O. Mathey, allows of coloring metals by precipitating on their surface a transparent metallic peroxide. The phenomenon of electro- chemical coloration on metals iq the same as that which takes place when an object of polished steel is exposed to heat. It nrst assumes a vellow color, from a very thin coating ot ferric oxide formed on its surface. By continuing the heating, this coating of oxide in- creases in thickness, and appears red, then violet, then blue. Here, the color- ation is due to the increase in the thick- ness of a thin coating of a metallic oxide precipitated by an alkaline solution. The oxides of lead, tin, zinc, chromium, aluminum, molybdenum, tungsten, etc., dissolved in potash, may be employed; also protoxide of iron, zinc, caamium, cobalt, dissolved in ammonia. Lead Solution. — Potash, 400 parts; litharge or massicot, 125 parts. Boil 10 minutes, filter, dilute until the solution marks 25'' Be. Iron Solution. — Dissolve ferrous sul- phate in boiling water, and preserve sheltered from air. When desired for use, pour a quantity into a vessel and add ammonia until the precipitate is redis- solved. This solution, oxidizing rapidly in the air, cannot be used for more than an hour. III. — Electro-chemical coloration suc- ceeds very well on metals which are not oxidizable, such as gold and platinum, but not well on silver. This process is employed for coloring watch hands and screws. The object is placed at the pos- itive pole, under a thickness of 11 inches of the liquid, and the negative electrode is brought to the surface of the bath. In a few seconds all the colors possible are obtained^ Generally, a ruby-red tint is sought for. I V. — Coloration of Nickel. — The nickel piece is placed at the positive pole in a solution ot lead acetate. A netting Digitized by VjOOQ IC 670 PlJi^TING of copper wires is arranged at the neffa- tive pole accordine to the contours of the design, and at a snort distance from the object. The coloration obtained is uni- form if the distance of the copper wires from the object is equal at all points. Colorinff of Brass. — I.— (a) Brown bronze: Acid solution of nitrate of silver and bismuth or nitric add. (b) Light bronze: Acid solution of nitrate of silver and of copper, (c) Black: Solution of nitrate of copper. In all cases, however, the brass is colored black, if after havinji; been treated with the acid solution, it is placed for a very short time in a solution of potassium sulphide, of ammonium sulphydrate, or of nydrogen sulphide. 11.^ — The brass is immersed in a dilute solution of mercurous nitrate; the layer of mercury formed on the brass is con- verted into black sulphide, if washed several times in potassium sulphide. By substituting for the^ potassium sulphide the sulphide of antimony or that of ar- senic, beautiful bronze colors are ob- tained, varying from light brown to dark brown. III. — Clean the brass perfectly. Af- terwards rub with sal ammoniac dissolved in vinegar. ^ Strong vinegar, 1,000 parts; sal ammoniac, 30 parts; alum, 15 parts; arsenious anhydride, 8 parts. IV.; — A solution of chloride of plati- num is employed, which leaves a verv light coatinff of platinum on the metaf, and the surface is bronzed. A steel tint or gray color is obtained, of which the shade depends on the metal. If this is burnishea, it takes a blue or steel gray shade, which varies with the duration of the chemical action, the concentration, and the temperature of the bath. A dilute solution of platinum is prepared thus: Chloride of platinum, 1 part; water, 6,000 parts. Another solution, more concentrated at the temperature of 104** P., is kept ready. The objects to be bronzed are attached to a copper wire and immersed for a few seconds in a hot solution of Urtar, 80 parts to 5,000 parts of water. On coming from this oath they are washed 2 or 3 times with ordinary water, and a last time with distilled water, and then put in the solution of platinum chloride, stirring them from time to time. When a suitable change of color has been secured, the objects are passed to the concentrated solution of -platinum chloride (40**). They are stirred, and taken out when the wished-for color has been reached. They are then washed 2 or 3 times, and dried in wood sawdust V. — To give to brass a dull bUck color, as that used for optical instrumeoli. the metal is cleaned carefully at fir<»i, and covered with a very dilute mixture of neutral nitrate of tin, 1 part; chloride of gold, 2 parts.^ At the end of 10 min- utes this covering is removed with a moist brush. If an excess of add ha* not been employed, the surface of the metal will be found to be of a fine dull black. The nitrate of tin is prepared by de- composing the chloride of this metaJ with ammonia and afterwards di&i«>lviji|c in nitric acid the oxide of tin formed. VI. — For obtaining a deposit of bis- muth the brass is immeraea in a boiling bath, prepared b^ adding 50 to 60 parti «if bismuth to nitric acid diluted with I.hh parts of water, and containing 3< part% of tartaric acid. VII.— The electrolysis of a cold solu- tion of 25 to 30 parts per 1,000 part» U the double chloride of bismuth and am- monium produces on brass or on copper a brilliant adherent deposit of btamuth. whose appearance resembles that of oM silver. Productioii of Rainbow Hues. — Vsr- ious colors. — I. — Dissolve tartrate cl antimony and of potash, 30 parts; tar- taric acid, 80 parts; water, 1,000 psitK Add hydrochloric add, 90 to ItO parts: f'ulvenzed antimony, 90 to liO parl^ mmerse the object of brass in this boil- ing liquid, and it will be covered with a film, which, as it thickena, reflects quitr a series of beautiful tints, first appearing iridescent, then the color of gold, copper, or violet, and finallv of a grayish biQe. These colors are adherent, and do not change in the air. II. — The sulphide of tin may be depos- ited on metallic^ surfaces, especially <>n brass, communicating shades vafyine with the thickness of the deposit. Ft»r this purpose, Puscher prepares the fol- lowing solutions: Dissolve tartaric acid, 20 parts, in water, 1,000 parts; add s salt of tin, 90 parts; water, 125 parts. Boil the mixture, allow it to repose, and filter. Afterwards pour the clear pt^rtion a little at a time, shaking contmuallr. into a solution of hyposulDhite of suds. ^ parts; water, 250 parts. On boiUq^r, sul- phide of tin is formed, with predptation of sulphur. On |>lunging tne piece* %*( brass in the liquid, tney are covered, according to the period of immeruoa. with varied shades, passing from goJd yellow to red, to crimson, to blue, aad finally to light brown. III.— The meUl is treated with the Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 671 following composition: Solution A. — Cotton, well washed, 50 parts; salicylic acid, 2 parts, dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1.000 piarts, and bichromate of potash, 100 parU. Solution B.— Brass, 20 parts; nitric acid, density 1.51, 850 parts; nitrate of soda, 10 parts. Mix the two solutions, and dilute with 1,500 parts of water. These proportions may be modified according to tne nature of the brass to be treated. This prepara- tion is spread on the metal, which im- mediately changes color. When the desired tint is obtained, the piece is quickly plunged in an alkaline solution; a soda salt, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. The article is afterwards washed, and dried with a piece of cloth. Beautiful red tints are obtained by placing the objects between 2 plates, or better yet, « pieces of iron wire-cloth. IV. — Put in a flask 100 parts of cupric rarbonaie and 750 parts of ammonia and fthake. This liouid should be kept in well -stoppered bottles. When it has lost its strength, this may be renewed bv pouring in a little ammonia. The objects to be colored should be well cleaned. They are suspended in the liquid and moved back and forth. After a few minutes of immersion, they are washed with water and dried in wood Miwdust. Generally, a deep-blue color is obtained. V. — Plunge a sheet of perfectly clean brass in a dilute solution of neutral acetate of copper, and at the ordinarv temperature, and in a short time it will be found covered with a fine gold yellow. VI. — Immerse the brass several times in a vrry dilute solution of cupric chlo- ride, and the color will be deaaened and bronzed a greenish gray. A plate of brass heated to 302^ F. is ctilored violet by rubbing its surface l^entl^ with crotton soaked with cupric c blonde. VII. — On heating brass, perfectly polished, until it can be no longer held in the hand, and then covcrin|; it rapidly and uniformly with a solution of an- timony chloride by means of a wad of n B is added with heating. Solution \ Neutral copper acetate, 30 parts. ^^ weight; oysteUiaed sodium ntlphite. ^i parts, by weight: ammonium car bona tr. 5 parts, hj weight; water, 500 partt, I: weight. Solution B: Potassium cr%nu:< (98 to 99 per cent), 35 parts, by veiirbt. and water, 500 parts, by weight. Coppering Gla«. — I. — Glass rr«<^>« may DC coated with copper by elr<-»T^» lytic process, by simply varnishing ti* outer surface of the vessel, and when f >' varnish is nearly dry, brushing plur* bago well over it. A conducting wire >• then attached to the varnished surfa^i. which may be conveniently done hy r '.» ploying a small piece of aoftened r^tti percha or beeswax, taking care to einpi«»> the plumbago to the part which uniXe* the wire to the plumbagoed surface IL — Dissolve gutta percha in mrm^ of turpentine or ben tine; apply a co*t ••/ the solution on the glasa in the pUn^ ■ ' Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 578 be coppered and allow to dry; next rub it witn ffraphite and place in the electric bath. The rubber solution is spread with a brush. Coppering Plaater Models, etc. — Busts and similar objects may he coated by saturating them with linseed oil, or bet- ter, with beeswax, then well blacklead- ing, or treating them with phosphorous, silver and gold solutions, attaching a number of guiding wires, connected with all the most hollow and distant parts, and then immersing them in the sulphate of copper solution and causing just suffi- cient copper to be deposited upon them, by the battery process, to protect them, hut not to obliterate the fine lines or features. Coppering Zinc Plate. — The sine plate shoulcl first be cleaned with highly di- luted hydrochloric acid and the acid completely removed with water. Then prepare an ammoniacal copper solution from S parts copper sulpnate, 3 parts spirits of sal ammoniac, and 50 parts water. If possible the zinc articles are dippcni into this solution or else the sur- face is coated a few times quickly and uniformly with a flat, soft brush, leaving to dry between the coats. When suffi- cient copper has precipitated on the zinc, brush on the object superficially. Cobaltizing of Metals. — Following are various processes for cobaltizing on cop- per or other metals previously coppered: 1. — Cobalt, 50 parts, by weight; sal am- moniac, 25 parts; liquid ammonia, 15 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dis- solve the cobalt and the sal ammoniac in the distilled water, and add the liquid ammonia. Il.^Pure potash in alcohol, 50 parts, by weight; cobalt chloride, 10 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the cobalt in half the distilled water and the potash in the other half and unite the two. III. — Potassium sulphocyanide, IS parts, by weight; cobalt chloride, 10 parts; Dure potash in alcohol, 2 parts; distilled water, 1,000 jparts. Proceed as described above. All these baths are used hot and require a strong current. Hickel Plating with the Battery.— The nickel bath is prepared aooording to the following formula: L — Nickel and ammo- nium sulphate. . . 10 parts Boracic acid 4 parts Distilled water 175 parts A sheet of nickel is used as an anode. Perfect cleanliness of the surface to be coated is essential to success. With nickel especially is this the case, as traces of oxide will cause it to show dark streaks. Finger marks will in any case render the deposit liable to peel off. ^ Cleansing is generally accomplished either by boiling in strong solution of Eotassium hydrate, or, when possible, y heating to redness in a blow-pipe flame to bum off any adhesive grease, and then soaking in a pickle of dilute sul- Shuric acid to remove an^ oxide formed uring the heating;. In either case it is necessary to subject the article to a process of scratch brushing afterwards; that is, long-continued friction with wire brushes under water, which not only removes any still adhering oxide, but renders the surface bright. To certain metals, as iron, nickel, and zinc, metallic deposits do not readily adhere. This difficulty is overcome bv first coating them with copper in a batn composed as follows: II. — Potassium cyanide. 2 parts Copper acetate, in crystals £ parts Sodium carbonate, in crystals 2 parts Sodium bisulphite . . % parts Water 100 parU Moisten the copper acetate with a small quantity of water and add the so- dium carbonate dissolved in 20 parts of water. When reaction is complete, all the copper acetate being converted into carbonate, add the sodium bisulphite, dissolved in another 20 parts of water; lastly, add the potassium cyanide, dissolved in the remainder of the water. The finished product should be a colorless liquid. If a dynamo is not available for the Eroduction of a current, a DanielPs atterv is to be recommended, and the "tank for a small operation may be a glass jar. The jar is crossed by copper rods in connection with the battery; the metal to be deposited is suspended from the rod in connection with the posi- tive pole, and is called the anode. The articles to be coated are suspended by thin copper wires from the rod in con- nection with the negative pole; these form the cathode. The worker should bear in mind that it is very difficult to apply a thick coating of nickel without its peeling. Replatinf with Battery. — It is well known to electro- metallurgists that met- als deposited by electricity do not adhere so firmly to their kind as to other metals. Thus gold will adhere more tenaciously Digitized by VjOOQ IC 674 PLATING to silver, copper, or brass, than it will to gold or to a gilt surface, and silver will attach itself more closely to copper or brass than to ' a ^ silver-plated surface. Consequently, it is the practice to re- move, by stripping or polishing the sil- ver from old plated articles before elec- troplating them. If this were not done, the deposited coating would in all prob- ability "strip,** as it is termed, when the burnisher is applied to it — that is, the newly deposited metal would peel off the underlyins silver. It must be understood that tnese remarks apply to cases in which a good, heavy deposit of silver is required, for, of course, tne mere film would not present any remarkable peculiarity. Silver PUtiiig. — The term silver de- posit designates a coating of silver which IS deposited upon glass^porcelain, china, or other substances. This deposit may be made to take the form of any desired design, and to the observer it has the ap- pearance (in the case of glass) of having been melted on. Practically all of the plated articles are made by paintinff the design upon the glass or otner surface by means of a mixture of powdered silver, a flux and a liquid to make the mixture in the form of a paint so that it may be readily spread over the surface. This design is then fired in a muffle until the flux melts and causes the silver to become firmly attached to the glass. A thin silver deposit is thus produced, which is a con- ductor of electricity, and upon which any thickness of silver deposit may be pro- duced by electroplating in the usual cya- nide silver-plating bath. To be successful in securing a lasting deposit a suitable flux must be used. This flux must melt at a lower tempera- ture than the glass upon which it is put, in order to prevent the softening of the articles by the necessary heat and the accompanying distortion. Second, a suitable mume must be had for firing the glass articles upon which the design has been painted. Not only must a muffle be used in which the heat can be abso- lutely controlled, but one which allows the slow cooling of the articles. If this is not done they are apt to crack while cooling. The manufacture of the flux is the most critical part of the silver deposit process.^ Witliout a good flux the oper- ation will not be a success. This flux is frequently called an enamel or frit. After a series of experiments it was found that the most suitable flux is a borate of lead. This is easily preparrd. fuses before the glass softens, and Ad- heres tenaciously to the glass surface. To make it, proceed as follows: Div solve l^ pound of acetate of lead (sugar of lead) m 1 <|uart of water and heat to boiling. Dissolve } pound of borax io 1 Quart of hot water and add to the sugar of lead solution. Borate of lead follows as a white precipitate. This is filtemi out and washed until free from impuri- ties. It is then dried. The precipitated borate of lead is thro melted in a porcelain or clay cruciblr. When in the melted condition it should be poured into a basin of cold watrr. This serves to granulate and render it easily pulverized. After it has hern Soured into water it is removed and ried. Before usins in the paint it i< necessary that this fused borate of lead be ground in a mortar as fine as poa»ihlf . Unless this is done the deposit wul not it smooth. The silver to be used should be fiorl? powdered silver, which can be purcha^ m the same manner as bronae powdrr«. The mixture u.sed for painting the dr- sign upon the glass is composed of i parts of the powdered silver, and 1 part of the fused borate of lead. Place the parts in a mortar and add just enoogb oil of lavender to make the ma» of a paint-like consistency. The whole i» then ground with tlie pestle untfl it is as fine as possible. The amount of oil »f lavender which is used must not be Um> great, as it will then be found that j thick layer cannot be oUaioed upon thr glass. The glass to be treated must \^ cleaned by scouring with wet puniicT stone and washing soda. The fH*^*^ should be rinsed and dried. The de«ir* is then painted on the glass with a bni^K. painting as thick as possible and \ri caving a smooth, even surface. Tbr glass should be allowed to dry for ik hours, when it is ready for firing. When placed in the gas muffle, tbr glass should be subjected to a teinperj ture of a very low red heat. The Iwnitr of lead will melt at this temperature, and after holding this heat a short time tu enable the borate of lead to melt and attach itaelf, the muffle is allowed to cool. After cooling, the artidea are removed and scratch brushed and placed in a silver bath for an electro deposit of stiver of a thickness desired. Before the plating the glaas artirlr L« dipped into a cyanide dip, or. if found necessary, scoured lightly with punict pai lea Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 575 stone and cyanide, and then given a dip in the customary blue dip or mercury solution, so as to quickly cover all parts of the surface. It next passes to the regular cyanide silver solution, and is al£>wed to remain until the desired de- posit is obtained. A little potassium cyanide and some mono^basic potassium citrate in powder form is added from time to time to the bath generally used, which is orepared by dissolvittg freshly precipitated silver cya- nide in a potassium cyanide solution. After this tne ^lass is nnsed and dried, and may be finished by buffing. Steel Plating. — The following is a solution for dipping steel articles before electroplating: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1 part; nitric acid (Specific gravity, 1.884), 4 parts; water, 1*20 parts. The article, free from grease, is dipped in the pickle for a second or two. The following electroplating bath is used : Pure crystallized ferrous sulphate, 40 parts, by weight, and ammonium chloride, 100 parts, by weight, in 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. It is of ad- vantage to add to this 100 parts, by weight, of ammonium citrate, in order to prevent the precipitation of basic iron salts, especially at the anode. Tin Plating by Electric Bath. — Most solutions give a dead- white film of tin, and this has to be brightened bv friction of some sort, either by scratch brushing, burnishing, polishing, or rubbing with whiting. The bright tin plates are made bright by rolling with polished steel rollers. Small articles may be bright- tinned bv immersion in melted tin, after their surfaces have been made chemically clean and bright, all of which processes entail much time and labor. Benzoic acid, lM>ric acid, or gelatin may be tried with a well-regulated current and the tiolution in gocnl working order, but all will depend upon the exact working of the solution, tne same conditions being set up as are present in the deposition of other metals. These substances may be separately tried, in the proportion of 1 ounce to each nllon of the tin solution, by boiling the latter and adding either one during the boiling, as they dissolve much easier with the tin salts than in water separately. Tin articles are usu- ally brigntened and polished with Vienna lime or whitinff, the first being used with , linen rags and the latter with chamois i leather. Tin baths must be used hot, not below 75® F., with a suitable current ac- cording to their com position. Too strong | a current produces a bad color, and the deposit does not adhere well. A current of from 2 to 6 volts will be sufficient. Small tinned articles are brightened by being shaken in a leather bag containing a quantity of bran or by revolving in a barrel witn the same substance; but large objects have to be brightened by other means, such as scratcn brushing^ and mopping to five an acceptable finish to the depositea metal. GILDING AMD GOLD PLATING : Genuine j^din^ readily takes up mer- cury, while imitation gilding does not or onlv very slowly. Any coating of var- nish present should, however, be re- moved before conducting the test. Mer- curous nitrate has no action on genuine gold, but on spurious Riding a white spot will form which ouickly turns dark. A solution of neutral copper chloride does not act upon genuine gold, but on alloys containing copper a black spot will result. Gold fringe,^ etc., retains its luster in spirit of wine, if the gilding is genuine; if not, the gilding will burn and oxidize. Imitation gilding might be termed "snuff gilding, as m Ger- many it consists of dissolved brass, snuff, saltpeter, hydrochloric acid, etc., and is used for tin toys. An expert will im- mediatelv see the difference, as genuine gilding nas a different, more compact pore formation and a better <»lor. There are also some gold varnishes which are just as good. The effect of motion while an article is receiving the deposit is most clearly seen during the operation of gilding. If a watch dial, for instance, be placed in the ffilding bath and allowed to remain for a few moments undisturbed and the solu- tion of gold has been much worked, it is probable that the dial will acquire a' dark fox-red color; but if it be quickly moved about, it instantly changes color and will sometimes even assume a pale straw color. In fact, the color of a de- posit may be regulated greatly by motion of the article in the bath — a fact which the operator should study with much attention, when gilding. The inside of a vessel is gilded by filling the vessel with the gilding solu- tion, suspending a gold anode m the liquid, and passing the current. The lips of cream ju^s and the upper parts of vessels of irregular outline are gilded by passing the current from a gold anode througn a rag wetted with the gilding solution and laid upon the part. Sometimes, when gildinfj^ the insides of mugs, tankards, etc., which are richly Digitized by VjOOQ IC 676 PLATING chased or embossed, it will be found that the hollow parts do not receive the de- posit at all, or very partially. When this is the case, the article must be rinsed and well scratch brushed, and a little more cyanide added to the solution. The anode must be slightly kept in motion and the battery power increased until the hollow surfaces are coated. Frequent scratch brushing aids the de- posit to a great extent by imparting a slight film of brass to the surface. In gildinff chains, brooches, pins, rings, and other articles which have been repaired, i. e., hard soldered, sometimes, it IS found that the gold will not deposit freely upon the soldered parts; when such is the case, a little extra scratch brushing applied to the part will assist the operation greatly and it has some- times been found that dry scratch brush- ing for an instant — that is, without the stream of beer usually employed — ren- ders the surface a better and more uni- form conductor and consequently it will more readily receive the deposit. In fact, dry scratch brushing is very useful in many cases in which it is desirable to impart an artificial coating of brass upon an article to which silver or gold will not readily adhere. In scratch brushing without the employment of beer or some other liquid, however, great care must be taken not to continue the operation too long, as the minute particles of metal given off by the scratch brush would be hkely to prove prejudicial to the health of the operator, were he to inhale them to any great extent. The following solutions are for gildins without a battery: I. — In 1,000 parts of distilled water aissolve in the following order: Crystalline sodium pyrophosphate .... 80 parts Twelve per cent solu- tion of hydrocyanic acid 8 parts Crystalline gold chlo- ride 2 parts Heat to a boiling temperature, and dip the article, previously thoroughly cleanea, therein. II. — Dissolve in boiling distilled water, I part of chloride of gold and 4 parts of cyanide of potassium. Plunge the objects into this solution, while still hot, and leave them therein for several hours, keeping them attached to a copper wire or a very clean strip of zinc. They will become covered with a handsome gold coating. Aluminum Gilding. -I. — Dissolve 6 parts of gold in aqua rc^Ma and dilute the solution with distilled water; op the other hand, put SO parts of lime in 150 parts of distuled water; at the end of i nours add the gold solution to the lime, shake all and allow to settle for 5 to ( hours, decant and wash the precipitstf. which is lime aurate. Place this aunte of lime in 1,000 parts of distilled watrr. with 20 parts of^ hyposulphite of sods; put all on the fire for 8 to 10 miniitc*. without allowing to boil; remove sod filter. The filtered liouor serves for gilding in the cold, by plunging into t)it« bath the aluminum articles previou»lj pickled b^ passing through caustic pot- ash and nitric acid. This gilding is oIh tained without the aid of the battery. II.— -The gold bath m prepared with gold dissolved in the usual way, and tbr addition of salts, as follows: Gold, iO parts, by weight; sulphate of soda, fO parts; phosphate of soda, 660 part^; cyan u ret of potassium, 40 parts; wster. 1,000 parts. The bath ought to be of the temperature of 68"" to 77^ P. Amalgam Gold Plating.— -Gold amsl- gam is chiefly used as a plating for silver, copper, or brass. The article to be plated is washed over with diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared chalk, to remove any tarnish or rust tliat mi^rlit prevent the amalgam from adberin; After having been polished perfect.} bright, the amalgam is applied as even It as possible, usually with a fine smtcL brush. It is then set upon a grate oier a charcoal fire, or placed into an oTen and heated to that degree at which mer- cury exhales. The gold, when the mer- cury has evaporated, presents a dull yellow color. Cover it with a coating of pulverized niter and alum in equal part^ mixed to a paste with water, and hesi again till it is melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up with a steel or bloodstone burnisher. Brass Gilding. — On brass, which t« so electropositive metal, an electromagnetir metal, such as gold, can be demt^itrd ver^ cheaply from the dilute soiiitiont of its salts. The deposit is natursllf very thin, but still quite adhesive In preparing it, the proportions staled he- low have to be accurately objierTrd, otherwise no uniform, coherent raatuur aiiu will result, but one that is uneven spotted. I. — In 750 parts, bv weight, of water dissolve: Phosphate of soda, 3 part*, and caustic potash, S parts, and in 250 nart« of water, gold chloride. 1 part, •'kid |n> I tassium cyanide, 16 parts. Mis Uvtb Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 577 nolotions well and cause the mixture to boil, whereupon the brass articles to be (gilded are immersed. The gold in the mixture can be utilized almost entirely. When the solution does not ^ild well any more a little potassium cyanide is addeci, and it is used for pre-gilding the articles, which can then be gilded a^ain in a fresh solution. Thb solution is very weak. A stronger one can be prepared mechan- ically by dissolving 2 to 3 parts of gold chloride in very little water to which 1 part of saltpeter is added. Into this solution dip linen rags, let them dry in a dark pUce, and cause them to char into tinder, which is rubbed up in a porcelain dt.sh. Into the powder so made, dip a soft, slightly charred cork, moistened with a little vinegar, or else use only the finger, and rub the gold powder upon the brass articles. II.-^To Give Brass a Golden Color, it is dipped until the desired shade is ob- tained into a solution of about 175° F., produced as follows: Boil 4 parts of caustic soda, 4 parts of milk sugar, and 100 parts of water for 15 minutes; next add 4 parts of blue vitriol, dissolved in as little water as possible. Copper and Brass Gilding. — The solu- tions used to gild copper can be gener- ally used also for brass articles. Copper gilding acquires importance because in order to gild iron, steel, tin, and zinc, they must first be coated with copper, if the lK>iIing method is to be employed. Fol- lowing is Langbein*s bath for copper and brass: Dissolve 1 part, by weight, of chloride of gold and 16 parts, by weight, of potas- sium cyanide in 250 parts, by weight, of water; dissolve also and separately, 5 parts« by weight, of sodium phosphate and S parts, by weight, of caustic potash in 750 parts, by weight, of cold water. Mix these solutions and bring them to a boil. If the action subsides, add from S to 5 parts, by weight, more potassium cyanide. The polished iron and steel objects must first be copper- plated by dipping them into a solution of 5 parts, by weight, of blue vitriol and 2 parts, by wei|(ht, of sulphuric acid in 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. They may now be cbpped into a hot solution containing 6 parts, by weight, of gold chloride and 22) parts, by weight, of soda crystals in 75 parts, by weight, of water. This coating of gold may be polished. Cold Chemical Gilding.— The chem- ical j^ilding by the wet process is accom- Clinhcd by E. E. Stahl with the aid of three atha: A gold bath, a neutralization bath, and a reduction bath. The gold bath is prepared from pure hydrochloric acid, 200 parts; nitric acid, 100 parts; and pure gold. The gold solution evap- orated to crystallization is made to con- tain 1} per cent of gold by diluting with water. The neutralization bath con- sists of soda lye of 6°, of pure sodium hydroxide, and distilled water. The reduction bath contains a mixture of e^ual parts of 00 per cent alcohol and distilled water, wherein pure hydrogen has been dissolved. The gilding proper is conducted by first entering the article in the ^old bath, next briskly moving it about m the neutralization bath, and finally adding the reducing bath with further strong agitation of the liquid. The residues From the gilding are melted with 3 parts each of potash, powdered borax, and potash niter, thus recovering the superfluous gold. The gilding or silvering respectively produces a deposit of gold or silver of very slight thickness and of the luster of polishing ^old. Be- sides the metal solution an "anti-reducer" is needed, consisting of 50 grams of recti- fied and rosinified turpentine oil and 10 grams of powdered roll sulphur. From this is obtained, by boiling, a syrupy balsam, to which is added, before use, lavender oil, well-ground basic bismuth nitrate, and the solution for gilding or silvering. The last takes place by a hydrochloric solution of aluminum with the above balsam. Colored Gilding. — A variety of shades of green and red gold can be obtained by the electro-chemical process, which method may be employed for the decora- tion of various objects of art. In order to produce red gold in the different shades, a plate of pure copper is hung into a rather concentrated gold bath (5 to 6 parts, by weight, per 1,000 parts of liquin), which is connected with the battery in such a manner that gold is deposited on the ar- ticle immersed in the bath. By the action of the electric current copper is dissolved as well from the copper plate and is sepa- rated simultaneously with the gold, so that, after a certain time, a deposit con- taining a gold copper alloy, conforming in color to the quantities of gold and copper contained in it, is obtained bv the electric process. When the desired shade of color of the deposit is reached the copper plate is taken out and replaced by another con- sisting of the copper gold alloy, likewise produced by electrodeposition, and the articles are now gilt in this liquid. In some large manufactories of gold articles this last coloring is used even for pure Digitized by VjOOQ IC 678 PLATING gold articles, to give them a popular color* To produce green gold (alloy of gold and silver), a silver plate is first employed, which is dipped into the gold batn and from which enough silver is dis- solved until the separating alloy shows the desired shade. The silver plate is then exchanged for a gold-silver plate of the respective color, and the articles are gilt with green gold. Gilding German Silver. — In gilding German silver the solution may be worked at a low temperature, the solu- tion being weakened and a small sur- face of anode exposed. German silver has the power of reducing gold from its solution in cyanide (especialljr if the solution be strong) without the aid of the battery; therefore, the solution should be weaker, in fact, so weak that the Ger- man silver will not deposit the gold per se ; otherwise the deposit will take place so rapidly that the gold wiU peel off when bemg burnished or even scratch brushed. Gilding of Glass. — I. — In order to produce a good gilding on glass, the gold salt employed must be free from acid. Prepare three solutions, viz.: a. 20 parts acid-free gold chloride in 150 parts of distilled water. h, 5 parts dry sodium hydrate in 80 parts of distilled water. c.^ 2} parts of starch sugar in 30 parts distilled water; spirit of wine, 20 parts; and commercial pure 40 per cent alde- hyde, 20 parts. These liquids are quickly mixed together in the proportion of 200, 50, and 5 parts, whereupon the mixture is poured on the ^lass previously cleaned with soda solution, and the gilding will be effected in a short time. The gold coating is said to keep intact for years. 11. — Coat the places to be gilded thinly with a saturated borax solution, lay tlie gold leaf on this and press down well and uniformly with cotton-wool. Heat the glass over a spirit flame, until the borax melts, and allow to cool off. If the glass is to be decorated with gilt letters or designs, paint the places to be filded with water-glass solution of 40^ te.; lay on the gold leaf, and press down uniformly. Then heat the ob- ject to SO"" F., so that it dries a little, sketch the letters or figures on with a* lead pencil, era.He the superfluous gold, and allow the articles to dry completely at a higher temperature. Green Gilding. — This can be obtained conveniently by the galvanic process, by means of anodes of sheet platinum with the following compoaition: Wstrr, 10,000 parts, by weight: sodium pha«- phate, 200 parts; sodium sulphate* Si parts; potassium carbonate, 10 pan«. 1 ducat gold from gold chloride, potju- sium cyanide (100 per cent), 20 part«. Dissolve the first three salts in lO.OOO parts of cold water and add, with stir- ring, the sold chloride and potassium cvanide. Before the first use Doil dowa the sojution thoroughly about one-hslf. replacing the evaporating water snd filter after cooling, in case a sedimfot should appear. To this gold bath vrrj carefully add some silver bath. The platinum sheets which are to serve ss anodes are employed 1} inches lon|(. \ inch broad, and tIv of &n inch thick With these anodes the sold tone eso he somewhat regulated by banging morr or less deeply into the solution ouriDi; tfar gilding. The current should have a tem»in of 3 to 4 volts. In the case of battened three Busen elements are connected for current tension. It is difficttlt to pro- duce old gold on silver, especially if the raised portions are to appear srrrn. It is most advantageous first to fight! f copper the silver goods, taking the cup- per off again on the high places !•« brushing with pumice stone. After tlut hang at once in the above gold bstk. If the embossed portions should be tiM mat, brighten slightly by scratchioi; with a very fine brass wire brujJi. Id this manner a handsome brown skadr t-* obtained in the deep places and a frrra color on the raised portions. This prxK- ess requires practice. Since this melKud will produce only a very light gildinx. s coating of white varnish wul protect the articles from tarnishing. Incrusting with Oold« — The ariirip t« first made perfectly brii^ht, and tbiM<> places whicn are to be gilt are coTrrrti with a matt consisting of while Irsd ground with gum water, made ia\o « paste which can be applied like a thirl paint by means of a pen or brush. Tbo^ C laces of the metal surface not roTerrti y the paint are coated with asphalt varnish — a solution of asphaitum in benzine to which oil of turpeotioe u added to render it less volatile. ASUr this is done lay the article in water, f» that the white lead paint comes off, soH- ject from the bath, wash, let dry and Uj it into a vessel filled with bentol TV asphalt dissolves in the bcniol, aad tl« Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 579 desired design appears in gold on the brtinze or silver ground. This operation may also be performed by coating the whole article with asphalt varnish and executing the design by means of a blunt graver ivliich onl^ takes away the var- nish covering without scratching the metal itself. On the parts thus bared gold is deposited by the electric current and the varnish coating is then removed. Ivory Gilding. — I. — The pattern is painted with a nne camePs-hair pencil, moistened with gold chloride. Hold the ivory over the mouth of a bottle in which hydrogen gas is generated (by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on zinc waste). The hydrogen reduces the auric chloride in the painted places into metallic gold, and the gold film precipi- tated in this manner will quickly obtain a conKidcrable luster. The gold film is very thin, but durable. II. — This is especiallv suitable for monograms. Take gold bronze and place as much as can be taken up with the point of a knife in a color-cup, moistening with a few drops of genuine English gold paint. Coat the raised portions sparingly with gold, using a fine pencil: next, coat the outer and inner borders of the design. When the work is done, and if the staining and gilding have been unsuccessful, which occurs frequently at the outset, lay the work for 5 or 10 minutes in warmed lead water and brush off with pumice stone. By this process very fine shades are often obtained which cannot be produced by mere staining. Since the gold readily wears off on the high places of the work, it is well to lightly coat these portions with a thin shellac solution before gild- ing. This will cause the gilding to be more permanent. Mat Gilding. — To obtain a handsome mat gilding the article, after having t*een neatly polished, is passed through a sand-blast, such as is found in glass- grinding and etching establishments; next, the object is carefully cleansed of fine sand (if possible, by annealing and decocting), wnereupon it is gilt and subsequentlv orushed mat with the brass brush. Wnere there is no sand-blast, the article is deadened with the steel wire brush, which will produce a satis- factory result, after some practice. After that, treatment is as above. The above- mentioned applies in general only to silver articles. In case of articles of gold, brass, or tombac, it is better to previously silver them strongly, since they are too hard for direct treatment with the steel wire brush, and a really correct mat cannot be attained. The brushes referred to are, of course, cir- cular brushes for the lathe. Dead-Gilding of an Alloy of Copper and Zinc. — The parts which are to be deadened must be isolated from those which are to be polished, and also from those which are to be concealed, and which therefore are not to be gilded. For this purpose they are coated with a paste made of Spanish white mixed with water. The articles prepared in this manner are then attactieu by means of iron wire to an iron rod and suspended in a furnace constructed for this process. The floor of this furnace is covered on four sides with ]>lates of enameled earth- enware for receiving the portions spat- tered about of the salt mixture given off later. In the middle is an oven constructed like a cooking stove, on which is an iron tripod for carrying the deadening pan; this latter is cemented into a secon- ducin^ a conductive coating of me tall c sulphide. Upon this gold can be prr- cipitated by electrodeposition in the uMial way. Spot Gilding. — Gilding in spoU, pro- ducing a very fine appearance, is aooc by putting a thin coat of oil on tbti9« parts of the metal where the gilding isptA to appear; the gold will then be deptHitr*! in tnose spots onl}r where there i.^ bo •• and the oil is easily removed when u*r work is finished. Gilding SteeL — Pure ^Id is di^cih^^ in aqua regia; the solution is alUived i. evaporate until the acid in excess hi^ gone. The precipitate is placed in drAi water, S times the quantitv of sulpbnr^ acid is added and the whole left to »Ur«i for 24 hours in a well-closed flask, luitJ the ethereal gold solution floats on tup. By moistening polished steel with tW solution a verv handsome gilding is o^^ tained. By tne application of drsiirr.t with any desired varnish the appearmr*v of a mixture of gold and steel may bt it .• parted to the article. Wood Gilding. — I. — The moMior«. ledges, etc., to be gilded are painted ««>r^ a strong solution of joiners* glue, «hfb is left to harden well, whereupon S to )« coatings of glue mixed with whitrnu* are given. Each coat must, of courw. be thoroughly dry, before coromrnt-nz the next. After this has been door, paint with a strong mi.xture of glue a'"! mininm, and while this is still wet, put ••' the gold leaflets and press them do«i. with cotton. To impart the fine c*«— . polish with a burnishing agate after tix superfluous gold has been removed. II. — Proceed as above, but take *fl*r' leaf instead of gold letif, and after « is thoroughly dry and the su peril u<»::« silver has been removed, APply • c****^*' * of good gold lacquer. Toe effect »•*• be equally satisfactory. Zinc Gilding. — I. — Gilding by mr*-* of zinc contact may be accuBjpli>f- '' with the following formula: Two part*' ' : weight, of gold chloride; 5 |»rt<. '•* weight, of potassium cyanide; 10 |m".« Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 681 by weight, of sulphite of soda; and 60 parts, by weight, of sodium phosphate are dissolved in 1,000 parU of water. When used the bath must be hot. A cold bath without the addition of potas- sium cvanide may also be used for gird- ing, and this consists of 7 parts, by weight, of gold chloride; 30 parts, by weight, of yellow prussiate of potash; 30 parts, bv weight, of poUsh; 30 parts, by weight, of common salt in 1,000 parU of water. II. — To gild xinc articles, dissolve «0 parts of gold chloride in 20 parts of distUled water, and 80 parts of poUssium cyanide in 80 parts of water, mix the solutions, stir a few times, filler, and add tartar, 5 parts, and fine chalk, 100 parts. The resulting paste is applied with a brush. Objects of copper and brass are previously coated with zinc. This is done in the following manner: Heat a concentrated sal ammoniac solution to the Ijoiling point with addition of zinc dust and immerse the thoroughly cleaned objects until a uniform zinc coating has formed. Or boil the articles in a con- centrated caustic soda solution with zinc dust. OXIDIZING PROCESSES: Aliuninum Plating, — I. — To plate iron and other metals with pure aluminum, deoxidize the pieces with a solution of liorax and place them in an enameling oven, fitted for receiving metallic vapors Raise the temperature to 1.83«*» to «,73«« F. Introduce the aluminum vapors generated by heating a quantity of the metal on the sand bath. When the vapors come in contact with the metallic surfaces, the aluminum is deposited. The vapors that have not been used or are exhausted may be conducted into a vessel of water. To Copper Aluminum, take II, — Sulphate of copper. 30 parts Cream of tartar 30 parts Soda 25 parts Water 1,000 parts The articles to be coppered are merely dipped in this bath, but they must be well cleaned previously. Antimony Baths.— I.— By dissolving 15 piarts, Dy weight, of tarUr emetic and 15 parU of prepared tartar m 500 parU of hot water and adding 45-60 parts of hydrochloric acid and 45-60 parts of powdered antimony, brass be- comes coated in the boiling liquid with beautiful antimony colors. In this manner it is possible to impart to brass golden, copper-red, violet, or bluish-gray shades, according to a shorter or longer stay of the objects in the liquid. These antimony colors possess a handsome luster, are permanent, and never change in the air. II.— Carbonate of soda, 200 parts, by weight; sulphide of antimonv, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Heat the whole in a porcelain capsule for 1 hour, keeping constantly in ebullition; next, filter the solution, which, on cooling, leaves a precipitate, which boil again with the liquid for one-half hour, whereupon the bath is ready for use. To Coat Brass Articles with Antimony Colors. — Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of tartar emetic and 15 parts, by weight, ot powdered tarUr in 500 parts, by weight, of hot water and add 50 parts, by weight, of hydrochloric acid, and 50 parts, by weight, of powdered antimony. Into this mixture, heated to a boil, the im- mersed articles become covered with luster colors, a golden shade appearing at first, which is succeeded bjr one of copper red. If the objects remain longer in the liquid, the color passes into violet and finally into bluish gray. Brassing. — I. — To brass small articles of iron or steel drop them into a ouart of water and | ounce each of sulphate of copper and protochloride of tin. Stir the articles in this solution until desired color is obtained. II. ^Brassing Zinc, Steel, Cast Iron, etc. — AceUtc of copper, 100 parts, by weight; cyanide of potassium, 250 parts; bisulphite of soda, «00 parts; liquid am- monia, 100 parts; protochloride of zinc, 80 parts; distilled water, 10,000 parts. Dissolve the cyanide of poUssium and the bisulphite of soda. On Uie other hand, dissolve the ammonia in three- fourths of the water and the proto- chloride of zinc in the remaining water; next, mix the two solutions. This bath is excellent for brassing zinc and is used cold. in.— Acetate of copper, 125 parts, by weight; cyanide of poUssium, 400 parts; protochloride of zinc, 100 parts; hquid ammonia, 100 parts; distilled water, 8.000 to 10,000 parts. Proceed as above described. IV.— AccUtc of copper, 150 parts, by weight; carbonate of soda, 1,000 parts; cyanide of poUssium, 550 parU; bisul- phite of soda, 200 parts; protochloride of zinc, 100 parts. Proceed as above. This bath serves for iron, cast iron, and steel, and is used cold. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 582 PLATING Colored Singi on Metal. — Dusoive 200 parts, hj weight, of caustic potash in 2,000 parts of water and add 50 oarts of litharge. BoQ this solution for naif an hour, taking care that a little of the litharge remains undissolved. When cold, pour off the clear fluid; it is then ready for use. Move the object to and fro in the solution ; a yellow-brown color appears, becoming in turn white, yellow, reo, and finally a beautiful violet and blue. As soon as the desired color is obtained, remove the article quickly from the solution, rinse in clean water, and dry in sawdust. Green or Gold Color for Brass. — French articles of brass, both cast and made of sheet brass, mostiv exhibit a golden color, which is produced by a copper coating. This color is prepared as follows: Dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of caustic soda and 40 parts of milk sugar in 1,000 parts of water and boil a quarter of an hour. The solution finsjly acquires a clark-yellow color. Now add to the mixture, which is re- moved from the fire, 40 parts of concen- trated cold blue vitriol solution. A red precipitate is obtained from the vitriol, which falls to the bottom at 167'' F. Next a wooden sieve, fitted to the vessel, is put into the liquid with the polished brass articles. Toward the end of the second minute the golden color is usually dark enough. The sieve with the arti- cles is taken out and the latter are washed and dried in sawdust. If they remain in the copper solution they soon assume a green color, which in a short time passes into yellow and bluish green, and finally into the iridescent colors. These shades must be produced slowly at a temperature of 133^ to 135'' F. To Give a Green Color to Gold Jew- elry.— Take verdigris, 120 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 120 parts; ni- trate of potassium, 45 parts; sulphate of zinc, 16 parts. Grind the whole and mix with strong vinegar. Place on the fire and boil in it the articles to be col- ored. nickeling by Ozidation.--I.— Nickel- ing may be performed on all metals cold, by means oi nickelene by the Mitressey process, without employing electrical apparatus, and an^ desired thickness deposited. It is said to be more solid than nickel. First Bath. — Clean the objects and take 5 parts, by weight, of American potash per 25 parts, by weight, of water. If the pieces are quite rusted, take 2 \ parts, bv weight, of chlorfaydric acid per I 1 part, by weisbt, of water. The bath is employed cold. Second Bath.^Put 250 fiarts, hi weight, of sulphate of copper in 25.000 parts, by weight, of water, .\fter dis- solution add a few drops of sulphuric acid, drop by drop, stirring the liquid with a wooden sticK until it becomef as dear as spring water. Take out the pieces thus Heaned and place them in wnat is called the copper oath, attaching to them leaves of zior; they will assume a red tint. Then pa« them into the nickeling bath, which » thus composed: By weight Cream of tartar. ..... 20 parts Sal ammoniac, in powder 10 parts Kitchen salt 5 parts Oxychlorhydrate o f tm 20 parts Sulphate of nickel, single SO parts Sulpluite of nickel, double 50 parts Reinove the pieces from the bath in a few minutes and rub them with fine sand on a moist rag. Brilliancy will thus bf obtained. To improve tlic appeaiancv. apply a brass wire brush. The niekfl- ing is said to be more solid and braoti- fuT than that obtained by the electrical method. Brilliancy may be alio imparted hj means of a piece of buff glued on a wooden wheel and smeared with Kof- lish red stuff. This wDl give a glaifd appearance. II. — Prepare a bath of neutral xinf chloride and a neutral solution of a nickel salt. The objects are immer^rd in the bath with small pieces of t'nr and kept boiling for some time. Thti f process has given sati.sfactory reitttlt«. t is easy to prepare the xinc chloride by dissolving it in hydrochloric acid, a« well as a saturated solution of ammo- niacal nickel sulphate in the proportion of two volumes of the latter to one of thr zinc chloride. The objects should I* boiled for 15 minutes in the bath. Nickel salt may also be employed, prrf- erably in the state of chloride. Pickling Solutions. — Oxidised copprr. brass, and German silver articles ina4 be cleansed bv acid solutions. In the case of brass alloys, this process, thnoocli which the object acquires a dull jrl- low surface, is known as dip(Hii(t i*r yellowing. The treatment consists of Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLAllNG 588 several successire operations. The ar- ticle is first boiled in a lye composed of 1 part caustic soda and 10 parts water, or in a solution of potash or soda or in lime water; small objects mav be placed in alcohol or benzine. Wnen all the in^a^ has been removed, the article is well rinsed with water, and is then ready for the next pickling. It is first plunged into a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 10 parts water, and allowed to re- main in It till it acquires a reddish tinge. It is then immersed in 40^ Be. nitric acid, for the purpose of removing the red tinge, and then for a few seconds into a bath of 1 part nitric acid, 1.25 parts sulphuric acid of 66** Be., 0.01 part com- mon salt, and 0.02 parts lampblack. The article must then be immediately and carefullv washed with water till no trace of aciu remains. It is then ready for galvanizing or drying in bran or beech sawdust. When articles united with soft solder are pickled in nitric acid, the solder receives a gray-black color. Palladinmizing Watch Movements. — Palladium is successfully emploved for coating parts of timepieces and other pieces of metals to preserve them against oxidation. To prepare a^ palladium hath ^ use the following ingredients: Chloride of palladium, 10 parts, by weight; phosphate of ammonia, 100 parl«; phosphate of soda, 300 parts; benzoic acid, 8 parts; water, 2,000 parts. Metal Browning by Oxidation. — The article ou^ht first to be cleaned with either nitric acid or muriatic acid, then immersed in an acid affecting the metal and dried in a warm place. A light coating is thus formed. For a second rvMiting acetic or formic acid is used preferably for aluminum, nickel, and copper: but for iron and steel, muriatic or nitric acid. After cleaning, the arti- cle is placed in a solution of tannin or gallic acid, and is then dried in a warm place as before. The second coating is of a yellowish- brown color. On placing it near the fire, the color can be deepened until it becomes completely black; care must be taken to withdraw it when the d<^ired shade is produced. Instead of the acids employeti for the first coating, ammonia may l)e used. Silvering bv Oxidation. — The oxidiz- ing of silver darkens it. and gives an an- tique appearance that is highly prized. i I. — Tlie salts of silver are colorless | vfaeo the acids, the elements of which j enter into their composition, are not col- ored, but they generally blacken on ex- posure to light. It is easy, therefore, to nlacken silver and obtain its oxide; it is sufficient to place it in contact with a sulphide, vapor of sulphur, sulphohydric acids, such as the sulphides orpolysul- phides of potash, soda, dissolved in water and called eau de harhge. The chlorides play the same part, and the chloride of lime in solution or simply Javelle water may be used. It is used hot in order to accelerate its action. The bath must be prepared new for each operation for two reasons: (1) It is of little value; (2) the sulphides precipitate rapidly and 5ive best effects only at the time of their irect precipitations. The quantity of the reagent in solution, forming the bath, depends upon the thickness of the deposit of silver. When this is trifling, the oxi- dation penetrates the entire deposit and the silver exfoliates in smaller scales, leaving the copper bare. It is neces- sary, therefore, in this case to operate with dilute baths inclosing only about 45 grains of oxidizant at most per .quart. The operation is simple: Heat the nec- essary quantity of water, add the sul- phide or chloride and agitate to effect the solution of the mixture, and then at once phinge in the silver-plated articles, leaving them immersed only for a few seconds, which exposure is sufficient to cover it with a pellicle of deep black-blue silver. After withdrawing they are plunged in clean cold water, rinsed and dried, and either left mat or else pol- ished, according to the nature of the articles. Should the result not be satisfactory, the articles are brightened by immersing them in a lukewarm solution of cyanide of potassium. The oxide, the true name of which would be the sulphurct or chloruret, can be raised only on an object either entirely of silver or silver plated. II. — Rub the article with a mixture of graphite, 6 parts, and powdered blood- stone, 1 part, moistened with oil of tur- pentine. Allow to dry and brush with soft brushes passed over wax. Or else, brush with a soft brush wet with alc*o- holic or aqueous platinic chloride solu- tion of 1 in 20. III. — Sulphurizing is effected with the following methods: Dip in a solution heated to about 175° F., of potassium sulphide, 5 parts, by weight; ammo- nium carbonate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; or, calcium sulphide, 1 to 2 parts; sal ammoniac, 4 parts; water, 1.000 parts. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 584 PLATWG IV. — In the following solution articles of silver obtain a warm brown tone: Copper sulphate, 20 parts, by weight: potassium nitrate, 10 parts; ammonium chloride, 20 parts. By means of bro- mine, silver and silver alloys receive a black coloring. On engraved surfaces a niello-like effect may be produced thereby. Oxidized Steel. — I. — Mix together bis- muth chloride, 1 part; mercury bichlo- ride, 2 parts; copper chloride, 1 part; hy- drochloric acid, 6 parts; alcohol, 6 parts; and water, 5 parts. To use this mixture successfully the articles to be oxidized must be cleaned perfectly and freed from all grease, wnich is best accom- plished by boiling them in a soda solu- tion or by washing in spirit of wine. Care should be taken not to touch the article with the fingers again after this cleaning. However clean the hand may be, it always has grease on it and leaves spots after touching, especially on steel .^ Next the object is dipped into the liquid, or if this is not possible the solution is applied thin but evenly with a brush, pencil, or rabbit's foot. When the liuuid has dried, the article is placed for a naif hour in simple boiling water. If a very dark shade is desired tne proc- ess is repeated until the required color is attained. II. — Apply, by means of a sponge, a solution ox crystallized iron chloride, 2 parts; solid butter of antimony, « parts; and gallic acid, 1 part in 5 parts of water. Dry the article in the air and repeat the treatment until the desired snade is reached. Finally rinse with water, dry, and rub with linseed-oil varnish. Tinning^ by Oxidation. — A dipping bath for tinning iron is prepared by dis- solving 300 parts, by weight, ammonia alum (sulphate of alumina and sulphate of ammonia) and 10 parts of melted stannous chloride (tin salt) in 20,000 parts of warm water. As soon as the solution boils, the iron articles, previ- ously pickled and rinsed in fresh water, are plunged into the fluid; they are im- mediately covered with a layer of tin of a beautiful dull-white color, which can be made bright by treatment in a tub or sack. Small quantities of tin salt are added from time to time as may be re- el ui red to replace the tin deposited on trie iron. This bath is also well adapted for tinning zinc, but here also, as with iron, the deposit is not sufficient to pre- vent oxidation of the metal below. Larger articles tinned in this way are polished by scratch brushing, lo tin- ning zinc by this process, the aminut.U alum may^ replaced by any other kn.\l of alum^ or aluminum sulphate mav W used alone; experience has shown, £o«. ever, that this cannot be done with in>n. cast iron, or steel. If it is desired to hn other metals besides iron and zinc in v.,r solution which we have descnlieii t^#> battery must be resorted to; if the Utt^r is used, the above solution should hcip- plied in preference to any other. PATINA OXIDIZING PROCESSES: Patina of Art Bronzes. — For all patinas, whether the ordinary lirovn of commerce, the green of the Bane bronzes, or the dark-orange tint of tl* Florentine bronzes, a brush is use- rate of antimony. For the verdt *r- tique a solution is recommended im- posed of 800 grams of acetic acid ol ^ strength, the same Quantity of comti) 'Q vinegar, 80 parts, by weight, of <'«''• bonate of ammonia; 10 parts, by nn; K' of sea salt; with the same quantitir* • ( cream of tartar and acetate of cupfwf and a little water. To obUin *^' bronze of medals several prucessr» »ff« ' a selection: For example, the piecr mif be dipped in a bath consisting of t^V"^ parts of the perchloride and the seM|uu- zotate of iron, warming to the cTsptifft- tion of the liquid, ana rubbing %tlh t waxed brush. II, — Dissolve copper nitrate. 10 ps^?* by weight, and kitcnen salt, < omti*, t\ 500 parts of water and add a »olutJon * ammonium acetate obtained by d«-j tralization of 10 parts of offictoal »pint ••' sal ammoniac with acetic acid toafsin' • acid reaction, and filling up with vatr.- to 500 parts. Immerse tne bronie« ai1«>« to dry, brush off superficially and i»pr»? this until the desired shade of color h*5 been obtained. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 585 A Permanent Patina for Copper. — Green. — I. — Sodium chloride. 37 parts Ammonia water. . 75 parts Ammonium chlo- ride .......... 37 parts Strong wine vin- egar 5,000 parts Mix and dissolve. Apply to object to be treated, with a earner s-hair pencil. Repeat the operation until the desired shade of green is reached. Yellow Green. — 11. — Oxalic acid 5 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 10 parts Acetic acid. 30 per cent dilution. . . . 500 parts Mix and dissolve. Use as above in- dicated. The following will produce the same result: II I. — Potassium oxalate, acid ^ 4 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 16-17 parts Vinegar contain- ing 6 per cent of acetic acid 1,000 parts IV. — Bluish Green. — After using the first formula (for green) pencil over with the following solution: Ammonium chlo- ride 40 parts Ammonium car- bonate 120 parts Water 1,000 parts Mix and dissolve. Greenish Brown. — V. — Potassium s u 1 - phuret 5 parts Water 1,000 parts Mix and dissolve. With this, pencil over object to be treated, let dry, then pencil over with 10 parts a mixture of a «atu rated solution of ammonia water and acetic acid and 5 parts of ammonium chloride thinned with 1.000 parts of water. I^t dry again, then brush off well. Repeat, if necessary, until the desired hue is attained. Another Blue Green. — VI. — Corrosive sublimate. €5 parts Potassium nitrate. . 86 parts Borax.. 56 parts Zinc oxide 113 parts Copper acetate . . .220-225 parts Mix and heat together on the surface of the object under treatment. yil. — Brown. — The following is a Parisian method of producing a beau* tiful deep brown: Potassium oxalate, acid 3 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 15 parts Water, distilled 280 parU Mix and dissolve. The objject is pen ciled over with this several times, eacli time allowing the solution to dry be- fore putting on any more. The process is slow, but makes an elegant finish. Green Patina Upon Copper. — To pro- duce a green patma upon copper take tartaric acid, dilute it half and half with boiling water; coat the copper with this; allow to dry for one dav and rub the ap- plied layer off again tne next day with oakum. The coating must be done in drj weather, else no success will be ob- tained. Take hvdrochloric acid and dilute it half and naif with boiling water, but the hydrochloric acid should be poured in the water, not vice- versa, which is dangerous. In this hydro- chloric acid water di.ssolve as much zinc as it can solve and allow to settle. The clear liquid is again diluted half with boiling water and the copper is coated with this a few times. Black Patina. — Black patina is ob- tained hy coating with tallow the pieces to be oxidized and lighting with a rosin torch. Finally, wipe the reliefs and let dry. Blue -Black Patina. — Use a dilute so- lution of chloride of antiinonv in water and add a little free hydrochloric acid. Apply with a soft brush, allow the article to dry and rub with a flannel. If ex- pense is no object, employ a solution of chloride of palladium, which gives a magnificent blue black. It is necessary, however, to previously clean the articles thoroughly in a hot solution of carbon- ate of soda, in order to remove the dirt and greasy matter, which would prevent the patina from becoming fixed. Red Patina.— ;-The following is a new method of making a red patina, the so- called blood bronze, on copper and copper alloys. The metallic object is first made red hot, whereby it becomes covered with a coating consisting of cupric oxide on the surface and cuprous oxide beneath. After cooling, it is worked upon with a polishing plate until the black cupric oxide coating is removed and the cuprous oxide appears. The metal now shows an intense red color. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 686 PLATING with a considerable degree of luster, both of which are so permanent that it can be treated with chemicals, such as blue vitriol, for instance, without being in the least affected. If it is desired to produce a marbled surface, instead of an even red color, borax or some chemical having a similar action is sprinkled upon the metal during the process of heating. On the places covered by the borax, oxidation ii pre- vented, and after polishing, spots of the original metallic color will appear in the reel surface. These can be colored by well-known processes, so as to give the desired marbled appearance. PLATINIZING: Platinizing Aluminum. — Aluminum vessels coated with a layer of platinum are recommended in place of platinum vessels, when not exposed to very hi^h temperatures. The f>rocess of platin- izing is simple, consisting in rubbing the aluminum surjface, previously polished, with platinic chloride, rendered slightly alkaline. The layer of platinum is made thicker by repeated application. Potash lye is carefully added to a solution of 6 to 10 per cent of platinic chloride in water till a slightly alkaline reaction is produced on filtering paper or a porce- lain plate by means oi pnenolphthalein. This solution must always be freshly prepared, and is the best for the purpose. Neither galvanizing nor amalgamating will produce the desired result. Si>ecial care must be taken that the aluminum is free from iron, otherwise black patches will arise which cannot be removed. Vessels platinized in this way must not be cleaned with substances such as sea- sand, but with a 5 to 10 per cent solution of oxalic acid in water, followed by thor- ough rinsing in water. These vessles are said to be specially suitable for evap- orating purposes. Platinizing Copper and Braas. — I.—The articles are coated with a thin layer of platinum in a boiling solution of platinum sal ammoniac, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; and water, 40 parts, and next pol- ished with chalk. A mixture of equal parts of platinum sal ammoniac and tar- tar may also be. rubbed on the objects. Steel and iron articles can be platinized with an ethereal solution of platinic chloride. For small jewelrv the boiling solution of platinic chlorine, 10 parts; cooking salt, ^00 parts; and water, 1,000 partH, is employed, which is rendered alka- line with soda lye. In this, one may also work with zinc contact. SOO par and 10 parts of platinum sal to the boiling point with 400 nart^ «>( water, in a porcelain dish, and place tkir articles to be platinized into thia« wbrrr- by they soon become covered with a coating of platinum. They are tben rr- moved from the liquid, clned and p«4- ished with whiting. Platinizing on 61am or Porcelain.— First dissolve the platinum at a moder- ate temperature in aqua regia, and nest evaporate the solution to drynens* <>(»- serving the following rules: When tb^ solution commences to turn thick it t* necessary to diminish the fire, wbiW carrving the evaporation so far that thr salt becomes dry, but the solution sbo*:!*: not be allowed to acquire a brown nJctr, which occurs if the heat is too sUxinc The result of this first operation t« chloride of olatina. When the lattrr has cooled on it should be dissolvrd m alcohol (95 per cent). The disM>ltttjno accomplished, which takes place at thr end of 1 or 2 hours, throw the aolutifui gradually into four times its weight of essence of lavender, then put into a well- closed flask. For use, dip a brush into the aolnti«»Q and apply it upon the objects to be plat- inizea, let dr^jr and place in the inafll»>, leaving them in the oven for aboot t«M^ half hour. In this operation one ahoulti be ffuided as regards the duration uf the baking by the hardnens or f iicihilit^ of the objects treated. The platiaiM- tion accomplished, take a cotton Hotk. dipped into whiting in the state of pulpu ana rub the platinated articles with thu, rinsing with water afterwards. Platinizing Metnls^—Following srp several processes of platinising on mrt- ais: It is understood that the netab to l«e covered with platinum must be copprr or coppered. All these batlis rrquire strong batteries. I.— Take borate of potaah« 900 part* b^ weight; chloride of platina. It pan%. distilled water, 1,000 parts. II. — Carbonate of soda, 250 parts, I y weight; chloride of platina, 10 parts; tU^ tilled water, 1,000 parts. III. — Sulphocyanide of potash. %t parts, by weight; chloride of plattas, 1 1 parts; carbonate of soda. It parts; «iM- tilled water, 1,000 parts. I V.~ Borate of soda, 500 parity hy weight; chloride of platina. It partt, * tilled water, 1,000 parts. Digitized by VjOOQ IC PLATING 687 SILVERmG, SILVER.PLATmG, AKD DESILVBRING: See also Silvering by Oxidation, under Oxidation Proeeasea, under Plating. Antique Silver — There are various processes for producing antique silver, either fat or oxidized: To a little copal varnish add some finely powdered ivory black or graphite. Thin with spirits of turpentine ana rub with a brush dipped into this varnish the obiects to be treated. Allow to dry fur an hour and wipe off the top of the articles with some rag, so that the black remains only in the hollows. If a softer lint is desired, applv aeain with a dry brush and wipe as tne first time. The c«iating of black will be weaker and the shade nandsomer. Britannia ^ver-Plating. — I. — The article should first be cleaned and then rubbed by means of a wet cloth with a pinch of powder obtained by mixing to- gether: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; cyanide of potassium, 2 parts; chalk, 6 parts. Then wipe with a dry cloth, and polish well with rouge to give brilliancy. II. — By the electric method the metal is simply plunged into a hot saturated solution of crude^ potassium carbonate, and the plating is then done directly, using a strong electrical current. The potassium caroonate solution dissolves the surface of the britannia metal and thus enables the silver to take a strong hold on the article. To Silver Braas, Bronze, Copper, etc — I. — In order to silver cooper, brass, bronze, or coppered metallic articles, dissolve 10 fiarts of lunar caustic in 500 parts of distilled water, and S5 parts of potassium cyanide (98 per cent) in 500 parts of distilled water; mix both solu- tions with stirring, heat to ITe*" to 194"* F. in an enameled vessel, and enter the articles, well cleansed of fat and impuri- ties, until a uniform coating has formed. n. — Zinc, brass, and copper are sil- vered by applying a paste of the follow- ing composition: Ten parts of silver nitrate dissolved in 50 parts of distilled water, and 85 parts of potassium cya- nide dissolved m distilled water; mix, stir, and filter. Moisten 100 parts of whiting and 400 parts of powdered tartar with enough of the above solution to make a paste-like mass, which is applied bv means of a brush on the well-cleaned objects. After the dr^ng of this coat- ing, rinse off, and dry in sawdust. in. — To silver brass and copper by friction, rub on the articles, previously cleaned of grease, a paste of silver chloride, 10 parts; cooking salt, 20 parts; powdered tartar, 20 parts; and the nec- essary water, using a rag. Dedlvering. — I. — It often happens in plating that, notwithstanding all pre- cautions, some pieces have failed and it is necessary to commence the work again. For remorins the silver that has been applied, a rapid method is to take sulphuric acid, 100 parts, and nitrate of potash, 10 parts. Put the sulphuric acid and the nitrate of potash (saltpeter) in a vessel of stoneware or porcelain, heated on the water bath. When the silver has been removed from the cop- per, rinse the object several times and recommence the silvering. This bath may be used repeatedly, taking care each time to put it in a stoppered bottle. When it nas been saturated with silver and has no more strength, decant the deposit, boil the liquor to drvness, add the residue to the deposit, ana melt in a crucible to regenerate the metal. II. — To dissolve the silver covering of a metallic object, a bath is made use of, composed of 66 per cent sulphuric acid, S parts, and 40 per cent nitric acid, 1 part This mixture is heated to about 176^ F., and the obiects to be desilvered are suspended in it by means of a copper wire. The operation is accomplished in a few seconds. The objects are washed and then dried in sawdust. To Stiver Glass Balls and Plate Glass. — The following is a method for silvering the glass balls which are used as orna- ments in gardens, glass panes, and con- cave mirrors: Dissolve 300 parts of nitrate of silver and 200 parts of am- monia in 1,300 parts of distilled water. Add 35 parts of tartaric acid dissolved in 4 times its weight of water. Dilute the whole with 15,000 to 17,000 parts of distilled water. Prepare a second solu- tion containing twice the amount of tartaric acid as the preceding one. Ap- ply each of these solutions successively tor 15 to 20 minutes on the glass to be silvered, which must previously have been cleaned and dried. When the sil- vering is sufficient, wash the object with hot water, let dry, and cover with a brown varnish. Iron Stiver -PlatinF. — I. — -Iron articles are plated with quicksilver in a solution of nitrate of mercury before being sil- vered. The quicksilver is then removed bv heating to 572'' F. The articles may also be first tinned to economize the silver. Steel is dipped in a mixture of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 588 PLATLXG 111 nitrate of sflver and mercury, each dis- solved separately in the proportion of 5 parU, by weight, to SOO parts, by weight, of water, then wiped to remove the black film of carbon, and silvered till a sample dipped in a solution of blue vitriol ceases to turn red. According to H. Krupp, articles made of an alloy of nickel, cop- per, and zinc, such as knives, forks, spoons, etc., should be coated electric- ally with nickel, put into a solution of copper like that used for galvanic cop- pering, and then electroplated. II. — A brilliant silver color may be imparted to iron (from which all grease has been previously removed) by treat- ing it with the following solution: Forty parts, by weight, chloride of antimony; 10 parts, by weight, powdered arsenious acid; and 80 parts levigated hematite are mixed with 1,000 parts of 90 per cent alcohol and gently heated for half an hour on a water bath. A partial so- lution takes place, and a small cotton pad is then dipped in the liquid and applied with a gentle pressure to the iron. A thin 6Im consisting of arsenic and an- timony is precipitated, as described by Dr. Langbein, in his "Handbuch der i;alv. Metallniederschlttge.*' The bril- lancy of the effect depends upon the care with which the iron has previously been polished. To Silver-Plate Metals.— I.— Nitrate of silver, 30 parts, bv weight; caustic potash, SO parts; distillca water, 100 parts. Put the nitrate of silver into the water; one-quarter hour afterwards add the pot- ash, and, when the solution is done, fil- ter. It is sufficient to dip the objects to be silvered into this bath, moving them about in it for 1 or 2 minutes at most; then rinsing and drying in sawdust. It is necessary to pickle the pieces before using the bath. To make the nitrate of silver one's self, take SO parts of pure sUver and 60 parts of nitric acid, and when the metal is dissolved add the caustic potash and the water. II. — Kayser*s silverinff liauid, which is excellent for all kinds oi metals, is prepared from lunar caustic, 11 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 20 parts; sal am- moniac, 12 parts; whiting, 20 parts; and distilled water, 200 parts. The articles must be cleaned well. Mosaic Silver. — This compound con- sists of tin, 3 parts, by weight; bismuth, 8 parts; and mercury, IJ parts. The alloy of these metals is powdered finely, thus forming a silvery mass used for imitation silvering of metals, paper, wood, etc. In order to impart to metals. especially articles of copper and brass, Sm appearance similar to silver, thev are made perfectly bright. The powder of the mosaic silver is mixed with six times the volume of bone ashes, adding eoouirh water to cause a paste and rubbing tbii on the metallic surface by means of s cork of suitable shape. In order to silver paper by means of this preparation it is ground with white of egg, diluted muci&ge, or varnish, and treated like a paint. Pastes for Silvering. — I. — Carbonatr of lime, 65 parts; sea salt, 60 part«: cream of tartar, S5 parts; nitrate of silver, 20 parts. Bray all in a mortar, not adding the carbonate of lime until the other substances are reduced to a fine powder. Next, add a little water to form a homogeneous paste, which is ereaerved in blue bottles away from the ght. For use, put a little of this pa«te on a small pad and rub the article with it. II. — Articles of zinc, brass, or copprr may also be silver-fJated by appJriiii; t » them a pasty mass of the lollovtaf composition: First dissolve 10 parts. ^7 weight, of nitrate of silver in 50 parts. I7 weight, of distilled water; also 25 parts by weight, of potassium cyanide in sa^ cient distilled water to dissolve it. Pour the two together, stir well, and filter. Now 100 parts, by weight, of whiting «r levigated chalk and 400 parts, by wnirht. of potassium bitartrate, finely powdeml. are moistened with the above solution sufficiently to form a soft pa&te, wfat« ft mav be applied to the objects, prrvitMi«iv well cleansed, with a brush. ^Vfter \\u* coating has dried well, rinse it off, aofi dry the object in clean sawdust. Re8ilveriii^.---I. — Take 100 part*. !•.' weight, of distilled water and divide it into two equal portions. In the one dis- solve 10 parts of silver nitrate and in il< other 25 paits o£ potassium cymnide The two solutions are reunited in a sin^W vessel as soon as completed. Next pre- pare a mixture of 100 parts of Spant^ white, passed through a fine sieve, 10 parts of cream of tartar^ulveri/ed, ab^ 1 part ^ of mercury. This pom tier i* stirred in a portion of the above hou>a so as to form a rather thick paste. The composition is applied by means vl the finger, covered with a rag, on the oh)red on the polishing brushes. Finally, rouge pow* der is employed with oil of turpentine. Polishes for Ban, Cotrnten, etc I. — Linseed oil 8 ounces Stale ale 8 ounces Hydrochloric acid . . I ounce Alcohol, 95 per cent. 1 ounce White of 1 egg. Mix. Shake before using. Clfaa out the dust, dirt, etc., using an appn>- priate brush, or a bit of doth wrapped around a stick, then apply the abi»e, with a soft brush, or a bit of cotioo wrapped in a bit of silk — or, in fact, ati; convenient method of applying it. II. — Japan wax.. .... 1 av. ounce Oil of turpentine S fluidouncr% Linseed oil 16 fluidouocr* Alcohol 8 fluidouncr* Solution of pot- ash l}flttidouncr« Water to make 32 fluidouncrs. Dissolve the wax in the turfxentine. add the other ingredients, diluting tkr potash solution with the water liefoir adding to the other ingredients* and stir briskly until well mixed. POLISHES FOR BRASS, BRONZE, COPPER, ETC, Objects of polished copper, bronrr. brass, and other alloys of copper tamuh through water and it is sometimes ne<>r^ sary to give them again their bright ap- pearance. Pickle the articles in an and oath; wash them next in a neutral bath, dry them, and subseouently rub Ihem with a polishing powder. Such is the general formula: the processes indicatpr articles, etc., where scratching is not ob- jectionable: I. — Quartz sand, pow- dered and levigat- ed to parts Paris red 80 parts Vaseline 50 parts Mix intimately and make a pooMde. II. — Emer^ flour, finest levigated 50 parts Paris red 50 parts Mutton suet 40 parts Oleic acid 40 parts III. — Levigated emery p(»wder .... ... 100 parts Anhydrous sodium carbonate 5 parts Tallow soap <0 part« Water 100 parU Digitized by VjOOQ IC POLISHES 691 Articlefl. — Make a mixture of powdered charcoal, very fine, 4 parts; spirit of wine, 3 parts; and essence of turpentine, 2 parts. To this add water in which one-third of its weight of sorrel salt or oxalic acid has been stirred, and rub the objects with this mixture. Bronze Articles. — Boil the objects in soap ljre» wash in plenty of water, and dry in sawdust B^hkj Oxidized Bronzes.— First dip in strong soda lye» then in a bath con- taining 1 part of sulphuric acid to 12 parts of water. Rinse in clean water, and next in water containing a little am- monia. Dry and rub with a polishing powder or paste. POLISHES FOR FLOORS. L — Throw a handful of permanganate potash crystals into a pail of boiling water, ana apply the mixture as hot as possible to the floor with a lar^ flat brush. If the stain produced is not dark enough, apply one or two more coats as desired, leaving each wash to dry thorouj^hlv before applying another. If it b desired to polish tne surface with beeswax, a coat ot siae should be applied to the boards before staining, as this gives depth and richness to the color. .\fter 3 or 4 daj^s, polish well with a mix- ture of turpentine and beeswax. A few otitis will cover the cost of both size and permanganate of potash. IL— Potash 1 part Water 4 parts Yellow beeswax .... 5 parts Hot water* a sufllicient quantity. Emulsify the wax by boiling it in the water in which the potash has been dis- solved; stir the whole time. The exact amount of boiling is determined by the absence of any free water in the mass. Then remove the vessel from the fire, and gentlv pour in a little boiline water, and stir tne mixture carefully. If a fat- like mass appears without traces of vatery particles, one may know the mass is in a nt condition to be liquefied by the addition of more hot water without the water separating. Then put in the water to the extent of 200 to 225 parts, and reheat the compound for 5 to 10 minutes, without allowing it to reach the boiling point. Stir constantly until the mixture tM oool. SO as to prevent the separation of the wax, when a cream-like mass results which nves a <|aick and brilliant polish on woodwork, ii applied in the usual way, on a piece of flannel rag, and polished by mLbing with another piece of flannel. Colored Floor Polishes. — ^Yellow : Caus- tic soda solution, 7} parts, mixed with lA to 2 parts of finely powdered ocher, heated with 2} parts of yellow wax, and stirred until uniformly mixed. A reddish-brown color may be obtained by adding 2 parts of powdered umber to the above mixture. Nut Brown. — I. — Natural umber, J part; burnt umber, 1 part; and vellow ocher, 1 part, gives a fine red-brown color when incorporated with the same wax and soda mixture. II. — Treat 5 pounds of wax with 15 pounds of caustic soda Ive of 3** Be. so that a uniform wax milk results; boil with i pound of annatto, 8 pounds of yellow ocher, and 2 pounds of burnt umber. Mahogany Brown. — Boil 6 pounds of wax with 15 pounds of caustic soda lye as above. Tnen add 7 pounds of burnt umber very finely powdered, making it into a uniform mass by boiling again. Yellow Ocher. — The wax milk obtained as above is boiled with 5 pounds of yel- low ocher. The mass on cooling has the consist- ency of a salve. If it is to be used for rubbing the floor it is stirred with suf- ficient boiling water so as to form a fluid of the consistency of thin syrup or oil. This is applied very thin on the floor, using a brush; then it is allowed to dr^ only half way, and is rubbed with a stiff floor brush. The polishing is continued with a woolen rag until a mirror-like gloss is obtained. It is best not to paint the whole room and then brush, but the deals should be taken one after the other, otherwise the coating would become too dry and give too dull a luster. The floors thus treated with gloss paste are very beautiful. To keep them in this condition they should be once in a while rubbed with a woolen rag, and if necessary the color has to be renewed in places. If there are parquet floors whose patterns are not to be cov- ered up,^ the ocher (yellow) paste or, better still, the pure wax milk is used. French Polish. — The wood to be pol- ished must be made perfectly smooth and all irregularities removed from the surface with glass paper; next oil the work with linseed oil, taking care to rub off all super- fluous oil. (If the wood is white no oil should be used, as it imparts a slight color.) Then prepare a wad or rubber of wadding, taking care there are no hard lumps in it. After the rubber is prepared pour on it a small quantity of polisn. Tnen cover it with a piece of old cotton rag (new will Digitized by VjOOQ IC 592 POLISHES not answer). Put a small drop of ofl with the finger on the surface of the rub- ber, and then proceed to polish, moving the rubber in lines, making a kind of fig- ure of eight over the work. Be very careful that the rubber is not allowed to stick or the work will be spoilt. A little linseed oil facilitates the process. When the rubber requires more polish, turn back the rag cover, pour on the polish, replace the cover, oil and work as before. After this rubbing has proceeded for a little time and the whole surface has been gone over, the work must be allowed to stand for a few hours to harden, and then be rubbed down smooth with very fine emery paper. Then give another coat of polish. If not smooth enough, emer^ paper again. ^This process must continue until the grain is filled up. Fin- ish off with a clean rubber with only spirit on it (no polish), when a clear bright surface snould be the result. Great care must be taken not to put the polish on too freelv, or you will get a rough surface. After a little practice all difficulties will vanish. Tne best French polish will be found to be one made only from good pale orange shel- lac and spirit, usine 3 pounds of shellac for each gallon of spirit. The latter should be of 63 to 64° over-proof. A weak spirit is not suitable and does not make a good polish. A few drops of pure linseed oil make the polish work more freely. POLISHES FOR FURlfTTURE. First make a pa.ste to fill cracks as fol- lows: Whiting, plaster of Paris, pumice stone, litharge, equal parts; japan dryer, boiled linseed oil, turpentine, coloring matter of sufficient quantity. Rub the solids intimately with a mixture of 1 part of the japan, i parts of the linseed oil, and 3 parts of turpentine, coloring to suit with Vandyke brown or sienna. Lay the filling on with a brush, let it set for about 20 minutes, and then rub off clean except where it is to remain. In S or 3 days it will be hard enough to polish. After the surface has been thus pre- pared, the application of a coat of first- class copal varnish is in order. It is recommended that the varnish be ap- plied in a moderately warm room, as it is injured by becoming chilled in drying. To grt the best results in varnisiiinff. some skill and experience are required. The varnish must be kept in an evenly warm temperature, and put on neither too plentifully nor too gingerly. After a satisfactorily smootn and reg- ular surface has been obtained, tK# polishing proper mav be done. Tti> may be accoriplishedi by manual UK" and dexterity, or consist in the applies tion of a very thin, even coat of a Trn fine, transparent varnish. If the hand-Dolishing method >» preferred, it may oe pursued bv ruhbuif Driskljr and thoroughly with tne foUov- ing finishing polish: I. — Alcohol 8 ouacrt Shellac t drachm* Gum benzoin < dracbcDA Best poppy oil < dracbcj Dissolve the shellac and j^m is l^ alcohol in a warm place, with freqorrt affitation, and, when cold, add the |K>pf? ou. This mav be applied on the end «''« cylindrical rubber made by tightly run i^ a piece of flannel which has been ton. 9»< cut, into strips 4 to 6 inches vtde. A certain *'oi]y sweating** of aiticr* of polished wood occurs which has hrr^ ascribed to the oil used in polishing ^ot has been found to be due to a waiy »*<- - stance present in shellac* which is ^^i"^ used in polishing. During the operat •• > ; of poHsning, this wax enters into rl»*c combination with the oil, forming a ^tf* ?;reasy mass, which prevents the rsnii*> rom ever becoming really hard. 1 b4« greasy matter exudes in the coune of ttmc^ The remedy is to use only shrllac ^n which the vegetable wax has been ri*a>< pletely removed. This is accnmpli«K'd py making a strong solution of the »lif li-'^ in alcohol and then shaking it ud vhS fresh seed lac or filtering it throogli irr*i lac. In this way the readilv s(4tt'i' rosins in the seed lac are dissiulved, ft"*i with them traces of coloring matter. \( the same time the vegetable wat, wkt*^ is only slightly soluble, is deposited. 1y shellac solution which has exchanged it* vegetable wax for tosin is not yet suit^Mr for fine furniture polishing. It is !•< sufficiently taken np by the wood, st an essential oil roust be added to gtnw * the necessa nr properties, one of the Iv^ oils to employ for this purpufe hei*-t that of rosemary. The folio wing rt*-'»* is given: II. — Twenty pounds of shellae am' * pounds of benxoin are dissolved n t^^ smallest |MMsible quantity of aintbul. !>• get her with 1 pound of rosemary oil T>-^ solution then obtained is filtered thr«Ki/t seed lac so as to remove whatever Ttgirt*- ble wax may be present. Red Furniture Piute. — Soft water 6 pint* Turpentine 6 pmb Digitized by VjOOQ IC POUSHES 598 Beeswax 8 pounds White wax 1) ounces White soap 18 ounces Red lead 12 ounces Cut up soap and dissolve in water by aid of heat: then evaporate to 6 pounds. Melt the waxes and add^ turpentine in which red lead has been stirred, pour into this the soap solution, and stir until it is nearly cold. If a darker color is wanted add more red lead, 4 to 6 ounces. Beechwood Fomiture. — The wood of the red beech is known to acquire, by the UAC of ordinary shellac polish, a dirty yellow color, and by the use of white polish, prepared from bleached shellac, an unsightly gray-white color.^ There- fore, where light colors are desired, only filtered shellac polish should be em- ployed, and in oraer to impart some fire to the naturally dull color of the beech- wood the admixture of a solution of dragon's blood in alcohol for a red shade, or turmeric in alcohol for yellow may be UM^. A compound of the red and yel- low liquids gives a gciod orange shade. A few trials will soon show how much coloring matter may be added to the p«j|ish. PioUahei for Glass. — I. — Mix calcined magnesia with purified benzine to a semi- liquid paste. Rub the glass with this mixture by means of a cotton wad, until it is bright. II. — Crush to powder cologne chalk, 60 jwrts, bv weight: tripoli, 30 parts, by weight; bole, 15 parts, by weignt. For use moisten the glass a little, cup a linen rag into the powder and rub the glass until it is clean. HI. — Tin ashes may be emploved with advantage. The glass is rubbed with this substance and then washed off with a piece of soft felt. ^ In this manner a very nandsome polish is obtained. Poiisbes for lyory. Bone, etc. — I. — First rub with a piece of linen soaked with a paste made of Armenian bole and oleic add. Wash with Marseilles soap, dry, rub with a chamois skin, and finallv render it bright with an old piece 4if siIk. If the ivory is scratched, it may be smoothed by means of English red stuff on a doth, or even with a piece of class if the scratches are rather deep. To the hollow parts of ivory objects the paste can be made to penetrate by means of an old toothbrush. 11^ — Tortoise-shell articles have a way of getting dull and dinjgy looking. To repotish dip the finger in linseed oil and rub over the whole surface. Very little oil should be used, and if the article is a patterned one it may be necessary to use a soft brush to get it into the crevices. Then rub with the palm of the hand until all oil has disappeared, and the shell feels hot and looks bright and shiny. Marble Polishing. — Polishing includes five operations. Smoothing the rough- ness left on the surface is done by rub- bing the marble with a piece of moist sandstone; for moldings either wooden or iron mullers are used, crushed, and wet sandstone, or sand, more or less fine, according to the degree of polish re- quired, being thrown under them. The second process is continued rubbing with pieces of potterr without enamel, which nave only oeen baked once, also wet. If a brilliant polish is required, Gothland stone instead of pottery is used, and potter's clay or fuller's earth is placed beneath the muller. This operation is performed upon granites and porphyry with emery and a lead muller, tne upper part of which is incrusted with the mix- ture until reduced by friction to day or impalpable powder. As the polish de- pends almost entirelv upon these two operations, care must be taken that they are performed with a regular and steady movement. When the marble has re- ceived the first polish, the flaws, cavities, and soft spots are sought out and filled with mastic of a suitable color. This mastic is usually composed of a mixture of yellow wax, rosin, and Bur- gundy pitch, mixed with a little sulphur and plaster passed through a fine sieve, whicn gives it the consistency of a thick paste; to color this paste to a tone anal- ogous to the ground tints or natural cement of the material upon which it is f>laced, lampblack and rouge, with a ittle of the prevailing color of the ma- terial, are added. For green and red marbles, this mastic is sometimes made of gum lac, mixed with Spanish sealinj^ wax of the color of the marble. It is applied with pincers, and these parts are polished with the rest. Sometimes crusned frasments of marble are intro- duced into tne cement, but for fine mar- bles the same colors are employed which are used in painting, ana which will produce the same tone as the ground; the ^um lac is added to give it body and brilliancy. The tnird operation in polishing con- sists in rubbing it again with a hard pumice stone, under which water is being constantly poured, unmixed with sancT For the fourth process, called Digitized by VjOOQ IC 594 POLISHES softeningl the ground, lemd filings are mixed with the emery mud produced by the polishing of mirrors or the workin|; of precious stones, and the marble is ruboed by a comjMCt linen cushion well saturated with this mixture; rouge is also used for this polish. For some outside works, and for hearths and paving tiles, marble workers confine themselves to this polish. When the marbles have holes or grains, a lead muUer is substi- tuted for the linen cushion. In order to give a perfect brilliancy to the polish, the gloss IS applied. Wash well the pre> pared surfaces and leave them until per- fectly dry, then take a linen cushion, moistened only with water, and a little powder of calcined tin of the first qual- ity. After rubbing with this for some time take another cushion of dry rags, rub with it lightly, brush away any for- eign substance wnich might scratcn the marble, and a perfect poRsh will be ob- tained. A little alum mixed with the water used penetrates the pores of the marble, and gives it a speedier polish. This polish spots very easily and is soon tarnisned and destroyed by dampness. It is necessary when purchasing articles of polished marbles to subject them to the test of water; if there is too much alum, the marble absorbs the water and a whitish spot is left. POLISHING POWDERS. Polishing powders are advantageously prepared according to the following re- cipes: I. — Four pounds magnesium carbon- ate, 4 pounds chalk, and 4 pounds rouge are intimately mixed. II. — Four pounds magnesium carbon- ate are mixed with } pound fine rouge. III. — Five pounds fine levigated whit- ing and 2 pounds Venetian red are ground together. IV. — Kieselguhr 42 pounds Putty powder 14 pounds Pipe day. .^ 14 pounds Tartaric acid 1 ) pounds Powder the acid, mix well with the others. This is styled "free from mer- cury, poisonous mineral acids, alkalies, or grit.*' It may be tinted with 12 ounces of oxide of iron if desired. Liquid Polishes. — I. — Malt vinegar 4 gallons Lemon juice 1 gallon Paraffine oil 1 gallon Kieselguhr 7 pounds Powdered bath brick S pounds Oil lemon 2 ounces II. — Kieselguhr 59 pousdi Paraffine oil 8 gallosf Methylated spirit. . . 14 galloBs Camphoratea spirit. | galloo TurfMUtine oil { gallea Liquid ammonia fort S pbb m. — Rotten stone 16 a v. ouom Parafllne 8 av. ounm Kerosene (coal oil) 16 fiaidonam Oil of mirbane enough to |vf. fume. Melt the paraffine, incorporate tW* rotten stone, add the kerosene, aai to it the kerosene, and incorporate tht powder; when cool, add oil oi mirhssr or lavender to perfume. Pour the ammonia into the oil, mtihy lated spirits, and turpentine, add tW camphorated spirit and mix with tl< kieselguhr. To prevent setting, kerp well agitated during filling. The tolvt mtLj be turned red by usinf a tittle «r*- 2uioxide of iron and Icaa kieselgukr .pply with a doth, and when dry a«« another dean doth or a bmah. Polishing Soaps.— I. — Powdered pipe day 112 poitad* Tallow scMip 16 poood* Tartaric acid 1} poaad* Grind until pastv. afterwards pttm is* blocks by the machine. II. — Levigated flint 60 pooads Whitmg .52 pooaiU Tallow 20 poaadt Caustic soda 5 potts«h Water 2 gallos* Dissolve the soda in water and sikl t«> the tallow; when saponified, stir ts tk« others, pressing as before. III. — Saponified cocoanut oil 56 poasd* Kieselguhr 12 poesd* Alum 51 poasds Flake white 5) poaaerfume. The latter is added merely to hide the nasty smell of some of the ffreases used, and it is not very nice to nave spoons, etc., smelling, even tasting, of miroane, so perhaps citronelle is best for this purpose. It is likely to be more pure. The dose of scent is usually at the rate of 4 ounces to the hundred- weight. U. — Dehydrated soda. . 5 parts Cura soap 20 parts Emery flour 100 parts To be stirred together on a water bath with water, 100 parts, until soft. III. — ^Turpentine 1 part Emery flour 1 part Paris red 2 parts Vaseline 2 parts Mix well and perfume. IV. — Stearine 8 to 0 parts Mutton suet 82toS8 parts Stearine oil 2 to 2.5 parte Melt together and mix with Vienna chalk, in fine powder, 48 to 60 parte; Paris red, 20 parte. V. — Rotten stone 1 part Iron su bear bona te. . 3 parte Lard oil, a sufficient quantity. VI. — Iron oxide 10 parte Pumice stone 32 parts Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity. VII, — Soap, cut fine 16 parte Precipiteted chalk.. 2 parte Jewelers' rouge. ... 1 part Cream of terter 1 part Magnesium carbon- ate 1 part Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soap in the smallest Quantity of water over a water bath. Add the other ingrediente to the solu- tion while still hot, stirring all the time Xn make sure of complete liomogeneity. Pour the mass into a box with shallow sides, and afterwards cut into cubes. Non-Explosive Liouid Metal Polish. — Although in a liquid form, it does not necessarily follow that a liquid polish is less economical than pastes, because the efficiency of both is dependent upon the amount of stearic or oleic acid they con- tein, and a liquid such as that given be- low is as rich in this respect as most of the pastes, especially those conteining much mineral jellv and earthv matters which are practically inert, and can only be considered as filling material. Thus it is a fact that an ounce of fluid polish may possess more polishing potency than an equal weight of the paste. Propor- tions are: Sixteen pounds crude oleic acid; 4 pounds tasteless mineral oil; 5 pounds kieselguhr; 1} ounces lemon oil. Make the earthy matter into a paste with the mixed fluids and gradually thin out, avoiding lumps. Apply with one rag, and finish with another. Miscellaneoua Metal PoUihet.— I.— Articles of polished copper, such as clocks, stove ornaments, etc., become ternished very ouickly. To restore their brilliancv dip a brush in strong vinegar and brush the objecte to be cleaned. Next pass through water and dry in sawdust. A soap water, in which some carbonate of soda has been dissolved, will do the same service. II. — This is recommended for ma- chinery by^ the chemical laboratory of the industrial museum of Bate via: Oil of turpentine 15 parte Oil of stearine 25 parte Jewelers' red 25 parts Animal charcoal, of superior quality 45 parte Alcohol is added to that mixture in such a quantity as to render it almost liquid, then by means of a brush it is put on those parte that are to be polished. When the alcohol has dried, the remain- ing cover is rubbed with a mixture of 45 parte of animal charcoal and 25 parte jewelers' red. The rubbed parte will become quite clean and bright. III. — The ugly spote which frequently show themselves on nickel-plated ol>- jecte may be easilv removed with a mix- ture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 50 parte sJcohol. Coat the spote with this solu- tion, wipe off after a few seconds, rinse off thoroughly with clean water, and rub dry with sawdust. IV. — Crocus, dried and powdered, when applied with chamois leather to nickel-plated goods, will restore their brilliancy without injuring their surface. V. — Articles of tin should be ground Digitized by VjOOQ IC 596 POLISHES and polished with Vienaa Hme or Span- ish while. The former maj bespread on linen ran, the latter on wash leather. Good resiuts maj be obtained bj a miztoie of about e<^nal parts of Vienna lime, ehalk, and tnpolL It should be moistened with alcohol, and applied with a bmsh. Subsequent rubbing with roe skin (chamob) will produce a first-rate polish. Tin beinc a soft metal, the above polishing substanoes ma/ be werj fine. VI.— To polish watch cases, take two glasses with lai^^ openings, preferably two preserving jars with ground glass covers. Into one of the class vessels pour 1 part of spirit of su ammoniac and 8 parts water, adding a little ordi- narv barrel soap and stimng evervthing well. Pill the other glass one half with alcohol. Now lay the case to be cleaned, with sprinffs and all, into the first-named liquid and allow to remain therein for about 10 to 20 seconds. After pro- tracted use this time may be extended to several minutes. Now remove the case, quickly brush it with water and soap and lay for a moment into the alco- hol in the second vessel. After drying off with a clean cloth heat over a solder- ing flame for quick dryinc and the case wUl now look almost as aean and neat as a new one. The only thing that may occur is that a polished metal dome may become tarnisned, but this will only Happen if either the mixture is too strong or tne case remains in it too long, both of which can be easily avoided with a little practice. Shake before using. VII. — This is a cleanser as well as polisher: Prepared chalk 2 parts Water of ammonia 2 parts Water sufficient to make. 8 parts The ammonia saponifies the grease usually present. It must be pointed out that the alkali present makes this preparation somewhat undesirable to handle, as it will affect the skin if allowed too free contact. The density of the liquid might be increased bv the addition of soap; the solid would, of course, then remain longer in suspension. VIII.— Serviettes Kagiques.— These fabrics for polishing articles of metal con- sist of pure wool saturated with soap and tripoli, and dved with a little coralline. They are produced by dissolving 4 parts of Marsetlles soap in 20 parts of water, adding 2 parts of tripoli and saturating a piece of cloth 3 inches long and 4 inches wide with it, allowing to dry. IX. — In order to easfly produce a nut polish on small steel articles use fi&f |K>wdered oil stone, ground with turprn^ tine. FDfiihM lor Pianoa. — I. — Alcohol, 95 per cent. . SCO pari* Bensol 700 parts Gum bensoin 8 parts Sandarac 16 parts Mix and dissolve. Vae as FrvDrb polish. II.— Beeswax 2,500 parts Potassium carbon- ate 25 parU Ofl of turpentine.. . . 4,000 part« Water, rain or dis- tilled 4,500 parts Dissolve the potassium carbonate i' 1,500 parts of the water and in the solu- tion boil the wax, shaved up, untO thr latter is parUally saponified, replarui< the water as it is driven off by evapcrs- tion. When this occurs remove from tiw fire and stir until cold. Now add th^ turpentine little b^r little, and under col stant agitation, stirring until a sm4K>»b. homogeneous emulsion is formed. Wbro this occurs add the remainder ol tU water imdar constant stirring. If a color is wanted use alkanet root, lettiLx it macerate in the oil of turpentine h^ fore using the latter (about an ounce t> the (luart is suflicient). This prepsrs- tion is said to be one of the best poii«br« known. The directions are very simptr Pirst wash the surface to be poIishr«i rinse, and dry. Ap^y the paste as e\r .-> ly and thinly as possible over a {wrtioa -f tne surface, then rub off well with a *«i>< abrade the surface — is levigated €4*ii. either alone or with some vegetable art : like tartaric, or with alum. The usl. metal polishes, such as tripoli (diatoma^f^ ous earth), finely grouna pumice stusf. etc., cut away the surface so rmpidlv ti^t a few cleanings wear through ordinsn plating. I.— White lead 5 parts Chalk, levigated 20 parts Magnesium carbon- ate 2 parts Aluminum oxide 5 parts Silica $ parts Jewelers* rouge 2 parts Each of the inmdients must be tv- duced to an imDalpable powder, mtir- carelttlly, and sifted through sflk wrrmj Digitized by VjOOQ IC POLISHES 697 times to secure a perfect mixture, and to avoid any poosibility of leaving in the powder anything that miffht scratch the silver or gold surface* lliis may be left in the powder form, or incorporated with soap, made into a paste withglycer- ine, or other similar material. The ob- jection to mixtures with vaseline or greasy substances is that after deaning the object most be scrubbed with soap^ and water, wnile with glycerine simple rinsing and running water instantly cleans the object. The following is also a good formula: II.— Chalk, levigated .... ft parU Oil of turpentine. ... 4 parts Stronger ammonia water 4 parts Water 10 parts Mix the ammonia and oil of turpen- tine by agitation, and rub up the chaUc in the mixture. Finally rub in the water gradually or mix by agitation. Three parts each of powdered tartaric acid and chalk with 1 part of powdered alum make a cheap and quick silver cleaning powder. III. — Mix i parts of beech wood ashes with jtv o{ a part of Venetian soap and 8 parts of common salt in 8 parts of rain water. Brush the silver witn this, using a prettv stiff brush. A solution of crys- tallized permanganate of potash is often recommended, or even the spirits of hartshorn, for removing the gravish violet film which forms upon the surface of the silver. Finally, when there are well-determined blemishes upon the surface of the silver, they may be soaked 4 hours in soapmakers* Ive, then cover them with finely powdered gypsum which has been previously moistened with vineffar, dr^ng well before a fire; now rub tnem with something to remove the powder. Finally, they are to be rubbed again with very dry bran. POLISHES FOR STEEL AKD IRON. The polishing of steel must always be preceded by a thorough smoothing, either with oilstone dust, fine emery, or coarse rouge. If anv lines are left to be erased by means of fine rou^e, the oper- ation becomes tedious and is rarely suc- cessful. The oilstone dust is applied on an iron or copper polisher. When it is desired to preserve the angles sharp, at a shoulder, for instance, the polisher should be of steel. When using dia- mantine an iron polisher, drawn out and flattened with a hammer, answers verv weU. With fine rouge, a bronze or bell- mrtal polisher is preferable for shoul- ders; and for flat surfaces, discs or large zinc or tin polishers, although glass is preferable to either of these. After each operation with oilstone dust, coarse rouge, etc., the polisher, cork, etc., must be changed, and the object should be cleaned well, ^ preferably by soaping, perfect cleanliness being essential to success. Fine rouge or diamantine should be made into a thick paste with oil; a little is then taken on the polisher or glass and worked until quite dry. As the object is thus not smeared over, a black polish is more readily obtained, and the process gets on better if the surface be cleaned from time to time. For Fine Steel. — Take equal parts (by weight) of ferrous sulphate — green vitriol — and sodium chloride — cooking salt-^mix both well together bv grincf ing in a mortar and subject the mix- ture to red heat in a mortar or a dish. Strong fumes will develop, and the mass be^^n to flow. When no more fumes arise, the vessel is removed from the fire and allowed to cool. A brown substance is obtained with shimmering scales, resembling mica. The mass is now treated with water, partly in order to remove the soluble salt, partly in order to wash out the liffhter portions of the non-crystallized oxiae, which yield an excellent polishing powder. The fire must be neither too strong nor too long continued, otherwise the powder turns black and very hard, losing its good qualities. The more distinct the violet-brown color, the better is the powder. For polishing and cleaning fenders, fireirons, horses' bits, and similar arti- cles : Fifty-six pounds Bridge water stone ; 28 pounds flour emer^; 20 pounds rotten stone; 8 pounds whiting. Grind and mix well. To make iron take a bright polish like steel, pulverize and dissolve in 1 quart of hot water, 1 ounce of blue vitriol; 1 ounce of borax; 1 ounce of prussiate of potash; 1 ounce of charcoal; } pint of salt, all of which is to be added to one gallon of linseed oil and thoroughly mixed. To apply, bring the iron or steel to the proper heat and cool in the solution. Stove Polish. — The following makes an excellent graphite polish: I. — Ceresine 12 parts Japan wax 10 parts Turpentine oil 100 parts Lampblack, best... Imparts Graphite, levigated 10 parts Melt the ceresine and wax together, remove from the fire, and when half Digitized by VjOOQ IC Pf)IJSHES with Cf MfftS Z^ 9MtS *m^ pacts iS puts gU» ^•ttti ^^ueotule for cum .^> vaatot>«cy. Atier ^ .j^ vc. ^ over tile stove - *j. . &du .ct it dry on, - ^.%-4i^huiirs^ Now « .w« «.'Jft tike Mcosd mix- . « % '>r ««H«ce »t • tune, > -^a^ %iift Ml otd Msrfcing . ^ ^ » <^^>a. If cmrefuAy done A«Y % puibh muBbling ^ ^. . ^<«* !itk»««ui iron. A ▼»- .^ . .««•■* >^ «» follows: Mix . ^ ». • tfie water glass to a «^^.-. *^^ *or each pound of ^^ , . .r ^ ^yv-ertne and a few ^ .^ . .. *« -lUck. Apply to the ^ . .. I * -^i ^mtth. •^,Na^ «« WOOD: x^ •^>M Nsi^dwe^ tor Pmitnre. Floon . ^ ■** **^ 1 «« ,-f^' :««^h%ni of French pol- ^ . ^ *^ .^u wu>t be appKcd along ^»I -%** wiu ^iin >rery slight pres- ^ f . ^ V v*^it •» to be uniform. To V i..x ^x--'*"*' •u«»-*^ practice and the « .<». X i^x«/v>^«2> 4ow. Another dis- .. ^*. -»^>» > "** ^ ^ » •?• *® »weat 1, ..-x.^Aixis^ tMorautating further x^.j-%-* \.xx»raiiiiC to a German ^ , -* ^ n:tKu»t> v-un be avoided by *.»« . ^ «^«^«^vtt LiWf rubber and its cor- . * ^ K«.%x4rr * ^ * v%uf. •*H» powder obtained by »^.u<«tt;% *rf terra cotta or of \ . . \.vK^ l^ p^jwder is mois. , :,» .J V»r iik-^ The rubber will ..r o'v % ^••'^ H^ without any ..vv^ .^.K^v* ^H »ampulation and >» -v*^ ^A**rJ and forward rub- w a>*«^»i-*» i.^^andtheoflwdlnot x4tl. .-* N. v.*^*p«tlr. Another ad- ,^..^v ^ »t: ^v prtming is wanted. ^. .K K— ^- t X ^p the pores The ,..w.^ ^ .w tf^^virrnlso makes the .. >.» *..a..v «s*rt tktmis to the wood. >.%A ^i>^ P^?i»^ The wood is first ,J-^r^*-Ua.>4. Iben paints with the following rather thickly liquid . uaiiiff a brush, vis.: Mix 1) parts, bf weight, of finely washed chalk (whitinr)'. i part of dryer, and 1 part of boQed Im- seed oil with benzine and tint (umber with a little lampblack, burnt aieBna^ After the applied mixture has beoonc dry, rub it down, polish with i^asa pow- der, and once more coat with the asmr mixture. After this filling and after rubbing off with stickwood chips or fine sea grass, one or two coaU of shelUr are put on (white shellac with woiid alcohol for oak, brown shellac for chem and walnut). This coating is cut down with sandpaper and given a coat of var- nish, either polishing varnish, which b polished off with the ball of the hand or a soft brush, or with interior vami«h. which is rubbed down with oil ami pumice stone. This polish is glaas hard, transparent, of finer luster, and resisti^t. Hard Wood Poliah.— In finishing hsrd wood with a wax polish the woodu fir«t coated with a "filler," which is omitted in the case of soft wood. The filler m made from some hard substance, vert finely ground; sand is used by some msA- ttfactures. The polish is the same as for soft wood. The simplest method of applv- ing wax is by a heated iron, scraping off the surplus, and then rubbing wi& a doth. It is evident that this method it especially laborious; and for that reasva solution of the wax is desirable. It mmy be dissolved rather freely in turpentine spirit, and is said to be soluble also lo kerosene oil. The following recipes give vamish-tike polishes: I.^Dissolve 15 |iarU of shellac and U parts of sandarac in 180 parts of sptrit of wine. Of this liquid put some on a ball of doth waste and cover with white linen moistened with raw linseed ofl. The wood to be polished is rubbed with ^is by the well-known circular motion When the wood has absorbed suffirieat polish, a little spirit of wine is added to ^e polish, and the rubbing u contioaed. The polished artides are said to lustaia no damage by water, nor show spoU or cracks. II.— Orange shdlac. S parU; sandarar, 1 part; dissolved in SO parU of alcoh«4 For mahogany add a little diagmi's blood. • . m-T-Kfteen parts of oil of lurpra* tine, dyed with anchusine. or uadyw^ and 4 parU of scraped yellow wax arw stirred into a uniform mass by '^--'^ — on the water bath. Digitized by VjOOQ IC FOUSHES 699 IV. — Melt 1 part of white wax on the water bath, and add 8 parts of petro- leum. The mixture is applied hot. The petroleum evaporates ana leaves behind a thin layer of wax, which is subse* auently rubbed out lightly with a dry ioth rag. V. — Stearine 100 parts Yellow wax 25 parts Caustic potash .... 00 parts Yellow laundry soap 10 parts Water, a sufficient quantity. Heat toffether until a homogeneous mixture is formed. VI.— Yellow wax «5 parU Yellow laundry soap 0 parta Glue 12 parts Soda ash 25 parts Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soda in 400 parts of water, add the wax, and boil down to 250 parts, then add the soap. Dissolve the ^lue in 100 parts of hot water, and mix the whole with the saponified wax. VII. — This is waterproof. Put into a stoppered bottle 1 pint alcohol; 2 ounces gum benzoin; } ounce gum sandarac, and } ounce gum anime. Put the bottle in a sand bath or in hot water till the solids are dissolved, then strain the solu- tion, and add } gill best clear poppy oil. Shake well and the polish is reaay for use. Vm. — A white polish for wood is made as follows: White lac 1} pounds Powdered borax. ... 1 ounce Alcohol S pints The lac should be thoroughly dried, especially if it has been kept under water, and, in any case, after being crushed, it should be left in a warm place for a few hours, in order to remove every trace of moisture. The crushed lac and borax are then added to the spirit, and the mixture is stirred frequently until solution is effected, after which the polish should be strained through muslin. IX. — To restore the gloss of polished wood which has sweated, prepare a mixture of 100 parts of linseed oil, 750 parts of ether, 1,000 parts of rectified oil of turpent^e, and 1,000 parts of petro- leum bensme, perfumed, if desired, with a strongly ocforous essential oil, and colored, if required, with cuicuma, or- Ican, or alkanna. The objects^ to be treated are rubbed thoroughly with this mixture, using a woolen rag. mSCELLAHEOUS POUSHINO AGEHTS: Poliahinf Agent which mar also be used for Oildmg and SUvering. — The following mediums hitherto known as possessing the aforenamed properties, lose these qualities upon bavins been kept for some time, as the metal salt is partly reduced. Furthermore, it has not been possible to admix reducing substances such as zinc to these former polishing agents, since moisture causes the metal to precipitate. The present invention obviates these evils. The silver or gold salt is mixed with chalk, for instance, in a drv form. To this mixture, fine dry powders of one or more salts (e. g., am- monia compounds) in whose solutions the metal salt can enter are added; if re- quired, a reducing body, such as zinc, may be added at the same time. The composition is pressed firmly together and forms briquettes, in which condition the mass keeps well. For use, all that is necessary is to scrape off a little of the substance and to prepare it with water. Silver PoUahing Balls. — This polishing agent is a powder made into balls by means of a oinding medium and enjojrs much popularity in Germanv. It is prepared by adding 5 parts of levigated chalk to 2 parts of yellow tripoli, mixing the two powders well and making into a stiff paste with very weak gum water — 1 part gum arabic to 12 parts of water. This dough is finally shaped by hand into balls of the size of a pigeon's egs. The balls are put aside to ary on boaras in a moderately warm room, and when completely hard are wrapped in tin-foil paper. To Prepare Polishing Cloths.— The stuff must be pure woolen, colored with aniline red, and then put in the follow- ing: Castile soap, white. . 4 parts Jewelers' red 2 parts Water 20 parts Mix. One ounce of this mixture will answer for a cloth 12 inches square, where several of them are saturated at the same time. For the workshop, a bit of chamois skin of the same size (a foot souare), is preferable to wool, on account of its durabilitv. After impregnation with the soap solution, it should he dried in the air, being manipulated while drying to preserve its softness and suppleness. To Polish DeUcate Objects.— Rub the objects with a sponge charged with a mixture of 28 parts of alcohol, 14 parts of water, and 4 parts of lavender oil. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 600 POLISHES PolUh for Gilt Frames.— Mix and beat the whites of 8 eggs with one-third, by weight, of javeile water, and apply to the gilt work. Steel Dust m a Polishing Aeent — Steel dust is well adapted for polishing pre- cious stones and can replace emery with advantage. It is obtained by spraving water on a bar of steel brought to a nigh temperature. The metal becomes fria- ble and can be readily reduced to pow- der in a mortar. Tnis powder is dis- tinguished from emery by its mordanting properties and its lower price. Besides, It produces a finer, and consequently, a more durable polish. Polishing Bricks. — Stir into a thick pulp with water 10 parts of finely pow- dered and washed chalk, 1 part of Eng- lish red, and i parts of powdered gyp- sum; give it a square shape and dry. Polishing Cream. — Denaturized alcohol 400 parts Spirit of sal ammo- niac 75 parts Water 160 parts Petroleum ether .... 80 parts Infusorial earth 100 parts Red bole or white bole 50 parts Calcium carbonate. . 100 parts Add as much of the powders as de- sired. Mirbane oil may be used for scent- ing. Polishing Paste. — Infusorial earth (Kieselguhr) .... 8 ounces ParafBne 2 ounces Lubricating oil ... . 6 fluidounces Oleic acid 1 fluidounce Oil mirbane 30 minims Melt the paraffine with the lubricating oil, and mix with the infusorial earth, then add the oleic acid and oil of mir- bane. To Polish Paintings on Wood. — ^^Ac- cording to the statements of able cabinet makers who frequently had occasion to cover decorations on wood, especially aquarelle painting, with a polish, a good coating of fine wnite varnish is the first necessity, dammar varnish being em- ployed for this purpose. This coat is primarily necessary as a protective layer so as to preserve the painted work from destructive attacks during the rubbing for the production of a smooth surface and the subsequent polishing. At all events, the purest white polishing varnish must be used for the polish so as to pre- vent a perceptible subsequent darkening of the white painting colors. Natunllt the success here is also dependent upoo the skill of the polisher. To polish paint- ing executed on wood it is necessary to choose a white, dense, fine grained wood, which must present a well-smootbrd surface before the painting. Aftrr thr painting the surface is faintly coated with a fine, quickly drying, limpid varnbh. When the coating has dried well, it u carefully rubbed down with finely pulrrr- ized pumice stone, with tallow or whttr lard, and now this surface is polisltrd it the usual manner with a ^ood solutKto prepared from the best white shellac. Polishing Mediums. — For iron and steel, stannic oxide or Vienna limr or iron oxide and sometimes steel powder is employed. In using the bttnii»b«-r. first oil is taken, then soap water, ssii next Vienna lime. For copper, brass, German silver, aixi tombac, stearine oil and Vienna \itat are used. Articles of brass can be pol- ished, after the pickling, in the Uthr with employment of a polish consUtinc of shellac, dissolved in alcohol, I.MO parts; powdered turmeric, 1,000 part^. tartar, 2,000 parts; ox gall, 50 part^; water, 3,000 parts. Gold is polished with ferric ondr (red stuff), which, moistened with aloi- hoi, is applied to leather. For polishing silver, the baraisbrr ^^ bloodstone is employed, using »tacle containing water, so that the drill is used under water, and, after piercing the clay body, reaches the water again. In the case of objects glazed on the inside, instead of filling them with water, the spot where the drill must come through may be underlaid with cork. The pressure with which the drill is worked is deter- mined by the hardness of the material, but when the tool is about to reach the other side it should gradually decrease and finally cease almost altogether, so as to avoid chipping. In order to enlarge small bore holes already existing, three- cornered or four-square broaches, ground and polished, are oest adapted. These are likewise employed under water or, if the material is too hard (glass or enam- el), moistened with oil of turpentine. The simultaneous use of oil of turpen- tine and water is most advisable in all cases, even where the nature of the article to be pierced does not admit the use of oil alone, as in the case of maiolica and non-glazed porcelain, which absorb the oil, without the use of water. Porcelain Decoration. — A brilliant yel- low color, known as "gold luster," may be produced on porcelain bv the use of paint prepared as follows: Melt over a sand bath 30 parts of rosin, add 10 parts of uranic nitrate, and, while con- stantly stirring, incorporate with the liouicl 35 to 40 parts oi oil of lavender. After the mixture has become entirely homogeneous, remove the source of heat, and add SO to 40 parts more of oil of lavender. Intimately mix the mass thus obtained with a like quantity of bis- muth glass prepared by fusing together equal parts of oxide of bismuth and crystallized boric acid. The paint is to be burned in in the usual manner. PORCELAIN, HOW TO TELL POT- TERY AND PORCELAIN: See Ceramics. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 602 PRESERVATIVES— PRESERVING PORTLAHD CEMEHT: See Cement. PORTLAHD CEMEHT, SIZE OVER: See Adbesives. POSTAL CARDS, HOW TO MAKE SENSITIZED: See Photography, under Paper-Sensi- tixing Processes. POTASSIUM SILICATE AS A CE- MEHT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Ce- ments. POTATO STARCH: See SUrch. POTTERY: See Ceramics. POULTRY APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides. POULTRY FOODS AND POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR REME- DIES: See Veterinary Formulas. POULTRY WINE: See Wines and Liquors. POUNCE: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Ink Eraaicators. POWDER FOR COLORED FIRES: See Pyrotechnics. POWDER, FACE: See Cosmetics. POWDER, ROUP: See Roup Powder. POWDERS FOR STAMPING: See Stamping. POWDERS FOR THE TOILET : See Cosmetics. Presenratiyes (See also Foods.) PreiervatiTe Fluid for Muaeuma. — Formaldehyde solu- tion 6 parts Glycerine 12 parts Alcohol 3 parts Water 100 parU The addition of glycerine becomes necessary only if it is desired to keep the pieces in a soft state. Filterinjg through animal charcoal renders the liquid per* fectly colorless. For dense objects, such as lungs and liver, it is best to make in- cisions so as to facilitate the penetration of the fluid. In the case of ycry thick pieces, it is best to take 80 to 100 parti of formaldehyde solution for aoovc quantities. Pntenrative for Stone, etc — A nev composition, or paint, for protcctiaf stone, wood, cement, etc., from tht effects of damp or other deleterious b- fluences consists of quicklime, chalk. mineral colors, turpentine, boded oJ. galipot, rosin, and bentine. The hme, chalk, colors, and turpentine ate 6rA fixed and then made into a P*ste with thr boiled oil. The paste is finelj gronsd and mixed with the rosins pf^rioualf dissolved in the benxine. Praeervative for Stuffed Aniwalt - For the exterior preservation use Arsenic 0.7 parts Alum 15.0 partf Water 100.0 parts For sprinkling the inside skin as «rll as filling bones, the following is en- ployed: Camphor t parts Insect powder t parts Black pepper I part Flowers of sulphur. . . 4 parts Alum S parts Calcined soda S parts Tobacco powder S parts PreaenratiTet for Zoolofical and Aaa- tomical SpedflMiia. — The pre|iaratiua* are first placed in a solution or Duxtarr vi Sodium fluoride S parts Formaldehyde (40 per cent) t parts Water 100 parts After leaving this fixing liquid tW^ are put in the following preamnstnv solution: Glycerine («8* M.). . . 5 parts Water 10 parts Magnesium chloride.. I part Sodium fluoride O.t parts In this liquid xoological preparatii«*. espedally reptiles, retain Uieu aatarmJ coloring. Most anatomical prrparaUcis* likewise remain unchanged thmia PRESERVATIVES FOR WOOD: See Wood. Preserving Canning. — There should be no trm- ble in baring canned fruit keep wdl / perfect or "chemical deanlineas** m 4il«- served in regard to iars, lids, elr^ and .* the fruit or vegetables are in good ^f^r. not overripe or beginning lo fer^rrt where bruised or crusbea. Pruil «iii Digitized by VjOOQ IC PRESERVING 603 never come out of jars better than it goes in. It is better to put up a little fruit at a time when it is just ripe than to wait for a large amount to ripen, when the first may be overrioe and fermenting and likelr to spoil the whole lot. Use only the nnest flavored fruit. ^ Have everything ready before begin- ning canning. Put water in each jar, fit on rubbers and tops, and invert the jar on the table. If anv water oozes out try another top ana rubber until sure the jar is air-tight. Wash jars and tops, Dut them in cold water and bring to a Doil. When the fruit is cooked read^ take a iar from the boiling water, set It on a cfamp cloth laid in a soup Elate, dip a rubber in boilinff water, and t it on firmlv. Fill the jar to over- flowing, wipe the brim, screw on the top, , and turn it upside down on a table. If any syrup oozes out empty the jar back into the Kettle and fit on a tighter rub- ber. Let it stand upside down till cold, wipe clean, wrap in thick paper, and keejp in a cool, diy place. These general directions are for all fruits and vegetables that are cooked before putting in the jars. Fruit keeps its shape better if cooked in the jars, which should be prepared as above, the fruit carefullv looked over and^ filled into the jars. If a juicy fruit, like black- berries or raspberries, put the sugar in with it in alternate layers. For cherries the amount of sugar depends on the acidity of the fruit and is best made into a syrup with a little water and poured down through them. Peaches ana pears after paring, are packed into the jars and a syrup of about a quarter of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit poured over them. Most fruits need to be cooked from 10 to 15 minutes after the water around them begins to boil. Red raspberries ought not to be boiled. Put them mto jars as gently as possible; tbev are the tenderest of all fruits and will bear the slightest handling. ^ Drop them in looselv. fold a saucer into a clean cloth, and la^ over the top, set on a perforated board m a boiler, |K>ur water to two-thirds, cover and set over a slow fire. As the fruit settles add more until full. When it is cooked soft lift the jar out and fill to the top with boiling syrup of equal parts of sugar and water, and seal. Do not can all the fruit, for jams and jellies are a welcome change and also easier to keep. Raspberries and cur- rants mixed make delicious jam. Vae the juice of a third as many currants anroces8 will, in consequence of coagulating certain sub- stances, produce turbidity, and if clear liquid is required, filtration is, of course, necessary. In this case it is better to heat the juice in bulk in a kettle, filter through felt, fill the bottles, and then heat again in the containers as in the first instance. It is said that grape iuice prepared in this manner has been found unaltered after keeping for many years. Various antiseptics nave been proposed as preservatives for fruit juices ana other articles of food, but all such agents are objec;tionable both on ac- count of their direct action on the system and their effect in rendering food less digestible. While small quantities of such drugs occasionally taken may exert no appreciable effect, continuous use is liable to be more or less harmful. CRUSHED FRUIT PRESERVIHO: Crushed Pineapples. — Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple and drain off about one- half oi the liquor by placing on a strainer. Add to each Kund of pineapple 1 pound of granu- ed sugar. Place on tne fire and bring to boiling point, stirring constantlv. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce sataratr«i alcoholic solution salicylic acid. Put into air-tight jars until wanted for use. Crushed Peach. — Take a good brani to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoboltr solution of salicylic acid. Put into jan and seal hermetically. Crushed Apricots. — Prepared in siniUr manner to crushed peach, using cmaoeti apricots. Crushed Ormnge. — Secure oranges vitK a thin peel and containing Plenty *•( juice. Remove the outer or yalow prri first, taking care not to include any *4 bitter peeH The outer peel may ht used in making orange phoaohate or tincture sweet orange peel. After r^ nioving the outer peel, remove the iBorr. bitter peel, quarter and remove the seed« Extract part of the juice and grind tW pulp through an ordinanr meat cruidrr. Ada sugar, place on the fire, and nriDg U> the bouing point. When ready to re- move, add to each ^Uon I ounce satii rated alcoholic solution of salicylic ai^i and 1 ounce glycerine. Put into jar* and seal. Crashed Chenies.— If obuinable. tk« large, dark California cherry should be used. Stone the cherries, and grind to s pulp. Add sugar, and place on the lirr. stirring constantly. Before rensoTmc. add to each gallon I ounce of the Mt* rated solution of salicylic aad. Put lato jars and seal. Dry Sugar Preserriag. — The fmit* are embeoded in a thick layer of dr>. powdered sugar to which they give ip the greater part of the water cuntain<^ in them. At the same time, a ijuaiitjif of sugar passes through the skins ihU the interior of the fruits. Afterwani«. the fruits are washed once, wiped, sini completely dried. Fruit Preeerrlng. — Express the iuw and filter at once, through two tli»(^ nesses of best white Swedish paper. ir>i* a container that has been stmltsed ik> mediately before letting the juicv rv into it, by boiling water. The bmrr plan is to take out of water in actite ebullition at the moment you denrr t*< use it. Have readv some long-nerir«l 8-ounce vials, whicn should also be iri4 in boiling water until needed. Fnmr *y* juice into these, leaving room is t^"* upper part of the body of the viaJ lu rr Digitized by VjOOQ IC PRESERVING 605 ceive • teMpoonful of the best olive oil. Pour the Utter in so thst it will trickle down tbe^ neck and form a layer on top of the juice, and close the neck with a wad of antiseptic cotton thrust into it in such manner that it does not touch the oil, and leaves room for the cork to be put in without touching it. Cork and cap or seal the vial, and put in a cool, dark place, and keep standine upright. If carried out faithfully with aue atten- tion to cleanliness, this process will keep the juice in a perfectly natural condition for a very long time. The two essentials are the careful and rapid filtration, and the complete asepticization^ of the con- tainers. Another process, in use in the French Nav^, depends u|>on the rapid and careful filtermg of the juice, and the addi- tion of from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol. Raspberry Tuice. — A dark juice is obtained by aading to the crushed rasp- berries, before the fermentation, slisnt quantities of su^r in^ layers. The eth^l-alcohol forming during the fermen- tation is said to cause a better extraction of the ^ raspberrv red. Furthermore, the boilinff should not be conducted on a naked fire, but by means of super- heated steam, so as to avoid formation of caramel. Finally, the sugar used should be perfectly free from ultramarine and lime, since both impurities detract from the red color of the raspberries. Spice for Fmit Compote. — This is greatly in demand in neighborhoods where many plums and pears are pre- served. Parts Parts Lemon peel 15 or ... Cinnamon, ordi- nary 15 or 50 SUr aniseed .... 10 or 15 Coriander 3 or 100 Carob pods 5 or Ginger root, peeled 2 or 200 Pimento or 100 Licorice. . .^ or 100 Cloves, without stems or 80 Spanish peppers. . . or 2 Oil of lemon or 4 Oil of cinnamon ... or 2 Oil of doves or 2 An the solid constituents are pow- dered moderately fine and thoroughly mixed; the oils dropped in last, and rubbed into the powder. Stxttwbeiries. — Carefully remove the stems and calyxes, place the strawber- ries on a sieve, and move the latter about in a tub of water for a few mo- ments, to remove any dirt clinging to them. Drain and partially drv si>on- taneously, then remove from the sieve and put into a porcelain-lined kettle provided with a tight cover. To every pound of berries take a half pound of sugar and 2 ounces of water and put the same in a kettle over the fire. Let re- main until the sugar has dissolved or become liouid, and then pour the same, while still not, over the berries, cover the kettle tightly and let it stand overnight. The next morning put the kettle over the fire, removing the cover when the berries begin to boil, and let boil gently for 6 to 8 minutes (according to the mass), removing all scum as it arises. Remove from the fire, and with a perforated spoon or dipoer take the fruit from the svrup, and fill into any suitable vessel. Replace the syrup on the fire and boil for about the same length of time as before, then pour, ail hot, over the berries. The next day empty out the contents of the vessel on a sieve, and let the berries drain off; remove the syrup that drains off, add water, put on the fire, and boil until you obtain a syrup which flows but slowly from the stirring spoon. At this point add the berries, and let boil gently lor a few moments. Have your pre- serve jars as hot as possible, by putting them into a pot of cold water and bring- ing the latter to a boil, and into them ml the berries, hot from the kettle. Cool down, cover with buttered paper, and immediately close the jars hermetically. If corks are used, they should be pro- tected below with parchment paper, and afterwards covered with wet blaader stretched over the top, securely tied and waxed. The process seems verv trou- blesome and tedious, but aU of the care expended is repaid by the richness and pureness of the flavor of the preserve, which maintains the odor and taste of the fresh berry in perfection. Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preservative. — Hydrogen peroxide is one of the best, least harmful, and most convenient a^nts for preserving svrups, wine, beer, cider, and vinegar. For this purpose 2} flui- drachms of the commercial peroxide of hydrogen may be added to each quart of the article to be preserved. Hydrogen peroxide also affords an easy test for bacteria in water. When hvdrogen per- oxide is added to water that contains bacteria, these organisms decompose it, and consequently oxygen gas is given off. If the water be much contaminated the disengagement of gas may be quite brisk. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 606 PRESERVING— PUTTY To Presenre Hilk (which should be as freah aa possible) there should be added enough hvdrogen peroxide to cause it to be completely decomposed by the en- zymes ot the milk. For this purpose l.S per cent, by volume, of a 8 per cent nydrogen peroxide solution is required. The milk is well shaken and kept for 5 hours at liV to US'* F. in welWosed vessels. Upon cooling, it may keep fresh for about a month and also to retain its natural fresh taste. With this process, if pure milk is used, the ordinary disease germs are killed off soon after milking and the milk sterilized. Powdered Cork as a Preieryative. — Tests have shown that powdered cork is very efficacious for packing and pre- serving fruits and vegetables. A bed of cork is placed at the oottom of the case, and the fruits or vegetables and the cork are then disposed in alternate layers, with a final one of cork at the top. Care should be taken to fill up the interstices, in order to prevent friction. Fruit may thus be kept fresh a vear, provided any unsound parts have been removed pre- liminarily. When unpacking for sale, it suffices to plunge the fruit into water. Generally speaking, 50 pounds of cork go with 1,000 or 1,200 pounds of fruit. The cork serves as a protection ajgainst cold, heat, and humidity. Various fruits, such as grapes, mandarines, tomatoes, and early vegetables, are successfully packed in this way. PRSSSURB TABLB; See Tables. PRINT COPYINO: See Copying. PRINTERS' OIL: See Oil. PRINTING ON PHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography. PRINTS, RESTORATION OF: See Engravings. PRINTS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Engravings. PRINTING OILCLOTH AND LEATHER IN GOLD: See Gold. PRINTING - OUT SENSITIZE: See Photography, under sitizing Processes. PRINTING-ROLLER COMPOSITIONS: See Holler Compositions for Printers. PAPER, HOW TO Paper-Sen- poli leri PRUNSLLE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. PRUSSIC ACID: See Poisons. PTOMAINE POISONING: See Antidotes. PUMICE STONE. While emery is used for polishing took lishinj^ sand for stones and gls^s 'erric oxide for fine glassware, and lime and felt for metals, pumice stone is mor« frequently emploved for polishing softer objects. Natural pumice stone pre- sents but little firmness, and the search has therefore been made to replace the natural product with an artificial one. An artificial stone has been produced by means of sandstone and day, designed to be used for a variety of purposes. No. 1, hard or soft, with coarse grain, i* designed for leather and wateroroof garments, and for the industries of felt and wool; No. 2, hard and soft, of avrr- &gc grain, is designed for work in stucro and sculptors' use, and for rubbing down wood before painting; No. 3, soA, with fine grain, is used for polishing wood sod tin articles; No. 4, oi average hardne^'^ with fine grain, is used for giving to woo«i a surface previous to polishing with ofl: No. 5, hard, with fine grain, is emplojrd for metal work and stones, espedslly lithographic stones. These artificial products are utilised in the same naniier as the volcanic products. For givinit « smooth surfa<:e to wood, the operatioa is drv; but for finishing, the product is diluted with oil. PUMICE-STONE SOAP: See Soaps. PUNCHES: See Ice Creams. PUNCTURE CEMENT: See Cement. PURPLE OF CASSIUS: See Gold. Putty (See also Lutes, under Adhesives am! Cements.) Common putty, as used bv carpenters, painters, and glaciers, is whiting nixed with linseed oil to the conststencr of dough. Plasterers use a fine lime norlar that is called putty. Jewelers use s tis oxide for polisning, called putty povder or puts powder. fSee Puts * Powder, under Jewelers* Polisnes, under Poli*hc».) Digitized by VjOOQ IC PUTTY 607 Add-Proof Putty.— I.— Melt 1 part of gum elastic with 2 parta of linseed oil and mix with the necessary quantitv of white bole by continued kneading to tne desired consistency. Hydrochloric acid and nitric acia do not attack this putty, it softens somewhat in the warm and does not dry readily on the surface. The dry- ing and hardening is effected by an admix- ture of i part of litharge or red lead. II. — A putty ^ which will even resist boiling sulphuric acid is prepared by melting caoutchouc at a moderate heat, then adding 8 per cent of tallow, stirring constantly, whereupon sufficiently slaked lime is added until the whole nas the consistency of soft dough. Finally about 20 per cent of red lead is still added, which causes the mass to set im- mediately and to harden^ and dry. A solution of caoutchouc in double its weight of linseed oil, added by means of beat and with the like quantity (weight) of pipe clay, gives a plastic mass which likewise resisU most acids. Black Putty. — Mix whiting and an- timony sulphide, the latter finely pow- dered, with soluble glass. This puttv, it is claimed, can be polished^ after naraen- ing, by means of a Durnishing agate. Durmble PuttY. — According to the "Gewerbeschau, mix a handful of burnt lime with 4} ounces of linseed oil; allow this mixture to boil down to the consist- encjr of common putty, and dry the ex- tensible mass received, in a place not accessible to the rays of the sun. When the putty, which has become verv hard through the drying, is to be used, it is warmed. Over the flame it will become soft and pliable, but after having been applied and become cold, it binds the various materials very firmly. Glazien' Putty. — I. — For puttying panes or looking glasses into picture frames a fixture prepared as follows is well adapted: ^ Make a solution of gum elastic in bensine, strong enough so that a syrup-like fluid results.^ If the solu- tion be too thin, wait until the benzine evaporates. Then grind white lead in linseed-oil varnish to a stiff paste and add the gum solution. This putty may be used, besides the above purposes, for the tight putty ing-in of window panes into their frames. The putty is applied on the glass lap of the frames and the - -ly - panes are firmly pressed into it. The glass plates thereby obtain a good, firm support and stick to the wood, as the putty adheres both to the glass and to the wood. II. — A useful putty for mirrors, etc., is prepared by dissolving gumm^ elasti- cum (caoutchouc) in benzol to a syrupy solution, ^ and incoriK>rating this latter with a mixture of white lead and linseed oil to make a stiff pulp. The putty adheres strongly to both glass and wooa, and may therefore be applied to the framework of the window, mirror, etc., to be glazed, the glass being then pressed firmly on the cementing layer thus formed. Hard Puttv. — This is used by carriage Eainters ana jewelers. Boil 4 pounds rown umber and^ 7 pounds linseed oil for 2 hours; stir in 2 ounces beeswax; take from the fire and mix in 5) pounds chalk and 11 pounds white lead; the mixing must be done very thoroughly. Painten' Putty and Rouch Stuff. — Gradually knead sifted dry cnalk (whit- ing) or else rye flour, powdered white lead, zinc white, or lithopone white with good linseed-oil varnish. The best putty is produced from varnish with ^enty of chalk and some zinc white. This mixture can be tinted with earth colors. These oil putties must be well kneaded together and rather compact (like glaziers' putty). • If flour paste is boiled (this is best produced by scalding with hot water, pourinff in, gradually, the rve flour which nas been previously dissolved in a little cold water and stirring constantly until the proper consistency is attainecf) and dry sifted chalk and a little varnish are added, a good rough stuff for wood or iron is obtained, which can be rubbed. This may also be produced from f^la- ziers' oil putty by gradually kneading mto it flour paste and a little more sifted dry chalk. To Soften Olazien' Putty.— I.— Gla- ziers* putty which has become hard can be softened with the following mixture: Mix carefully equal parts of crude pow- dered potash and freshly burnt lime and make it into a paste with a little water. This dough, to which about } part of soft soap IB still added, is applied on the putty to be softened, but care has to be taken not to cover other paint, as it would be surely destroyed thereby. Af- ter a few hours the hardest putty will be softened by this caustic mass and can be removed from glass and wood. II. — A good way to make the putty soft and plastic enough in a few hours so that it can be taken off like fresh puttv, is by the use of kerosene, which entirely dissolves the linseed oil of the putty. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 608 PUTTY— PYROTECHNICS transformed into rosin, and quickly pen- etrates it. Substitute for Putty. — A cheap and effective substitute for puttv to stop cracks in woodwork is made oy soaking newspapers in a paste made by boilins a pound of flour in 3 quarts of water, and adding a teaspoonful of alum. This mixture should be of about the same consistency as putty, and should be forced into the cracks with a blunt knife. It will harden, like papier mache, and when dry may be painted or stained to match the boards, when it will be almost imperceptible. Waterproof Putties.— I. — Grind pow- dered white lead or minium (red lead) with thick linseed-oil varnish to a stiff patite. This putty is used extensively tor tightening wrought-iron gas pipes, for tightening rivet seams on gas meters, hot- water furnaces, cast-iron flange pipes for hot-water heatinj^, etc. The putty made with minium dries very slowl} , but becomes tight even before it is ^uite hard, and holds very firmly after solidifi- cation. Sometimes a little ground gyp- sum is added to it. The two following putties are cheaper than the above - mentioned red lead putty: 11. — One part white lead, 1 nart manganese,^ one part white pipe clay, prepared with linseed-oil varnish. III. — Two parts red lead, 5 parts white lead, 4 parts clay, ground m or prepared with linseed-oil varnish. IV. — Excellent putty, which has been found invaluable where waterproof closinff and permanent adhesion are desired, is made from litharge and glycerine. The litharge must be finely pulverized and the glycerine very concen- trated, thickly liquid, and clear as water. Both substances are mixed into a viscid, thickly liquid pulp. The pegs of kero- sene lamps, for instance, can oe fixed in so firmly with this putty that they can only be removed by chiseling it out. For put- tying in the glass panes of aquariums it is equally valuable. As it can withstand higher temperatures it may be success- fully used for fixing tools, curling irons, forks, etc., in the wooden handles. The thickish putty mass is rubbed into the hole, and the part to be fixed is in.serted. As this putty hardens very quickly it cannot be prepared in large quantities, and only enough for immediate use must be compounded in each case. V. — Five parts of hydraulic lime, 0.3 parts of tar, 0.3 parts of rr in. 1 part of horn water (the decoction re^iulting from boil- ing horn in water and decanting the Ut- ter). The materials are to be mixed soil boiled. After cooling, the putty is reidf for use. This is an excellent cement for glass, and may be used ajso for reservoirs and anv vessels for holding water, to d non-hygroscopic nature. Then ingrr«it- ents are needed to prevent the too t pr<^y action of the oxidising agents, to rrgulat- the process of combustion, suc^ •« calomel, sand, and sulphate of po(j«)> Thirdly, there are the active ingredirBt« that produce the desired effect, promiiiefr' among which are substances that ir contact with flame impart some tepttin color to it. Brilliancy and brightne^* are imparted by steel, sine, and copprr Digitized by VjOOQ IC PYROTECHNICS 609 filings. Other substances employed are lampblack with gunpowder, and, for theatre purposes, lycopodium. Fireworks may be classified under four heads, viz.: 1. Single fireworks. 2. Tefrestrial fireworks, which are placed upon the ground and the fire issues direct from tnt surface. S. Atmospheric fireworks, which begin their displa^ in the air. 4. Aquatic fireworks, in which oxida- tion is so intense that they produce a flame under water. Rockets. — First and foremost among atmospheric fireworks are rockets, made in different sizes, each requiring a slightly different percentage composition. A good formula is Sulphur 1 part Carbon, wood 2 parts Niter 4 parts Meal powder 1 part Meal powder is a fine black or brown dust, which acts as a diluent. Roman Candles. — Roman candles are somewhat after the same principle. An average formula is: Sulphur 4 parts Car Don 3 parts Niter 8 parU Pin Wheels. — These are also similar in composition to the preceding. The formula for the basis is Sulphur 5 parts Niter 9 parts Meal powder 15 parts Color as desired. Benjgal Lights. — Bengal lights have the disadvantage of being poisonous. A typical preparation can be made ac- cording to this formula: Realgar 1 part Black antimony 5 parts Red lead 1 part Sulphur 3 parts Niter 14 parts COLORED FIRES. The compounds should be ignited in a small pill box resting on a plate. All the ingreaients must be dried and powdered ffeparatelv, and then lightlv mixed on a sheet of paper. Always bear in mind that sulphur and chlorate of potassium explode violently if rubbed together. Smokeless Vari-Colored Fire.-^First take barytes or strontium, and bring to a glowing heat in a suitable dish, remove from the fire, and add the shellac. The latter (unpowdered) will melt at once, and can then be intimately mixed with the barytes or strontium bv means of a spatula. After cooling, pulverize. One may also add about 2j[ per cent of pow- dered magnesium to increase the effect. Take for instance 4 parts of barytes or strontium and 1 part of shellac. The following salts, if finely powdered and burned in an iron ladle with a little spirits, will communicate to the flame tneir peculiar colors. Potassium nitrate or sodium chlorate, yellow. Potassium chlorate, violet. Calcium chloride, orange. Strontium nitrate, red. Barium nitrate, apple green. Copper nitrate, emerald green. Borax, green. Lithium chloride, purple. The colored fires are used largely in the production of various theatrical effects. Blue Fire. — I, — Ter - sulphuret o f antimony 1 part Sulphur 2 parts Nitrate of potassium 6 parts II. — Sulphur 16 parts Potassium sulphate 15 parts Ammonio-cupric sulphate 15 parts Potassium nitrate.. 27 parts Potassium chlorate 28 parts III. — Chlorate of potash . 8 parts Calomel 4 parts Copper sulphate. . . 5 parts Shellac 3 parts IV. — Ore pigment 2 parts Charcoal 3 parts Potassium chloride 5 parts Sulphur 13 parts Potassium nitrate.. 77 parts V. — Potassium chlorate 10 parts Copper chlorate ... 20 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts VI. — Copper chlorate. .. 100 parts Copper nitrate .... 50 parts Barium chlorate. . . 25 parts Potassium chlorate 100 parts Alcohol 500 parts Water 1,000 parts Green. — I. — Barium chlorate. . . 20 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts II. — Barium nitrate. ... 10 parts Potassium chlorate 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC 610 PYROTECHNICS III.— Shellac. 5 parts Barium nitrate. ... IJ parts Pound after cooling, and add Barium chlorate, 2 to 5 per cent. Red.— I.— Shellac 6 parts Strontium nitrate 1 to 1.2 parts Preparation as in green fire. In damp weather add 2 to 4 per cent of potassium chlorate to the fed flame; the latter causes a little more smoke. II. — Strontium nitrate. . 20 parts Potassium chlorate 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts Yellow.— I. — Sulphur 16 parts Dried carbonate of soda 23 parts Chlorate of potas- sium 61 parts II. — Sodium chlorate. . . 20 parts Potassium oxalate. 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts Violet.— I. — Strontium chlorate. 16 parts Copper chlorate .. . 15 parts Potassium chlorate 15 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts II. — Potassium chlorate 20 parts Strontium chlorate. 20 parts Copoer chlorate. . . 10 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts Lilac- Potassium chlorate 20 parts Copper chlorate . .. 10 parts Strontium chloride. 10 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parU MauTe. — Chlorate of potash . 28 parts Calomel 12 parts Shellac 4 parts Strontium nitrate. . 4 parts Cupric sulphate ... 2 parts Fat 1 part Purple. — Copper sulphide.. . 8 parts Calomel 7 parts Sulphur 2 parts Chlorate of potash. 16 parts White.— I. — Gunpowder 15 parts Sulphur 22 parts Nitrate of potassium 64 part3 II. — Potassium nitrate. . . SO parts Sulphur 10 parts Antimony sulphide (black) 5 pads Flour 8 parts Powdered camphor. 2 paits III.— Charcoal 1 part Sulphur 11 parts Potassium sulphide. 38 parts IV.— Stearinc. 1 part Barium carbonate . . 1 part Milk su^ar 4 parts Potassium nitrate .... 4 parts Potassium chlorate. 12 parts As a general rule, a correapondinf quantity of shellac mav be taken instcaa of the sulphur for inside fireworks. The directions for using these solu- tions are simplv to imbibe bibulous pa- pers in them, tnen caref ullv dry and roU tightly into rolls of suitable length, accord- ing to the length of time they are to bum. Fuses. — For fuses or igniting pipers, the following is used: Potassium nitrate. . . 2 parts Lead acetate 40 parts Water 100 parts Mix and dissolve, and in the solvtioa place unsized paper; raise to nearly a bod and keep at this temperature for iO minutes. If the paper is to be **slo«,'* it may now be taken out, dried, cut into strips, and rolled. If to be ''faster,'* the heat is to be continued longer, acoordiof to the quickness desired. Care must be taken to avoid boiling, which might dis- integrate the paper. In preparing these papers, every prr* caution against fire should be taken, aod their preparation in the shop or bouvr shouia not be thought of. In makiac the solutions, etc., where beat is nerr^ sary, the water bath should invariable be used. PYROTECHHIC MAGIC. rCaution. — When about to place any lignted material in the mouth be nirr that the mouth is well coated with mIivb. and that you are exhaling tks birttik com- tinuou$ly, with greater or less fotrr. aecofding to the amouni of A#«f yoa rva bear. If the lighted material shows a tra> dency to burn the mouth, do mot aflHssi to drop it out auickly^ but simply shal tbr lips tight, and breathe through the nosr. and the fire must go out instantly. In the Human Gas Trick, where a flame 10 to 15 inches long is blown from the mouth, be careful alter lighting the Digitized by VjOOQ IC PYllOl'ECHNICS 611 n9, to canHnue to exhale ike hreath. nhen you desire the gas to go out, sim- ply shut the lips tight and hold ^the breath for a few seconds. In this trick, until the gas is well out, any inhalation b likely to be attended with the most serious results. The several cautions above given may be examined with a lighted match, first removing, after lighting the match, any brimstone or phosphorus from its end.] To Fire Faper, etc., by Breathing on it. — This secret seems little known to conjurers. Pay particular attention to the caution concerning phosphorus at the head of this article, and the caution respecting the dangerous nature of the prepared fluid given. Half fill a half-ounce bottle with car- bon disttlphide, and drop in 1 or 2 frag- ments of phosphorus, each the size of a pea, whicn will quickly dissolve. Shake up the liquid, and pour out a small tea- spoonful onto a piece of blotting paper. The carbon disulphide will quickly evap- orate, leaving a film of phosphorus on the paper, which will quickly emit fumes and burst into flame. The once-popu- lar term Fenian fire was derived from the supposed use of this liquid bv the Fenians for the purpose of settine fire to houses by throwing a bottle down a chimnev or through a window, the bottle to break and its contents to speedily set fire to the place. For the purpose of experiment this liquid should only be prepared in small Quantities as above, and any left over snould be poured away onto the soil in the open air, so as to obviate the risk of fire. Thin paper may be fired in a sim- ilar manner with the acid bulbs and powcler already mentioned. The pow- der should be formed into a paste, laid on the paper, and allowed to dry. Then the acid bulb is pasted over the powder. Burning Brimstone. — Wrap cotton around two small pieces of brimstone and wet it with gasoline; take between the fincers, squeezing the surplus liquid out, light it with a candle, throw back the bead well, and put it on the tongue blaz- ing. Blow fire from mouth, ana observe that a freshly blown-out candle may be lighted from the flame, which makes it more effective. After lighting candle chew up brimstooe and pretend to swallow. Blazing Sponge Trick. — Take 2 or 8 small sponges, place them in a ladle; pour just enough oil or gasoline over them to wet them. Be very careful not to have enough oil on them to cause them to drip. Set fire to the sponges and take one of them up with the tongs, and throw the head back and drop the blazing sponge in the mouth, expelling the breaUi all the tim^. Now close vour mouth quickly; this cuts off the air from the flame and.it immediately goes out. Be careful not to drop the sponge on the face or chin. Remove sponge under cover of a handkerchief before placing the second one in the mouth. Burning Sealing Wax. — Take a stick of common sealing wax in one hand and a candle in the otner, melt the wax over the candle, and put on your tongue while blazing. The moisture of the mouth cools It almost instantly. Care should be taken not to get any on the lips, chin, or hands. Demon Bowls of Fire. — The performer has three 6)-inch brass bowls on a table, and openly pours ordinary clean water (may be drunk) into bowls, until each is about half full. Then by simply passing the hand over bowls they eacn take fire and produce a flame 12 to 20 inches high. Each bowl contains about 2 tea- spoonfuls of ether, upon which is placed a small piece of the metal potassium, about the size of a pea. If the ether be pure the potassium will not be acted upon, when the water is poured into the bowl the ether and potassium float up, the latter acting vigorously on the water, evolving hydrogen and setting fire thereto, and to the ether as well. ^ The water may be poured into the bowl and lighted at command. In this case the potassium and ether are kept separated in the bowl, the former in a little cup on one side, and the latter in the bo<^ of the bowl. The water is poured m, and on rocking the bowl it is caused to wash into the little cup, the Sotassium floats up, and the fire is pro- uced. N. B. — The above tricks are not safe in any but specially made bowls, i. e., bowls with the wide flange round edge to prevent the accidental spilling of any portion of the burning ether. The Buminir Banana. — Place some alcohol in a lacfle and set fire to it. Dip a banana in the blazing alcohol and eat it while it is blazing. As soon as it is placed in the mouth the fire goes out. Sparks from the Finger Tips. — ^Take a BintM piece of tin about ) inch wide and 1} incnes lone. Bend this in the shape of a ring. To the center of this piece solder another small piece of tin bent in the shape of a letter U; between the Digitized by VjOOQ IC 612 PYROTECHNICS ends of this U place a small piece of wax tape about ) inch Ions. Take a piece of small rubber tubing about 2 feet in length and to one end of this attach a hollow rubber ball, which you must partly fill with iron filings, rlace the ruober ball containing the iron filings under the arm and pass the rubber tube down through the sleeve of the coat to the palm of tne hand; now place the tin ring upon the middle finger, with the wax taper inside of the hand. Liffht this taper. By pressinff the arm aown sharply on the rubber Dall, the force of the air will drive some of the iron filings throush the rub- ber tube and out through the name of the burning taper, when they will ignite and cause a beautiful shower of sparks to ap- pear to rain from the finger tips. To Take Boiling Lead in the Mouth. -j- The metal used, while not unlike lead in appearance, is not the ordinary metal, but is really an alloy composed of the following substances: Bismuth 8 parts Lead 5 parts Tin 2 parts To prepare it, first melt the lead in a crucible, then add the bismuth and finally the tin, and stir well together with a piece of tobacco pipe stem. This "fusible metal*' will melt in boiling water, and a teaspoon cast from the allo]^ will melt if very hot water be poured into it, or if boiling water be stirred with it. If the water be not quite boiling, as is prettj sure to be the case if tea from a teapot is used, in all probability the heat will be insufficient to melt the spoon. But bv melting the alloy and adding to it a small quantitv of quicksilver a compound will be produced, which, though solid at the ordinary temperature, will melt in water very much below the boiling point. Another variety of easily fusible alloy is made by melting together Bismuth 7 to 8 parts Lead 4 parts Tin 2 parU Cadmium 1 to 2 parts This mixture melts at 158^ that given above at 208° F. Either one of the several allovs above S'ven will contain considerably less heat an lead, and in consequence be the more suitable for the purposes of a **Fire King." When a body is melted it is raised to a certain temperature and then gets no hotter, not even if the fire be increased — all the extra heat goes to melt the re- mainder of the substance. Second Method. — This is done with s ladle constructed similar! v to the tin nip in a previous trick. The lead, genuior m this case, is, apparently, drunk from tb« ladle, which is then tilted, that it msT be seen to be empty. The lead is roo- cealed in the secret interior of the ladif. and a solid piece of lead is in condusion dropped from the mouth, as congrsJeti metal. To Eat Burning Coals.~In the fir%t place make a good charcoal fire in thr lurnace. Just before commenoiog thr act throw in three or four pieces (M h^X pine. When burnt to a coal one caooot tell the difference between this and rkar- coal, except by sticking a fork into it This will not burn in the least, while tir genuine charcoal will. You can stj(i from the cotton. Bitins Off Red-Hot Iron.— Take a piece of hoop iron about 2 feet Ivmc place it in a vise and bend it bark«aru« and forwards, about an inch fron tt*' end, until it is nearly broken off. Vt\ this in a furnace until it becomes red h*< then take it in your right hand, grasp t:>r broken end in your teeth, being rarrfoJ not to let it touch vour lifts or >«*.-r ton(|[ue, make a **face * as though it « »« terribly hard to bite off, and ki ti't broken end drop from between ycmr trrf % into a pail of water ^ which y«Ni ftl»«iul*i always have at hana in case iif fir»- when the hissing will induce the bc^*t^ that the portion bitten off is »till *'rr-' hot'* — it may be, for that matter, if tl* iron be nearly broken off in the fir*t f«A ^ and if you have good teeth and are b«#t afraid to injure them. Water Stirred Yellow* Scailet, cai Colorleas,— Obtain a glass tube with %«« end hermetically sealed and drawn ml - m fine point that will break easily, fat-* *'» ale glass put a solution of mcmir^ b* Digitized by VjOOQ IC QlTICK-WAl'EU— RAT POISONS 6ld chloride (corrosive sublimate, a deadly poi.son) and into the tube a strong solu- tion of potassium iodide so adjusted in strength that it will redissolve the scarlet precipitate formed by the union of the two liquids. While stirring the solution in the glass the bottom of the tube (ap- parent^ a glass rod) is broken and a small portion of its contents allowed to escape, which produces a beautiful scar- let. The balance of the fluid in the tube is retained there by simply keeping the thumb on the open top end. Continue the stirring, allowing tne balance of the contents of the tube to escape, and the scarlet fluid again becomes colorless. Before the scarlet appears the liquid is yellow. To heighten the effect, another ale glass, containing only clean water and a solid glass stirring-rod, niay be handed to one of the company, with instructions to do the same as the performer; the result is amusing. QUICK-WATER: See Alloys. QUILTS. TO CLEAK: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. QUmCE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. RAGS FOR CLEAKING AKD POLISH- mo: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. RASPBERRY CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. RASPBERRYADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent. RASPBERRY SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts. Rat Poisons (See also Turpentine.) Poisons for rats may be divided into two classes, quick and slow. Potassium cyanide and strychnine belong^ to the first, and phosphorus and arsenic to the second. Both should be kept awa^ from children, do^s, and cats, and this is best done by putting them in places too narrow for anything larger than a rat to squeeze into. If the poison is too quick, the effect of it is visible to the same rats which saw the cause, and those which have not eaten of the bait will leave it alone. On the other hand, if it is too slow, the poisoned rat may spread it to edible things in the pantry, by vomiting. Slow poisons generally cause the rat to seek water, and when they are used water should not be left about promis- cuously. The substances most useful as rat poisons, and which are without danger to the larfier domestic animals, are plas- ter of Paris and fresh squills. Less dan- gerous than strychnine and arsenic are the baryta preparations, of which the most valuable is barium carbonate. Like plaster of Paris, this substance, when used for the purpose, must be mixed with sugar and meal, or flour, and as a decoy some strong-smelling cheese should be added. In closed places there should be left vessels containing water easily accessible to the creatures. One advantage over these substances possessed by the squill is that it is greed- ily eaten by rats and mice. When it is used, however, the same precaution as to water, noted above, is necessary, a circumstance too freuuentlv forgotten. In preparing^ the squill for tiiis purpose, by the addition of oacon, or fat meat of any kind, the use of a decoy like cheese is unnecessary, as the fats are suflS- ciently appetizing to the rodents. It is to be noted that only fresh squills should be used for this purpose, 'as in keeping the bulb the poisonous principle is de- stroyed, or, at least, is so modified as to seriously injure its value. Squill Poiflons. — The preparation of the squill as a rat poison can be effected in several different ways. Usuallv, af- ter the removal of the outer peel, the bulb is cut up into little slices and mixed with milk and flour; these are stirred into a dou^h or paste, which, with bits of ba<»n rind, is put into the oven and baked. Another plan is to grate the sc^uill on a grater and mingle the gratings with mashed, boiled, or roasted potato. This method of preparing them necessi- tates the immediate use of the poison. The following is, however, a stable prep- aration that keeps well: I. — Hog's lard .... . . 500 grams Acid salicylic. ... 5 grams Squill 1 bulb Beef suet 50 to 100 grams Barium carbon- ate 500 grams Solution of am- monium cop- per acetate, 20 per cent 50 grams Cut or grate the squill into very small pieces, and fry it in the lard and suet un- til it has acquired a dark>brown color and Digitized by VjOOQ IC 614 RAT POISONS the fats haTe taken up the characteristic squill odor; then to the ines9 add the other substances, and stir well together. 11. — Squill, bruised 4 ounces Bacon, chopped fine 6 ounces Flour or meal, enough. Water, enough. Make into a stiff mass, divide into small cakes, and bake. Phoflphonis Poisons. — Next to the souill in value as a poison comes phos- pnorus in the shape of an electuary, or in pills. For readily preparins the electuary, when needed or ordered, it is a good plan to keep on hand a phos- phorated syrup made as follows: To 200 parts of simple syrup, in a strong flask, add 50 parts of phosphorus and 10 parts of talc powder; place the container in a suitable vessel and sur- round it with water heated to ISO"* to 130° F., and let it stand until the phos- phorus is melted. Now, cork the flask well, tie down the cork, and agitate until the mixture is completely cold. As a measure of precaution, the flask should be wrapped with a cloth. To make the poison take 50 parts of 3fe flour and mix with it 10 parts of Dow- ered sugar. To the mixture add about 40 parts of water and from SO to 40 parts of the phosphorated syrup, and mix the mass thoroughly. While it is best to make the phosphor- ated syrup fresh every time that it b reouired, a stable syrup can be made as follows: Heat together very carefully in a water bath 5 parts of phosphorus, 8 parts of sublimed sulphur, ana SO parts of water, until the phosphorus is completely melted and taken up; then add SO parts of wheat flour and 6 parts of ground mustard seed, and work up, with the ad- dition of warm water from time to time, if necessary, into a stiff paste, finally adding and working in from 1 to 2 parts of oil of anise. Borax in powder, it may be noticed, is also useful as a preservative of phos- phorated paste or tne electuary. MUhsam gives the following formula for an electuary of phosphorus for this purpose: I. — Phosphorus, granu- lated 1 part Rye flour SO parts Simple syrup 10 parts Mustard seed, pow- dered 1 part Sublimed sulphur... 1 part Water 10 parU Proceed as indicated above. Hager*s formula for ** Phosphorus globules*' is as follows: II. — Phosphorus, amor- phous 10 parts Glycerine 20 parts Linseed, powdered 100 parts Meat extract 15 parts Quark, recently coagulated, qusii* tity suflicient. Mix, and make a mass, and divide into 200 fflobules, weighing about 15 grains eacn. Roll in wheat flour, is which a little powdered sugar has beeo mixed. Phosphorus electuary, made as indi- cated above, may be smeared upon bits of fried bacon, which should be tacked firmly to a bit of board or to the floor. It is essential that either flour or sugar. or both, be strewn over the surface of thephosphorus. Tpe most convenient in practice, oa the whole, are the phosphorus globules, either made after Hair's formula, or. more readily, by adding rve flour and sugar to the electuary ana working up to a pill mass, or banum carbonate saq plaster may be added. Anenical Poisons. — The following are some of the formulas given by Hager fur preparing globules, or pills, of arsenic: I. — Arsenic, white, pow- dered 100 parts Soot from the kitch- en 5 parts Oil of anise 1 part Lard, sufficient. Wheat flour, sufficient. Make into 400 globules. II.— Beef suet 600 parts Rye flour. . 500 parts Arsenic, white, pow- dered 50 parts Ultramarine 10 parts Oil of anise 1 pari Melt the suet, and add to the flour, mix in the other ingredients, and work up while hot, beating the mass with a roUrr Make 1,000 globules. StrTchnine Poisons.— The strychnia^ S reparations are also valuable in tbr estruction of rats and mice. The finrt of these in point of usefulness is siryrb- nine- wheat, or strvch nine-oats fStiyrh- ninweisen or Strycnninhafer), in the pro- portion of 1 part of strychnine to 100 <«r 150 parts of wheat or oat floar, pre^rrd by dissolving 1 part of stryebmne in iO to 50 parts of hot water, mixing wdl ur with tne flour, and drying in Ine vatcr Digitized by VjOOQ IC RAZOR PASTES— REFRIGERANTS 615 bath. Strychnine may also be used on fresh or salted meat, sausage, etc., by insertion of the powder, or the heads of fried fish are opened and the powder strewn on the inside. The latter is an especiallv deadly method, since the odor of the fisn acts as a powerful lure, as also do the bits of bacon or other fats used in frying fish. Strong cheese is also a good Tehi<3e for strychnine, acting as a power- ful lure for the rodents. Strychnine sulph 1 drachm Sugar milk 8 drachms Prussian blue 5 grains Sugar ) ounce Oat flour ) ounce Nox Vomica Poison. — Oatmeal 1 pound Powdered nux vomica 1 ounce Oil of anise 5 drops Tincture of asafetida. 5 drops Barinm Poison. — Barium carbonate.. . . 4 ounces Sugar 6 ounces Oatmeal 6 ounces Oil of anise 4 drops Oil of caraway 4 drops RAZOR PAPER: See Paper. RAZOR PASTES: See also Pastes. The razor pastes, razor creams, etc., on the market, have for .their cutting, or sharpening, agent jewelers' rouji^e, or roufe and emery. When emery is used it should be ground to an impalpable powder and levigated. I. — The simplest formula is a mixture in equal parts of rouge and emery pow- der, rubbed up with spermaceti ointment Coke is also used as a cutting agent. Suet, prepared lard, in fact, any greasy or soapy substance, will answer for the vehide. II.— Mdt 1,000 parU of beef tallow and pour 250 oarts of oil to it. To this mixture, whicn is^ uniformly combined by thorough stirring, add m the same manner 150 parts of washed emery, 100 parts of tin ashes, and 50 parts of iron oxide. The stirring of these ingredients must be continued untfl the mass is cool, as otherwise they would be unevenly distributed. The leather of the strop should be rubbed with this grease, ap- pJving only small quantities at a time. This renders it possible to produce a ^frj uniform coating, since little quanti- ties penetrate the fibers of the feather easily. III.— Tin putty (tin ashes) 2 parts Colcothar 2 parts Forged iron scales or filings 1 part Pure levantine hon- ing stone finely powdered 7 parts Beef suet 8 parts AH the ingredients with the exception of the suet should be finely powdered. The suet is melted, the ingredients poured in, and the whole thoroughly mixed to form a doughy mass. IV.— Colcothar 1} P*rts Pumice stone 1 1 parts Graphite 4} parts Bloodstone (red hematite) 2 parts Iron filings 1 part These ingredients are finelv powdered, washed, and mixed with the following: Grafting wax 2 parts Soap 2 parts Lard 2 parts Olive oil 2 parts Naturally the fatty ingredients are to be heated before the solid substances are commingled with them. The side of the blade to be polished should be treated with the following compositions: a. Tin ashes (tin putty) rubbed down to a fine powder on a honing stone and mixed with axle grease. b. Washed graphite mingled with olive oil. REDUCERS: See Photography. REDUCING PHOTOGRAPHS, SCALE FOR: See Photography. REFLECTOR METAL: See Alloys. REFRIGERANTS. I. — Potassium nitrate. . . 2 pounds Ammonium chloride 2 pounds Water 5 pints II. — Potassium nitrate. . . 2} pounds Ammonium chloride 2^ pounds Sodium sulphate 4 pounds Water 9 pints III. — Ammonia nitrate. . . 4 pounds Water 4 pints IV. — Sodium sulphate. .. . 8 parts Dilute hyarochloric acid 5 parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC 616 REFRIGERATION— RHUBARB V. — Snow 1 part Water 1 part Sulphuric acid 4 parts VI. — Snow 3 parts Calcium chloride ... 4 parts Refrigeration If water to be frozen is placed in a tin bucket or other receptacle it can be readily congealed by putting it in a pail containing a weak dilution of sulphuric acid and water. Into this throw a handful of common Glauber salts, and the resulting cold is so great that water immersed in the mixture will be frozen solid in a few minutes, and ice cream or ices may be quickly and easily prepared. The cost is only a few cents. The same process in an ice-cream freezer will do the trick for ice cream. Home-Made Refrigerators. — I. — Partly fill with water a shallow granite-ware pan. Place it in an open, shady window wnere there is a gooa draught of air. In this put bottles of water, milk, and cream (sealed), wrapped with wet cloths reach- ing into the water. Put butter in. an earthen dish deep enough to prevent water getting in. Over this turn an earthen flower-pot wrapped with a wet cloth reaching into the water. The pan should be fixed every morning and evening. With several of these pans one can keep house very comfortably without ice. II. — Procure a wire meat-safe — that is, a box covered by wire netting on three sides, with a fly-proof door. On top place a deep pan fined with water. Take a piece of ourlap the height of the pan and safe, and of sufiBcient length to reach around the entire safe. Tack it fast where the door opens and closes. Tuck the upper edge in the water. Place it where there is a draught and where the dripping will do no damage. This con- stitutes a well-ventilated refrigerator chat costs nothing but water to maintain. III. — Take a store box, any convenient size, and place in this a smaller box, having the bottom and space around the sides packed with sawdust. Have a galvanized iron pan made, the size of the inside box and half as deep, to hold the ice. Have the pan made with a spout 6 inches long to drain off the water as the ice melts. Bore a hole the size of the spout through the double bottom and sawdust packing to admit the spout. Short legs may be nailed on the sides of the box and a vessel set underneath to catch the drippings. Put on a tifht board cover. A shelf may he placecTin the box above the ice. This box vill keep ioe for three days. IV. — Select a large cracker box with a hinged cover. Knock out the bottom and cut windows in each side, leavini; a 3-inch frame, over which tack wire gau/e. In the coolest part of the cellar dig awaT the earth to a level depth of 3 inches aod fit the box into the s^ce. Mix plaster of Pans to a consistency of thick cream and pour into the box fur a )-inch thick bottom. Twenty-four houn will harden it sufficiently. Put a hook and catch on the lid. A box of tbt» sort can be cleaned easily, and insects cannot penetrate it. To Dndn a Refrigermtor. — I.— Haw a stout tin funnel maoe, 7 inches in diam- eter at the top. The tube portion shouJd be at least 8 inches long and of uniform diameter. Bore a hole through the floor directly under the drain-pipe of tbr refrigerator; insert the funnel, then forrr a piece of rubber tubing (a tight fit) oirr the funnel from the cellar side. Pa«« the tubing through a hole cut in iht screen frame of a cellar window, and drain into any convenient place. Thi^ avoids the necessity of continually emp- tying the drain-pan, and prevents tb^ oveAow that frequently occurs vbeo it is forgotten. II. — This simple device saves the ia- convenience of having a driD-pan under the refrigerator: If the reingerator i* placed near the outer wall get a piece of rubber hose long enough to reach fmn the waste pipe to the outside of the vail Bore a hole through the wall under t^ refrigerator, where baseboard and fioor meet. Attach the hose to the waste- pipe and pass through the hole in the wall A small trough outside should carry the water away from the house. REFRIGERATORS, THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas. REPLATDTG: See Plating. RESILVBRIHG OF MIRRORS: See Mirrors. retouchihg paste for paivt- IHGS; See Paintings. REVOLVER LUBRICAirrS: See Lubricants. RHUBARB AS A REMEDY FOR CHOLERA: See Cholera Remedies. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ROLLER COMPOSITIONS— ROPES 617 RHUBARB ROOTS, THEIR PRESER- VATIOH: Se« RooU. RIBBONS FOR TYPEWRITERS: See Typewriter Ribbons. RICE PASTE: See Adhesives. RICE POWDER: See Cosmetics. RIFLE LUBRICAHTS: See Lubricants. RING, HOW TO SOLDER A JEWELED : See Solders. RIHGS OH METAL, PRODUCING COL- ORED: See Plating. ROACH EXTERMINATORS: See Insecticides. ROBURITE: See Explosives. RODIN AL DEVELOPER: See Photography. ROLLER COMPOSITIONS FOR PRINT- Rollers for transferring ink to types have to possess special properties, which have reference both to the nature of the ink and that of the types to which it U to be transferred. They must be as little liable as possible to changes of tem- perature. They must be sticky, but only just sticky enough, and must have elasticity enough to exert a uniform pressure over the varying surface with which they meet in the form. Origi- nally, the composition was one of glue and molasses in varying proportions, and the only practical improvement that has been made is the addition of givcerine. This being slightly hvgroscopic, nelps to keep the roller at tne rij^ht degree of softness, and being practically unfreez- able, it is a great assistance in keeping the rollers from hardening in cold weather. The recipes given in technical works fo^ printing roller compositions are numerous and very different. All con- tain ^ue and molasses, and it is the prac- tice to put a larger proportion of fflue in rollers to be used in the summer tnan in those intended for winter use. The fol- lowing is a selection of recipes: I. — Soak 8 pounds of glue in as much water as it will absorb. When there is no visible water, treat the glue till melted, and add 7 pounds of hot molasses. II. — Glue (summer).. . . 8 pounds Glue (winter) 4 pounds Molasses 1 gallon III. — Molasses 12 pounds Glue 4 pounds IV. — Molasses 24 pounds Glue 16 pounds Paris white 2 pounds V. — Glue or gelatin. ... 64 pounds Water 48 pounds Linseed oil 96 pounds Molasses or sugar. 64 to 96 pounds Chloride of calcium 3 pounds Powdered rosin ... 8 pounds Soak the glue in the water and then liquefy by heat. Then stir in the oil, first heated to 150'' F. Then add the molasses and the chloride of calcium, and finally the fused rosin. The latter ingredient is only to be added when very tough rollers are reouired. This .recipe is interesting from tne inclusion in it of the hv^oscopic salt, chloride of calcium, the object of which is obviously to keep the rollers moist. ROOFS, HOW TO LAY GALVANIZED. See Household Formulas. ROOFS, PREVENTION OF LEAKAGE: See Household Formulas. ROOF PAINTS: See Paint. ROOM DEODORIZER: See Household Formulas. ROPES. To protect ropes, cordage, and cloths made of flax and hemp against rot, it has been recommended to leave them for 4 days in a solution of copper sulphate, 20 parts by weight to a liter, then allow them to dry, and then, to prevent the copper sulpnate being washed away by the water, place in tar or a solution of soap^l to 10. In the latter case an insoluble copper soap is formed. To secure the same result with twine, the following process has been recom- mended: Place the string for an hour in a solution of glue, then allow to dry, and place in a solution of tannin. After removal from the tannin, again dry, and soak in oil. The process first described has been shown by experience to be very effective; but to prevent the washing awav of the copper suli)hate, it is ad- visaole to use the solution of soap in preference to the tar, as articles steeped in the latter substance are apt to become stiff, and consequently brittle. The Digitized by VjOOQ IC 618 ROT— RUBBER treatment with glue and tannin in the second process has the drawback that it tends to make the string too stiff and inflexible, and thus impair its usefulness. ROPE LUBRICAHTS: See Lubricant. ROPES, WATERPROOFIKG: See Waterproofing. ROSE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. ROSEWOOD: See Wood. ROSE POWDERS: See Cosmetics. ROSm, TESTS FOR, IH EXTRACTS: See Foods. ROSm OIL: See Oil. ROSHf STICKS: See.Depilatories. ROT: Remedies for Dry Rot. — A s ood remedy for dry rot is petroleum. The sick parts of the wood are painted with it, which causes the fungi to die, turn black, and finally drop off. The best preventive of dry rot is plenty of draught. If the por- tions are already affected so badly that they must be removed and renewed, the freshly inserted wood is coated with "car- bolineum" to prevent a fresh appearance of dry rot. Another remedy is ordinary salt, which is known to have a highly hygroscopic action. It absorbs the moist- ure of the wood, whereby it is itself di»- solved, thus gradually impregnating the planks, etc. In order to conioat dry rot with salt, proceed as follows: Throw salt into boilini^ water until a perfectly satu- rated solution is obtained. With this repeatedly wash the wood and masonrr afflicted with dry rot. Wherever practi- cable the salt may be sprinkled direct upon the affected place. ROUGE: See Cosmetics. ROUGE FOR BUFF WHEELS. The rouge employed by machinists, watchmakers, ana jewelers, is obtained bv directly subjecting crystals of sul- fate of iron or copperas to a high heat y which the sulphuric acid is expelled and the oxide of iron remains. Those portions least calcined, when ground, are used for polishing gold ana silver. These are of bright crimson color. The darker and more calcined portions are known as * crocus." and are used for E! polishing brass and steel. Others pre- fer for tne production of rouge the per- oxide of iron precipitated bv anmoou from a dilute solution of sulpnate of iroo. which is washed, compressed untfl drj. then exposed to a low red heat aod ground to powder. Of course, there ire other substances besides rouge which are employed in polishing, as powdered emery, kieselguhr, carborundum, rottco stone, etc. ROUGE POWDER: See Polishes. ROUGH STUFF: See Wood. ROUP CURES: See Veterinary Formulas. Rubber ARTIFICIAL RUBBER. Austin G. Day tried hundreds of ei- periments and took out many patents lor rubber substitutes. He was in s measure successful, his *'Kerite** com- pound proving of great value and beinc a result of his seeking for something that would wholly supplant rubber. Am far back as 1866 he made public the re^ulb of some of his work, giving as formulA^ for rubber substitutes toe foUowio; compounds: I. — Linseed oil 8 pounds Cottonseed ofl 1 pound Petroleum 2 pouodf Raw turpentine .... t pounds Sulphur 2 pounds Boil 2 hours. II. — Linseed oO 2 pounds Cottonseed ofl I pound Petroleum. ., * 1 pound Raw turpentine t pounds Castor od t pooad Sulphur % pounds Boil } hour. III. — Linseed ofl € pouadi Cottonseed ofl I pound Petroleum. 1 pound Raw turpentine .... } pound- Liquid coal tar 3 ponndt Peanut ofl ... .^ 1 pound Spirits turpentine. . . 1 pound Sulphur 4 pound* Bofl S5 minutes. IV. — Linseed oO € poundf Cottonseed ofl t pound Petroleum......... t pounds Raw turpentine ... ) pound Liquid coal tar t Digitized by VjOOQ IC RUBBER 619 SpiriU turpentine. .. 1 pound Rubber pound Sulphur 2 pounds Boil 1 hour. In 1871 Mr. Day had broueht his experimenting down to the following formula: V. — Cottonseed oil 14 pounds linseed oil 14 pounds Asphaltum 8 pounds Coal tar 8 pounds Sulphur 10 pounds Camphor } pound In this the tar and asphaltum were first mixed with the cottonseed oil, after which was added the linseed oil and camphor, and, last of all, the sulphur, when the temperature was about 270^ F. A substitute designed to be used in rubber compounding in place, say, of re- claimed rubber, was made as foflows: VI. — Cottonseed oil 27 pounds Coal tar 80 pounds Earthy matter 5 pounds To be mixed and heated to 800<> F., and then strained and cooled to 200^ F. Then were added 27 pounds linseed oil, the heat raised to 220'' F., and 15 to 18 pounds of sulphur added, the heat being continually raised until the mass was sul- phurized. When the heat reached 240<* F., 1 to 1} ounces of nitric acid were added, and at 270^' to 280<> F., from 1 to 3 ounces cam|)hor were added to help the sulphurization. The resultant com- pound was used on the following basis: VII. — Para rubber 20 pounds Litharge 5 pounds Sulphur 1 pound Above com- pound 20 to 40 pounds Mr. Day aid not insist on the com- pound quoted, but advised that the pro- portions be varied as widelv as the exi- gencies of the case mignt demand. Whiting, barytes. infusorial earth, white lead, blacks, in fact almost any of the oxides, carbonates, or earthy materials commonly used in compounding, were used in connection with his substitute, as also were any grades of crude rubber. .\mong other ingredients that he found of Qsc in making his substitutes were vegetable and animal waxes, together with ozokerite and paraffine. These were only used in small quantities, and always in connection with the linseed and cottonseed oils, and generally as- phaltum or coal tar. One of his compounds also called for a quantity of golden sulphuret of antimony, presum- ably to assist in the sulphurization. and a small amount of tannic acid. Another line of experimenting that is interesting, and that will yet produce good resmts, although so far it nas not amounted to much, is in the use of cellu- lose. A very simple formula is of French origin and calls for the treating of cellulose with sulphuric acid, washing, drying, granulating, treating with resi- nate of soda — which is afterwards pre- cipitated by sulphate of alumina — tlben drying and molaing under pressure. As a matter of fact, the resultant mass would not be mistaken for rubber. An Eng- lish formula is more like it. This con- sists of VIIL—Cellulose 15 pounds Pitch 25 pounds Asphalt 20 pounds Silica 20 pounds Mastic 5 pounds Bitumen 5 pounds Rosin 10 pounds Coal tar 12 pounds This makes a thick gummy varnish which is of little use except as for its waterproof qualities. Allen *s formula for a cellulose substitute might have a value if it were carried further. It is made up of 100 pounds of rosinous wood pulp treated with animal gelatin, 100 pounds asphalt, and 10 pounds asphalt oil, all heated and molded. The Greening process, which is Eng- lish, is more elaborate than Allen's, but seems a bit laborious and costly. This process calls for the treatment of the cellulose by a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitrate of potash, and, after drying, a treatment to a bath of liquid carbonic acid. When dry again, it is mixed in a retort with refined rosin, gum benzoin, castor oil, and methylated alcohol. The distillate from this is dried by redistilling over anhydrous lime. Another curious line of substitutes is that based upon the use of glue and glyc- erine. Some of these have uses, while others, that look very attractive, are of no use at all, for the simple reason that they will absorb water almost as readily as a dry sponge. The first of these is more than 30 years old and is said to be of French origin. The formula is: IX. — Glue. .^ 4 pounds Glycerine 8 ounces Nutgall .^ 8 ounces Acetic acid, 1 pound in 5 pounds of water. Ten vears later this was approached by an English formula in which in place of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 620 RUBBER the nutgall and acetic acid, chromic and tannic acids were substituted, and a modicum of ground cork was added as a cheapener probably. Some four years later an ingenious Prussian gave out a formula in which to the glue and glycerine and tannic acid were added Marseilles soap and linseed oil. None of the above have ever had a commercial value, the nearest approach being the glue and glycerine compound used as a cover for gas tubinff. The substitutes that have really come into use generally are made either from linseed, cottonseed, or maize oil. Scores of these have been produced and thou- sands of dollars have been spent by promoters and owners in trying to make these gums do just what crude rubber will.^ A German formula which was partially successful is X. — Linseed oil, in solu- tion 80 pounds Lime- hardened rosin, in solution 50 pounds Add to above Sulphur. 8 pounds Linseed oil 42 pounds Add 20 pounds sulphur and heat to 875* F. Rubber and Rubber Articles. — As re- gards the action of coal gas on rubber tubes, it has been observed that it is weakest on ordinary gray rubber which withstands it the longest, and gives off no odor. Red rubber is more readily affected, and the black kind still more so. To prevent rubber tubes from drying up ana becoming brittle, they should be coated with a 3 per cent aqueous solution of carbolic acid, which preserves them. If they have already turned stiff and brittle, they can be rendered soft and pliant again by being placed in ammonia which has been made liquid with double the amount of water. In France rubber tubes are used as a core for casting pipes from cement and sand. In order to construct a connected §ipe conduit in the ground, a groove is ug and a layer of cement mortar spread out. Upon this the rubber tube is laid, which is wrapped u|> in canvas and in- flated. The remaining portion of the channel is then filled up with cement mortar, and as soon as it has set, the air is let out of the rubber hose and the latter is pulled out and used as before. To cover cloth with rubber, there are chiefly employed for dissolving the rub- ber, naphttia, alcohol, and benzol. They are mixed with purified solid parafline, and ground together. is piirp«>»e [ adowed 4 Rubber boots and shoes are rendem) waterproof by melting 4 parts uf apet- maceti and I part of rubber on a moderate fire, adding tallow or fat, 10 parts, aa^ lastlj^ 5 parts of copal varnish or ambfr varnish. This mixture is applied on tbf shoes with a brush. It should be stated that the rubber used for this must be cut up very small and i to 5 hours to aissolve. To rid rubber articles of unpleasant odor, cover both sides with a layer irf animal charcoal and heat to about 140^ F. To prevent gas from escaping tbrouj^fa rubber hose, cover rt with a mixture pre- pared as follows: Dissolve 5 parts of gum arabic and 3 parts of molasses in 13 parts of white wine and add, with ccto- stant stirring, 6 parts of alcohol in small quantities. Stirring is neoeMsary to pre- vent the alcohol from precipitating the gum arabic. Repairing Rubber Goods. — First, cUan off all adherent matter, and dij thorou(b> ly. Varnish or lacquer, as for instance '^ rubber shoes, may be removed with m-**: or emery paper, or even with a file« in I *«r absence of one of these. The surfaor thus produced is then rubbed with brin sine. A solution of Para rubber in brn- zine is then painted over the sorfare around the break or tear, and a strip uf natural rubber fitted over it. Then pre- pare a vulcanizing solution as foUow»: Sulphur chloride. ... 18 parts Benzine 400 parts Carbon disulphide . . 300 parts This is applied to the edges of the joint by means of a pledget of cotton wrapptH on the end of a little stick* and pres« th** jointed parts well together. One may repair rubber bulbs by the following method: Put some pure gum in three times its bulk of bencine, and cnrk tightly. Let stand several dars. <»<-t some rubber in sheet form; it wul be bet- ter if it is backed with doth. To make a patch, dampen some little distance around the hole to be mended vith benzine. After a moment^ scrape vith a knife; repeat the process several time^ till the site to be patched is thorottchl> clean. Cut a paten from sheet of nibtvr a little larger than the hole to lie mended, and appl^ to its surface sererai roati (^ the benzine solution. Then apply a good coat of the solution to boUi pat h and about the hole, and press the pavb firmly in place. Again apply the s(»tQ* tion to make coating over the patch, a*)*! allow to dry till it will not stick t«» the finger. Do not use for several days. Cracked rubber goods may be suc< Digitized by VjOOQ IC RUBBER 621 cessfully mended in the following man- ner: Before patching, the cracked sur- faces to unite well must be dried, entirely freed from all dirt and diut and greased well, otherwise the surfaces will not com- bine. In case of a cover, waterproof coat, or rubber boots, etc., take a mod- erately thick piece of india rubber, suited to size of the obiect, cut off the edges obliquely with a snarp knife moistenedin water, coat the defective places as well as the cut pieces of rubber with oil of turpentine, lay the coated parts together ana subject them for 24 hours to a moderate pressure. The mended por- tions will DC just as waterproof as^ the whole one. Rubber cushions or articles containing air are repaired in a very simple manner, after being cleaned as aforesaid. Then take colophony, dis- solve it in alcohol (90 per cent) so that a thick paste forms, smear up the holes, allow all to harden well, and the rubber article, pillow, ball, knee caps, etc., may be used again. Softening Rubber. — The hardening of gum articles is generally referable to ttiese having been Kept for a long time in some warm, dry place, though keeping them in the cold will produce tne same effect. Hardness and brittleness, under any rea- sonable care and conditions, are usually signs of an inferior article of goods. Ar- ticles of Para rubber, of good workmanship, usually maintain their elasticity for a very long time. Before attempting to soften hollow rubber ware, such as flasks, water bags, or bottles, etc., they should be well i^crubbed with a wire brush (bottle deaner) and warm water, so as to re- move all dirt and dust. This scrubbing should be continued until the wash water comes away clean and bright. For softening, the best agent is dilute water of ammonia, prepared by mixing phar- macop- sorbed and adhering acids, salts, etc., as well as to eliminate the free sulphur. Next, the waste is ground between rollers and reduced to i>owder in emery grinders with automatic feeding. In many cases the material obtained may be aoded at once dry to the mixture, but generally it first receives a chemical treatment. This is carried out by boiling in caustic soda solution, or sulphuric or hydro- chloric acid respectively, and steaming for about 20 hours witn 4 atmospheres pressure. According to another method, the ground scraps are steamed with soda lye under pressure, washed twice thoroughly for the elimination of the lye, and c^ied in the vacuum. Subsequently mix be- tween cold rollers with 5 to 10 per cent of benzol or mineral oil and steam for some hours under hydraulic pressure at 4 atmospheres. The product thus ob- tained is rolled in plates and added to the mixture. The finely ground dry waste must not be stored for a long time in large quantities, as it hardens very easily and takes fire. Old articles of vulcanized rubber are first "devulcanized** by grinding, boiling with caustic soda, ana washing thor- oughly. After drying, the scraps are heated to 802^ F. with linseed oil in a kettle provided with stirring mechanism which is kept in continual motion. When the rubber has dissolved, a quan- tity of natural or coal-tar asphalt is added, and as soon as the contents of the kettle have become well mixed, the tempera- ture is raised so hi(^h that dense fumes begin to rise and air is forced through the mass until a cooled sample shows the desired consistence. This compo- sition being very tough and flexible, forms an excellent covering for electric cables. It finds many other uses, the proportions of rubber, asphalt, and oil being varied in accordance with the purpose for which it is designed. Vulcanization. — Besides the Good- year, Mason, and other patented yroc- essos, the |)rocess now usually followed in vulcanizing rubber stamps and simi- lar small objects of rubber, is as fol- lows: Sulphur chloride is dissolved in car- bon aisulphide in various proportions, according to the degree of hardness the vulcanized object is to receive; the rub- ber cast is plunged in the solution and left there from 60 to 70 seconds. On removing, it is placed in a box or space warmed to 80** F., and left long enough for the carbon disulphide to evaporiU. or about 00 to 100 seconds. It is thra washed in a weakly alkaline bath o( water, and dried. Another method (recommended bj Gerard) depends upon letting the mbbct lie in a solution of potassium ier or penk sulphide, of 25<> W., heated to about SSO"* F. for 3 hours. Testiiiff Rubber Glotiet. — In testing rubber gloves it is best to inllate tbem with air, and then put them under wier Thus one may discover many smaU bolrs in new ones which otherwise would hsvf been impossible to find. Diaaolviag Old Rubber.— The materisi is shredded finely and then heated, noder pressure, for several hours, with a stronf solution of caustic soda. All doth* Dant. glue, fillers, etc., in the rubber aie diMn* teffrated, but the rubber is not aifeetfd. Tne mass is then washed repeatedly with water, to remove all alkali, and the rt- sultant pure rubber may then be fomod into sheets. Rubber Stamp*. — Set up the desirtd name and address in common type, od the type and place a guard about } iarb high around the form. Mix plaster d Paris to the proper consistence, pour n and allow it to set. Have the yitlcanited rubber all ready, as made in long ttrip* 3 inches wide and | of an inch thick, nit off the size of the intended stamp, nm»%t the plaster cast from the type* and plarr both the cast and the rubber in a scrr* press, applying sufficient heat to thor- oughly soften the rubber. Then tara down the screw hard and let it remsa until the rubber receives the exact in»- pression of the cast and becomes cold, when it is removed, neatly trimmed vitb a sharp knife, and cemented to the han- dle ready for use. RUBBER CBMBRTS: See Adhesives. RUBBER GLOVES, SUBSnTUTB FOR : See Antiseptics. RUBBER, ITS PROPERTIES AMD USES nr WATERPROOFIHO: See Waterproofing. RUBBER VARRISHES: See Varnishes. RUBT SETTmGS: See Watchmakers* Formulas. RUOLTZ METAL: See Alloys. RUM, BAT: See Bay Rum. Digitized by VjOOQ IC RUST PREVENTIVES 6S3 Rust Preventives (See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Varnishes, Waterproofing.) In spite of the numerous endeavors to protect metal objects from oxidation, a thoroughly satisfactory process has not yet been found, and we still have to re* sort to coatings and embrocations. By covering the^ metals with a pale, colorless linseed-oil varnish, a fat or spirit lacquer, an unfailing^ protection against oxidation is obtained. This method, though frequently employed, however, is too laborious and^ expensive to admit of general use, and instead we frequently see employed ordinary or specially composed greases, especially for scythes, ^ straw-knives, and many other bright iron goods. These greases are not suited to retard oxidation, for they are without exception acid-reactinjg booies, which absorb oxysen in the air and under the action of lignt, thus rather assisting oxidation than retarding it. A covering of wax dissolved in oil of tur- pentine would be more recommendable, because wax is an impervious body, and a firm and rather hard laver remains after evaporation of the oil of turpen- tine, which ^ excludes the air. If the treatment with the wax salve is carefully attended to no other objection can be urged against this preserving a^ent than that it is likewise comparatively ex- pensive if used in large quantities. As regards the greases, and treatment with petroleum or vaseline, the easy attrition of these substances is another drawback, which makes a lasting protection impos- sible. According to Shedlok, cast-iron ar- ticles are treated with acids, then ex- posed to the action of steam, hot or cold water, and dried. The receptacle is ex- hausted of air and a solution of pitch, rosin, rubber, or caoutchouc, applied under pressure. Objects prepared in this manner are said to be impervious even to weak acids. The inoxidizing^ process of Ward is founded on the simultaneous employ- ment of silicates and heat. The cast iron or wrought iron are coated with a siliceous mass by means of a brush or by^ immersion. This covering dries quickly, becomes li(|uid when the articles are exposed to a suitable heat, and soaks into the pores of the metal, forming a dense and uniform coat of dull black color after cooling, which is not changed by long-continued influence of the at- motsphere, and which neither scales nor peels from the object. By the admixture of glass coloriuff matters to the siliceous mass, decorated surfaces may be pro- duced. Another inoxidation process for cast iron is the following: Tne cast-iron ob- jects, such as whole ffas chandeliers, water pipes, ornaments, oalcony railings, cooking vessels,^ etc., are laid upon an iron slming carriage 8.5 meters long and are exposed in a flame furnace of special construction first 15 minutes to the in- fluence of gas generators with oxidizing action, then 20 minutes to such with re- ducing action.^ ^^\^^, heing drawn out and cooled o£F the inoxidized pieces take on a uniform slate-blue shade of color, but can be enameled and ornamented in any manner desired. In applying the enamel the corroding with acta is obviated, for which reason the enamel stands ex- ceedingly well. A bronze-colored oxide coating which withstands outward influences fairly well, is produced as follows: The bright- ly polished and degreased objects are ex- posed from 2 to 5 minutes to the vapors of a heated mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and nitric acid (1:1) until the bronze color becomes visible on the articles. After these have been rubbed well with vaseline, heat once more until the vaseline commences to decompose. After cooling, the object is smeared well with vaseline. If vapors of a mixture of concentrated hvdrochlo- ric acid and nitric acid are allowed to act on the iron object, light reddish- brown shades are obtained, out if acetic acid is added to the above named two acids, oxide coatings of a bronze-yellow color can be obtained by the means of the vapors. By the use of different mix- tures of acids any number of different colorings can be produced. "Emaille de fer contre-oxide" is the name of an enamel which is said to protect iron pipes cheaply. The enamel is com- posed as follows: One hundred and thirty parts powdered crystal |[lass, 20.5 parts soda, 12 parts boracic acid. These sub- stances mixed in the most careful manner are melted together in crucibles, the mass is chilled and transformed into a fine powder by crushing and grinding. The iron pipes and other objects of iron are first cleaned in the usual manner by corroding, dried and then coated with a very dilute gum arable solution or any other gluing agent, and the powdered mass is spread over them by means of a sieve. The objects thus powdered are put in a room which is heated to 160^ C\ to drive out all moisture and are heated Digitized by VjOOQ IC 624 RUST PREVENTIVES to dark redness, at which temperature the oxide coating melts. Those processes, which produce a black protoxide layer on the iron by heating iron objects in supersaturated aqueous vapor, nave not stood the test, as the layer formed will drop off or peel off after a short time, thus opening the way for rust after alL The anti-rust composition called rub- ber oil is prepared as follows, according to the specification of the patent: The crude oil obtained by the dry distillation of brown oil, peat and other earthy sub- stances are subjected to a further dis- tillation. Thinly rolled India rubber, cut in narrow strips, is saturated with four times the bulK of the oil and left alone for a week or so. The mass thus composed is then subjected to the action of mineral sperm oil or a similar sub- stance, until an entirely uniform clear substance has formed. This substance, which is applied on the metallic surfaces in as thin a layer as possible, forms a sort of film after slowly drying, which is perfectly proof against atmospheric in- fluences. The rust-preventive composition ^ of Jones & Co., Sheflield, is a composition of wax, fat, turpentine, and small quan- tities of iron oxide. According to a process patented b^ A. Buchner in Germanv, the iron objects are first painted with a mixture of an alkaline glue solution and rosin soap. The alkaline mass enters all the pores and fissures and prevents the rust from extending under tne coating. After the first coat is dry a second one is applied of the following composition: Five parts linseed oil boiled with peroxide of man- ganese; 2.25 parts turpentine; 0.25 parts benzol; 20 parts zinc dust, carbonate of calcium, lead oxide, or peroxide of manganese. The mixing of the liquid with the powders must be done im- mediately before use, as the mass solidi- fies after 10 hours, and is then no longer of working consistencv. The second coating, which should only be thin, hardens quickly. The paint is weather- proof, does not peel off or blister, and adheres so firmly that it can only be re- moved with mecnanical means. A patented process to prevent rusting of wrought or cast iron consists in ap- plying with a brush a strong solution of potassium dichroroate and drying in a stove or over an open fire. Drying at ordinary temperature is not sufficient. To ascertain if the heat is strong enough the iron is moistened with a litUe water. So long as this takes up any color the heat must be increased. When the proper degree of heat is reached a fine deep black layer results, which is not acted upon by water, and protects the surface from the action of the atmosphei^. A permanent lustrous rust prev>eifttiTe is secured as follows: The well-deaaed iron parts are suspended for a few minutes in a blue vitriol solution, so that a delicate skin of copper forms on the surface; if the pieces rinsed off with water are then moved about for a few minutes in a solution of sodium hypo* sulphite faintlv acidulated with hrdro- chloric acid, tney assume a blue-blark coating of copper sulphide, which is eoually permanent in air and in water Tne black surface may be immediately rinsed with water, dried with a rag or blotting paper, and polished at once. It possesses a steel-blue luster, adheres veU to the iron, will stand treatment with the scratch brush, and protects against nist in a most satisfactory manner. Black Sheet Rust PreventiTe.— Before black plate is read^ to receive a rust pro- tective coating, it is necessary to render the surface free from grease and scaler. for which purpose the sheet iron is plaord for some time into a warmed solution of 10 parts of sulphuric acid in^ 100 parts of water, whereby the imparities becoiDe detached, a process which ma^ be as- sisted and accelerated bv scounng with sand. Then rinse in clean water and rub dry in sawdust. The sheets that prepared are placed for a short while into a feeble solution of blue vitriol, where they assume a reddish coiorine Next, they are rinsed in water, and after that moved to and fro, for a short timr. in a feeble solution of hyposulphite i«f soda acidulated with a little hvdroehlonc acid. The result is a dark-blue coatinc on the sheets, which prevents all oxida- tion. To Keep Machinery Bri^t.— I.— la order to keep machinery from rustinc take 1 ounce of camphor, dissolve it ib 1 pound of melted lard; take off Xhr scum, and mix as much fine Uack lea«l as wUl give it iron color .^ Clean the machinery and smear it with this mil- ture. ^ After 24 hours, rub dean vitk soft linen cloth. It will keep dean for months under ordinary drcumstaace* 11. — Mastic, transparent grains 10 parts Camphor 6 parti Sandarac. 5 parts Gum elemi 5 parts Alcohol, wood, quantity sufirical to dissolve. Digitized by VjOOQ IC RUST PREVENTIVES 6S5 Mix and coyer the articles with the solution. The latter will Uke the lac- quer better if warmed slightlv, but may be easily covered in the cola, if neces- sary. Ma^^tic Oxide. — A layer of magnetic oxide is a ^od preservative from rust. To obtain it the objects are placed in the furnace at a temperature sufficient for decomposing steam. Steam super- heated to 1,040*' P. is then injected for from 4 to 6 hours. The thickness of the lajer of oxide formed varies with the duration of the operation. This process can replace zincing, enameling, and tin- ning. The deposit of magnetic oxide may also be obtained by electrolysis. The iron object is placed at the anode in a bath of^ distilled water heated to 176<> F. The cathode is a copper plate, or the vessel itself, if it is of iron or copper. By electrolysis a layer of magnebc oxide is formed. Other peroxides may be de- posited in the same manner. With an alkaline solution of litharge, a very ad- herent, brilliant, black deposit of perox- ide of lead is secured. Too energetic a current must be avoided, as it would cause a pulverulent deposit. To obtain a good coating it is necessary, after put- ting the objects for a moment at the positive pole, to place them at the other pole until the oxide is completely re- duced, and then bring them back to their first position. Paper aa Protection for Iron and Steel. — Tlust paraffine paper is a very stood protector of iron and steel has been eroven by tests conducted by Louis H. (arker for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The mode of applying the paraffine paper is as follows: Ater the rust is carefully cleaned off by means of stiff wire brushes, a tacky paint is applied. The paper is then covered over and tightly pressed upon the painted surface, the joints of the paper slightly lapping. .\s soon as the paper is in place it is ready for the outside coat of paint. Iron and ^teel girders and beams subjected to the action of smoke and gases may thus be admirably protected from decomposi- tion. Anti-Ruft Paper for Needles.— This is paper covered with logwood, and pre- pared from a material to which fine graphite powder has been added, and which has been sized with glue and alum. It is used for wrapping around steel goods, such as sewing needles, etc., and protecting them against rust. Accord- ing to Lake, the paper is treated with sulphuric acid, like vegetable parchment, the graphite being sprinkled on before the paper is put into the water. Rust Paper. — Rust paper is produced by coating strong packing paper with linseed-oil varnish, size, or any other binder, and sprinkling on the powder given in previous formula.^ For use the paper must be moistened with petroleum. Anti-Rust Pastes.— I.— This prepar- ation serves for removing rust already present, as well as for preventing same, by greasing the article with it: Melt 5 parU of crude vaseline on the water bath, and mix with 5 parts of finely levi(^ated powdered pumice stone into a umfonn mass. To the half-way cooled mass add ) part of crude acid oxalate of potassium (sorrel salt^ in a finely powdered state and grind into complete homogeneity. II, — Dry tallow, 25 parts; white wax, 2S parts; olive oil, 22 parts; oil of tur- pentine, 25 parts; mineral oil, 10 parts. Apply with a brush at the fusing tem- perature of the mixture. Rust Prevention for Iron Pipes. — The gieces of pipe are coated with tar and lied with light wood sawdust, which is set afire. This method will fully pro- tect the iron from rust for an unlimited period, rendering a subsequent coat alto- gether superfluous. Rust Preventive for Tools, etc.— I. — To preserve tools, dies, etc., from rust, they should be greased well with yellow vaseline. To use oil is not advisable, since all oils, except the dear ones, which are too expensive for this purpose, con- tain a certain percentage of acid that has an injurious effect upon the steel and iron articles. For greasing the cavities use a hard brush. II. — Carefully heat benzine and add half its weight of white wax, which dis- solves completely in this ratio. This solution is applied to the tools by means of a brush. It is also said to protect against the action of acidiferous fumes. III. — Take a pound of vaseline and melt with it 2 ounces of blue ointment — what druggists call one-third — and add, to give it a pleasant odor, a few drops of oil of wintergreen, cinnamon, or sassa- fras. When thoroughly mixed pour into a tin can — an old baking-powder can will do. Keep a rag saturated with the preventive to wipe tools that are liable to rust. To Separate Rusty Pieces. — By boiling the objects in petroleum, success is cer- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 686 RUST PREVENTIVES— SALTS tain. It is necessary to treat them with alcohol or spirit to avoid subseauent oxidation, petroleum being in itself an oxidant. To Protect Zinc Roofing from Rust. — Zinc sheets for roofing can easilv be pro- tected against rust by the following simple process. Clean the plates by immersing them in water to which 5 per cent of sulphuric acid has been added, then wash with pure water, allow to dry and coat with asphalt varnish. Asphalt varnish is prepared by dissolving 1 to 2 parts asphalt in 10 parts benzine; the solution should be poured evenly over the plates, and the latter placed in an upright position to dry. RUST SPOT REMOVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. SACCHARINE IN FOOD: See Food. SADDLE GALLS: See Veterinary Formulas. SADDLE SOAP: See Soap. SALAICANDRINE DESSERT: See Pyrotechnics. SALICTL (SWEET): See Dentifrices. SALICYLIC ACID IN FOOD: See Foods. SALICYLIC SOAP: See Soap. Salts, Effervescent Granulated effervescent salts are pro- duced by heating mixtures of powdered citric acid, tartaric acid, sodium bi- carbonate, and sugar to a certain temper- ature, until they assume the consistency of a paste, which is then granulated and drieo. If effervescent caffeine citrate, anti- pyrin, lithium citrate, etc., are to be pre- pared, the powder need not be dried be- fore effecting the mixture, but if sodium phosphate, sodium sulphate, or magnes- ium sulphate are to he granulated, the water of crvstallization must first be re- moved by arying, otherwise a hard, in- soluble and absolutely non-^ranulable mass will be obtained. Sodium phos- phate must lose 60 per cent of its weight in drying, sodium sulphate 56 per cent, and magnesium sulphate 23 per cent. Naturallv, water and caroonic acid escape on neating, and the loss will in- crease with the rise of temperature. For the production of the gnnulation mass it must not exceed 158" F.. and for dnrittg the grains a temperature of 122^ F. b sufficient* , , , . The fineness of the mesh should vary according to the necessary admixture of sugar and the sixe of the grain*. if the ingredients should have a tendency to ding to the warm bottom, an effort should be made immediatc^ly upon the commencement of the reaction to cause a new portion of the surface to come in contact with the hot walls. When the mass is of the conststrnoT of paste it is pressed through a wire sieve, paper or a fabric being placed under- neath. Afterwards dry at suflicient hrat- For wholesale manufacture, surfaces of large size are employed, which are healed by steam. In the production of substances con- taining alkaloids, antipyrin, etc., care must be taken that they do not becomr colored. It is well, therefore, not to iL*r heat, but to allow the mixture to stand in a moist condition for 12 hours, addinit the medicinal substances afterwards and kneading the whole in a day reoepUHe After another 12 hours the mass will have become suffidently paste-like, so that it can be granulated as above. According to another much emploTed method, the mass is crushed with alcobot then rubbed through a sieve, and dried rapidly. This process is somewhat dearer, owing to tne great loss of alcohol, but presents the advantage of furnishing a better product than anjr other ledpe. Effervescent magnesium dtrate cmn> not be very well made; for this reason the sulphate was used in lieu of the citrate. A part of the customair ad- mixture of sulphate is replaced by safar and aromatized with lemon or similar substances. An excellent granulation mass i« ob- tained from the following mixture b* addition of alcohol: Paris by weight Sodium bicarbonate SO Tartaric add IS Citric add 13 Sugar 30 The total loss of thia maaa Ihranck granulation amounts to from 10 to 13 per cent. To this mass, medicinal sobsUaers, sudi as antip^in, caffeine dtrate, lithiuA citrate, lithium salicylate, phenacdin, piperadn, ferric carbonate, and pcfwa may be added, as desired. Digitized by VjOOQ IC SALTS 687 In order to produce a quinine prepara- tion, use tincture of ciuinine instead of alcohol for moistening; the ouinine tincture is prepared with alcohol of 00 percent Baan for EfFerveacent Salti.— Sodium bicarbonate, dried and powdered 58 parts Tartaric acid, dried and powdered 28 parts Citric acid, unefflor- esced crystals 18 parts Powder the citric acid and add the tartaric add and sodium bicarbonate. This basis may be mixed with many of the medicaments commonly used in the form of granular effervescent salts, in the proDortion which will properly rep- resent tneir doses and sucn substances as scxlium phosphate, magnesium sul- phate, citrated caffeine, potassium bro- mide, lithium citrate, potassium citrate, and others, will produce satisfactory products. A tvpical formula for effer- vescent sodium phosphate would be as fol- lows: Sodium phosphate, unefflorescea crys- tals 500 parts Sodium bicarbonate, dried and pow- dered 477 parts Tartaric add, dried and powdered 252 parts Citric add, unefllor- esced crystals 162 parts Dry the sodium phosphate on a water bath until it ceases to lose wdght; after powdering the dried salt, mix it intimate- Iv with the dtric acid and tartaric acid, then thoroughly incorporate the sodium bicarbonate. The mixed powders are now ready for granulation. The change in manipulation which is suggested to replace that usually followe*!, requires either a gas stove or a blue-flame coal-oil stove, and one of the small tin or sheet- iron ovens which are so largely used with these stoves. The stove itself will be found in almost every drug store; the oven costs from $1 to $2. The oven is heated to about 200® F. a the salt springs of Epsom in EttgUon- tain it. Now it is chiefly procured fn^o such minerals as dolomite, silioroi* magnesium hydrate, and schiat«Me nwi containing the sulphide of magnrfit. Many medical men deem it our be>t saline cathartic. SALTS, SMELUHG. I. — Moisten coarsely powdered am- monium carbonate with a mixture of Strong tincture of or- ris root 2) oancr« Extiact of violet 8 drachns Spiritof ammonia.. .. 1 dracko n.— Fill suiUble bottles with coanrit powdered ammonium carbonate* ar.: add to the salt as much of the folio* i3£ solution as it will absorb: Oil of orris S minims Oil of lavender flow- ers 10 minimt Extract of violet 80 minion Stronger water of am- monia 2 onsen SALVES: See Ointments. SAHD: Colored Sand. — Sift fine white sari' from the coarser partides and color ti &• follows: I.— Blue.— BoQ 106 parts of aatl and 4 of Berlin blue with a small auant:^ of water, stirring constantly, and drr a* soon as the sand is thoroughly colorri II.— Black Sand.— Heat xrry fi-' quartz sand, previously freed from d.** by sifting, and add to every ) poao^^ • it 6 to 8 spoonfuls of fat. Contiaur t " heating as long as smoke or a flanr * observed on stirring. The sand <• finally washed and dried. This bU i sand will not rub oflf. III.— Dark-Brown Sand.— Bod «i -<- sand in a decoction of brasil wood a *■ dry it over a fire. IV. — Rose -colored sand is oblai's<'«l by mixing 100 parta of white sand «ti^ 4 parts of vermilion. Digitized by VjOOQ IC SAND— SCREWS 629 Lftwn SAiid.;—Lawn sand ma^ be pre- pared by mixing crude ammonium sul- phate, 65 parts, with fine sand, 85 parts. This mixture will kill daisies and plan- tains, but does not permanently injure the grass of lawns. A most effective method of killing plantains is to put, during dry weather, a full teaspoonf ul of common salt in the head of each. SAHB HOLES IH BRASS; See Castings. SAND SOAP: See Soap. SAHDSTOHE CEHEHTS: See Adhesives. SAHDSTOHE COATDTG: See Acid- Proofing. SAHDSTOHES. TO REMOVE OIL SPOTS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. SAHD, TO PREVEHT ADHESIOH OF SAHD TO CASnHGS: See Castings. SARSAPARILLA. Each fluidounce of Ayer*8 sarsaparilla represents Sarsaparilla root 10 parts Yellow dock root 8 parts licorice root 8 parts Buckthorn bark 4 parts Burdock root 3 parts Senna leaves 8 parts Black cohosh root.. . . 2 parts Stillingia root 4 parts Poke root 1 part Cinchona red bark. . . 2 parts Potassium iodide. ... 4 parts Solvent. — Alcohol, 10} minims to each fluidrachm; glycerin, syrup, water. This is the formula as given by Dr. Charles H. Stowell, of the Ayer Com- pany, to the daily papers, for advertising purposes. Sanapftrilla FlaToring. — Ofl wintergreen 6 parts Ofl sassafras 2 parts Oil cassia Imparts Ofl clove Imparts Ofl anise 1} parts Alcohol 60 parts SftnapaiillJi Syrup. — Simple s^rup 40 ounces Sarsaparilla flavoring. 1 drachm Caramel to color. SARSAPARILLA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. SAHH WHITE: See Pigments. SAUCES, TABLE: See Condiments. SATIHWOOD: See Wood. SAUSAGE COLOR: See Foods. SAWDUST nr BRAH: See Bran. SAWDUST FOR JEWELERS AHD WATCHMAKERS: See Watchmakers' Formulas. SCALD HEAD, SOAP FOR: See Soap. SCALD REMEDIES: See Cosmetics. SCALE FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC RE- DUCTIOH: See Photography. SCALE PAH CLEAHER: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. SCALE IH BOILERS: See Bofler Compounds. SCALE IHSECTS, EXTERMIHATIOH OF: See Insecticides. SCALP WASHES: See Hair Preparations. SCISSORS HARDEHIHG: See Steel. SCOURIHG LIQUIDS: See Laundry Preparations. SCRATCH BRUSHIHG: See Plating, under Gflding. SCREWS: To Preyent Screws from Rusting and Becoming Fast. — Screws will sometimes rust in their seats, even when carefully ofled before driving^ them to their seats, but if they are anointed with a mixture of ^aphite and soft tallow thev will re- main unrusted and unaltered for years. A screw rusted in may also be removed by placinfc the flat extremity of a red-hot rod of iron on it for 2 or 8 minutes. When the screw is heated, it will be found to turn quite easfly. SCREWS, BLUEIH6: See Steel. SCREWS IH WATCHES: See Watchmakers' Formulas. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 6»0 SEA SICKNESS— SHELL CAMEOS SEALING (BURNING) TRICK: See Pyrotechnics. SEALING WAX: See Waxes. SEA SICKNESS. I. — ^To prevent sea sickness, take 2 or 8 grams oi potassium bromide dissolved in plain or carbonated water everv even- ing either with supper or just before re- tiring for several weeks before going on the voyage. During the voyage, breath- ing should be deep and a tight bandage should be worn around the abdomen. II.— Menthol 0.1 part Cocaine hydro- chloride 0.2 parts Alcohol 60.0 parts Syrup 80.0 parts A dessertspoonful to be taken at intervals of half an hour. SEASONINCrS: See Condiments. SEED, BIRD: See Bird Foods. SEEDS, TESTS FOR FOREIGN: See Foods. SEIDLITZ POWDERS: See SalU (Effervescent). SELTZER WATER: See Water. SERPENTS, PHARAOH'S. An old form consisted of pellets of a very poisonous mercurial compound which gave off dangerous fumes wnen heated. The "eggs" may be made of compara- tively safe material by the following formula: Potassium bichromate. 2 parts Potassium nitrate 1 part White sugar 2 parts Powder each ingredient separately, mix, and press into small paper cones. These must be kept from light and moisture. Of course, neither this nor other chemical toys containing substances in the slightest degree harmful if swallowed 8hould be placed in the hands of children not old enough fully to understand the danger of eating or even tasting un- known things. SERVIETTES liAOIQUBS: See Polishes. SETTING OF TOOLS: See Tool Setting. SEWING-MACHINE OIL: See Lubricants. SHAMPOO LOTIONS AND PASTES: See Hair Restorers and Soaps. SHARPENING PASTES: See Razor Pastes. SHARPENING STONES: See Whetstones. SHAVING PASTE. An emulsion of paraffine wax, meltiof at 181<> F., should be used. This is pre- pared with 25 per cent of wax and « prr cent of tragacanth, the wax being meltid and mixed with the tragacanth preTiou»- ly made into a mucilage with some of the water. The addition of a little stearinr or lard renders the emulsiiication of thr wax easier, while about 10 per cv^nt nf alcohol makes the preparation morr agreeable to use. The fatty^odor of Ibr S reparation may be covered by the ad> ition of ) to 1 per cent of lavender oil. and the finished product then appears «« a thick white cream. In use a small ouantity is rubbed over the area to be shaved and the rasor immediately ap- plied. As the water in the emaUioa evaporates, the particles of wax previ' ously distributed m the emulsion become coherent and fill up the depressions in the surface of the skin from which the hairs arise, thus forming a mechanir&I support during the passage of the rar or The quantity required is very small. I ounce being sumcient for shaving the face about 6 times. SHAVING SOAP: See Soap. SHEEP-DIPS: See Disinfectants. SHEEP DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulaa. SHELL CAMEOS. If shell cameos and corals haw b^ come too hot in cementing and crari« have appeared in consequence* olive oU is applied and allowed to soak in h% heating. The same process is emplovni for shell cameos which have developrd white fissures, owing to being fled smaller. SHELL. IMITATION OF: See Casein Compounds. SHELLS, LUBRICANTS DRAWING: See Lubricants. FOR R£- Digitized by VjOOQ IC SHELLAC— SHOE DRESSINGS 631 SHELL POLISHES: See Polubes. SHELLAC: See Varnishea. SHELLAC BLEACHING. In bleaching, ahellac ia brought into contact with an acidified solution of chloride of lime for some time, then washed, kneaded in hot water, placed back into the chloride of lime solution, and brushed.^ Through this treatment with the chloride of lime solution the bleached shellac sometimes loses its solubility in alcohol, which, however, can be restored if the shellac is melted in boiling water, or if it is moistened with a little ether in a well-closed vessel. A quantity of ether in the proportion of 1 jaart to 20 parts shellac is sufficient. Great cau- tion ia recommended in the handling of ether. The ether vapors easily ignite when in proximitv to a burning light and a mixture of etner vapor and atmos- pheric air may cause most vehement ex- plosions. After an action of the ether upon the shellac for several hours, the alcohol necessary to dissolve it may either be added directly or the ^ shellac mois- tened with ether is placed in the open air for half an hour in a dish, after which time the ether will have evaporated and the shellac can then be dissolved by the use of alcohol. Bleached shellac is known to lose its solubilitv in alcohol, especially if treated with chlorine in bleaching. This solu- bility can be readily restored, however, by first moistening the rosin with A its weight of ether, placing it in a closed vessel and allowug it to swell there. Shellac thus treated becomes perfectly soluble again. SHERBETS: See lee Creams. SHIMS IN EVGINE BRASSES. In taking up the wear of engine brasses on wrist pin or crosshead pin when the key is driven dear down, oack out the key and instead of putting in sheet-iron shims, put in a small piece of pine wood of just the right thickness to allow the key to come even with the under side of the strap, Uien pour in melted babbitt. A hole must be drilled through the flanse of the brasses to allow for pouring tne babbitt. Every engineer knows the trouble it is to put several shims between the brass box and the end of the strap, especially if tbc box is a round-end one, as manv are. By using the method described. brasses may be worn up much closer, even if worn through; tne babbitt will form part of the bearing. Shoe Dressings (See also Leather.) Add-Free Blacking. — Lampblack 27-36 parts Bone black 8 parts Syrup 60-70 parU Put in a kettle and under gentle heat stir together until a smooth, homoge- neous mass has been attained. In an- other kettle put 3 parts of finely shredded gutta percha and warm over an open fire until it begins to run, then add, with constant stirring, 6 parts of olive oil, continuing the heat until the gum is completely dissolved. When this oc- curs dissolve in 1 part of stearine, and add the whole whue still hot in a slow stream, and under diligent and constant stirring, to the mixture of syrup and blacks. Continue the agitation of the mass until it is completely homogeneous. Now dissolve 4 parts of Senegal gum in 12 parts of water, and add the solution to the foregoing mass. Stir well in and finally add sufficient mirbane (about i part) to perfume. Blacking Pastes.— While shellac is not sduble in water alone, it is soluble in water carrying borax, the alkaline carbonates, etc. In paste blacking the object of the sulphuric acid is to remove from the bone black the residual calcium phosphate. The ordinary bone black of commerce consists of only about 10 per cent of carbon, the residue being chiefly calcium phosphate. ^ This is the reason that we cannot obtain a pure black color from it, but a dirty brown. To make a good blacking, one that is of a black in color, either use purified bone black, or a mineral acid (sulphuric or hvdrochloric acid) with crude ^ bone black. The residual acid is entirely neutralized by the sodium carbonate and has no bad effect on the leather. The following formula contains no acid and makes a good paste: I. — Marseilles soap. . . 122 parts Potassium c a r - bonate 61 parts Beeswax 500 parts Water 2,000 parts Mix and boil together with occasional stirring until a smooth, homogeneous paste is obtained, then add, a little at a time, and under constant stirring, the following: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 632 SHOE DRESSLNGS Rock candy, pow- dered 158 parts Gum arable, pow- dered 61 parts Ivory black 1,000 parts Stir until homogeneous, then pour, while still hot, into ooxes. The following makes a very brilliant and durable black polish for shoes: II.— Bone black 40 parts Sulphuric acid ... 10 parts Fish oil 10 parts Sodium carbonate crystal 18 parts Sugar, common brown, or mo- lasses 20 parts Liquid glue, pre- pared as below . 20 parts Water, sufficient. Soak 10 parts of good white glue in 40 parts of cold water for 4 hours, then dissolve by the application of gentle heat, and add 1.8 fuirts of glvcerine (commercial). Set aside. Dissolve the sodium carbonate in sufficient water to make a cold saturated solution (about 3 parts of water at 60^ F.), and set aside. In an earthenware vessel moisten the bone black with a very little water, and stirring it about with a stick, add the sulphuric acid, slowly. Agitate until a thick dough-like mass is obtained, then add and incorporate the fish oil. Anv sort of animal oil, or even colza will answer, but it is best to avoid high-smell- ing oils. Add a little at a time, and under vigorous stirring, sufficient of the saturated sodium carbonate solution to cause effervescence. Be careful not to add so freely as to liquefy the mass. Stir until effervescence ceases, then add the molasses or sugar, the first, if a soft, damp paste is desired, and the latter if a dryer one is wanted. Finally, add, a little at a time, and under constant stirring, sufficient of the solution of glue to make a paste of the desired con- sistency. The exact amount of this last ingredient that is necessary must be learned by experience. It is a very important factor, as it gives the finished product a depth and brilliancy that it could not otherwise have, as well as a certain durability, in which most of the blackings now on the market are defi- cient III.— Soap 122 parts Potassium c a r - bonate 61 parts Beeswax 500 parts Water 2.000 parte Mix and boil together until a smooth, homogeneous paste is obtained, then add ^ Bone black 1,000 parte Powdered sugar. . 153 parte Powdered gum arabic 61 parte Mix thoroughly, remove from the fire, and pour while still hot into boxca. Boot-Top Liquid.— Solution of muriate of tin S drachms French chalk (in pow- der) 1 ounce Salt of sorrel ) ounce Flake white 1 ounce Burnt alum ) ounce Cuttle-fish bones (powdered) 1 ounce Wnite arsenic 1 ounce Boiling water I quart Brown Drewiiig for Uatamned SIioml.— Yellow wax 30 parte Soap 12 parte Nankin yellow 15 parte Oil of turpentine 100 parte Alcohol 12 parte Water 100 parte Dissolve in the water bath the wax io the oil of turpentine; dissolve, also bj the aid of heat, the soap in the vatrr. and the Nankin vellow (or in place of that any of the yellow coal-tar colors' la the alcohol. Mix the solutions vbilr hot, and stir constant! V until cold. Tbr preparation is smearea over the shoe* ir the usual wav, rubbed with a brush uot^ evenly distributed, and finally polished with an old silk or linen doth.^ Heel Polialu— I. — Carnauba wax 5 parte Japanese wax 5 parte Paraffine 5 parte Oil of turpentine . . 50 parte Lampblack 1 part • Wine black 2 parte Melt the wax and the parmfiae, aad when this has become luaewarm, adJ the turpentine oil, and finally the lamp* black and the wine black. When lh« black color has become evenly da* tributed, pour, while still lukewarm, tnlo tin cans. II.— Melt together Japanese wax. 100 P^rts; carnauba wax, 100 naite: paraffine, 100 parte; and mix wita tur- pentine oil, 500 parte, as well as a liitar- ation of lampblack, 10 parte; wine black. 20 parte; turpentine oil, 70 parts. Digitized by VjOOQ IC SHOE DRESSINGS 688 UQUID BLACKDIGS. The following formulas make a product of excellent quality: I.— Ivory black 120 parta Brown sugar 90 parts Olive oil 15 parts Stale beer 500 parts Mix the black, sugar and olive oil into a smooth paste, adding the beer, a little at a time, under constant stirring. Let stand for 24 hours, then put into flasks, lightly stoppered. II.— Ivory black «00 parts Molasses 200 parts Gall nuts, bruised. 12 parts Iron sulphate 12 parts Sulphuric acid. ... 40 parts Boiling water 700 parts Mix the molasses and ivory black in an earthen vessel. In an iron vessel let the gall nuts infuse in 100 parts of boil- ing water for 1 hour, then strain and set aside. In another vessel dissolve the iron sulphate; in another, 100 parts of the boiling water. One-half of this solution is added at once to the molasses mixture. To the remaininff half add the sulphuric acid, and pour the mixture, a little at a time, under constant stirring, into the earthen vessel containinff the molasses mixture. The mass will swell up and thicken, but as soon as it commences to subside, add the infusion of eallnuts, also under vigorous stirring. If a paste blacking is desired the preparation is now complete. For a liquid black add the remaining portion of the boiling water (500 parts), stir thoroughly and bottle. Patent^Leatfaer Polish.— Yellow wax or ceresine 3 ounces Spermaceti 1 ounce Oil of turpentine 11 ounces Asphaltum varnish. . . 1 ounce Borax 80 grains Frankfort black 1 ounce ' Prussian blue 150 grains Melt the wax, add the borax, and stir until an emulsion has been formed. In another pan melt the spermaceti: add the varnish, previously mixed with the turpentine; stir well and add to the wax; lasUy add the colors. Preaervmtivefl for Shoe Soles. — I. — This preparation, destined for impreg- nating leather shoe soles, is produced as follows: Grind 50 parts of linseed oil with 1 part of litharge: next heat for 2 hours to the boiling point with i part of zinc vitriol, which is previously cal- cined (dehydrated). The composition obtained in this manner, when perfectly cold, is mixed with 8 parts of benzine and filled in bottles or other receptacles. To render this preservative effective, the soles must be coated with it until the leather absorbs it. II. — Dissolve ordinary household soap in water; on the other hand, dissolve an aluminum salt; — the cheapest is the com- mercial aluminum sulphate — in water and allow both solutions to cool. Now pour the aluminum salt solution, with constant stirring, into the soap solution, thereby obtaining a very fine precipitate of aluminum oleate. The washed-out residue is dried with moderate heat. By adding 10 to 80 per cent to petroleum with slight heating, a solid petroleum of vaseline-like consistency is received, which may be still further solidified by additional admixture. A 10 per cent solution of aluminum oleate m petro- leum is a verv excellent agent for pre- serving the soles, a single saturation of the soles sufficing forever. The sole will last about 1 year. III. — The following mixture is pre- pared by melting^ together over the fire in an enameled iron vessel: Vaseline, 400 parts; ceresine, 100 parts. The melted mass, which is used as a grease, is filled in wooden boxes or tin cans. IV. — The oleic acid of the stearine factories is heated with strong alcohol and sulphuric acid. Take 16 parts of oleic acid, 2 parts of alcohol (00 per cent), and Ip^rt of concentrated sulphu- ric acid. Tne oleic-acid ether formed separates as a thin brownish oil. It is liberated from free sulphuric acid and the alcohol in excess by agitation with warm water and allowing to settle. This oleic-acid ether is mixed with the same weight of fish oil, and 4 to 8 parts of nitro-benzol are added per 1,000 parts to disguise the odor. TAN ARD RUSSET SHOE POLISHES: To Renovate and Brighten Russet and Yellow Shoes. — First, clean off all dirt and dust with a good stiff brush, then with a sponge dipped in benzine go over the leather, repeating the process as soon as the benzine evaporates.^ A few wipings will bring back the original color. Then use a light-yellow dressing and brush well. The liquid application consists usual jy of a solution of yellow wax and soap in oil of turpentine, and it should be a mat- ter of no difficulty whatever to compound a mixture of this character at least equal Digitized by VjOOQ IC 6S4 SHOE DRESSINGS to the preparations on the market. As a type oi the mixture occasionally recom- mended we may quote the following: I. — Yellow wax 4 ounces Pearl ash 4 drachms Yellow soap I drachm Spirit of turpentine . 7 ounces Phosphine (aniline). 4 grains Alcohol 4 drachms Water, a sufficient quantity. Scrape the wax fine and add it, to- gether with the ash and soap, to 12 ounces of water. Boil all together until a smooth, creamy mass is obtained; re- move the heat and add the turpentine and the aniline (previously dissolved in the alcohol). Mix thoroughly, and add sufficient water to bring the finished product up to 1} pints. II.— Water 18 parts Rosin oil 4} parts Spirit of sal ammo- niac, concentrated li parts White grain soap. . . 1.9S parts Russian glue 1.59 parts Brown rock candy . . 0.57 parts Bismarck brown 0.07 parts Boil all the ingredients together, ex- cepting the pigment; after all has been dissolved, add the Bismarck brown and filter. The dressing is applied with a sponge. III. — Beeswax, yellow 2 ounces Linseed ofl 3 ounces Oil turpentine 10 ounces Dissolve by heat of a water bath, and add H ounces soap shavings, hard yel- low. Dissolve this in 14 ounces of hot water. IV. — A simpler form of liquid mix- ture consists ofequal parts of yellow wax and palm oil dissolved with the aid of heat m 3 parts of oil of turpentine. V. — Soft or green soap. . . 1 ounce Linseed oil, raw .... 2 ounces Annatto solution (in oil) 7 ounces Yellow wax. 2 ounces Gum turpentine. ... 7 ounces Water 7 ounces Dissolve the soap in the water and add the solution of annatto; melt the wax in the oil of turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap solution, stirring until cold. The paste to accompany the foregoing mixtures is composed of yellow wax and rosin thinned with petrolatum, say 4 parts of wax, 1 part of rosin, and 12 parts of petrolatum. PMte DrMsiiigB for Rtitiet Shoes.— The paste dressings used on russet leather consist of mixtures of was with oil and other vehicles which give a mix- ture of proper working quality. A simple formula is: I. — YcUow wax 0 parte Oil of turpentine 20 parte Soap 1 pail Boiling water 20 parte Dissolve the wax in the turpentine on a water bath and the soap in the wairr and stir the two liquids together antti the mixture becomes sufficiently cold to re- main homogeneous. Another formula in which stearine is used is appended: II.— Wax 1 pMi Stearine 2 parte Linseed oil ] part Oil of turpentine 6 parte Soap 1 part Water 10 parte Proceed as above. Camauba wax is often used by mmnu- facturera of such drcasing* instead of beeswax, as it is harder and takes a higher polish. These dressings arr sometimes colored with finely ground vellow ocher or burnt umber. If thr leather be badly worn, however, it is hnt to apply a stein first, and afterward thr waxy dressing. Suiteble steins are made by boilinc safflower in water, and annatto is alw used in the same way, the two hring sometimes mixed togetJier. Oxalic sr^i darkens the color of the safflower. Ani- line colors would also doabtleaa wiM good resulte with less trouble ano rt- pense. By adding finely ground laap- black to the waxy mixture instead uf ocher, it would answer aa a drcMJng for black leather. WATERPROOF SHOE DRESSIBGS. I. — Caoutchouc 10 parte Petroleum 10 parte Carbon disulphide. 10 parte Shellac 40 parte Lampblack 20 parte Oil lavender 1 part Alcohol 200 parte Upon the caoutchouc in a bottle poar the carbon disulphide. cork weO. and IH stend a few davs. or untd the caovlrhoor has become thoroughly gelatinised or partly dissolved. Then add the pHi^- leum, oil of lavender, and alcoKoL nni the shellac in fine powder, and heat it to about 120* P., teking care that as little «t possible is lost by evaporation. Whra the substenoes are all dtasolv^ and ih^ liquid is tolerably dear, add thr iaap- Digitized by VjOOQ IC SHOE DRESSINGS— SHOW CASES 6S5 black, mix thoroughly, and fill at once into small bottles. II. — A waterproof blacking which will give a fine polish without rubbing, and will not injure the leather: Beeswax 18 parts Spermaceti 6 parts Turpentine oil 66 parts Aspnalt varnish .... 5 parts Powdered borax 1 part Frankfort black .... 5 parts Prussian blue 2 parts Nitro-benzol 1 part Melt the wax, add the powdered bor- ax and stir till a kind of jelly has formed. In another pan melt the spermaceti, add the asphalt varnish, previously mixed with the oil of turpentme, stir well, and add to the wax. Lastly add the color previously rubbed smooth with a little of the mass. The nitro-benzol gives fra- grance. Waterproof Varnish for Beach Shoes. — Yellow.— Water 150 parts Borax 5 parts Glycerine 3 parts Spirit of ammonia.. . 1 part White shellac 25 parts Yellow nigment, water soluble 1 part Formalin, a few drops. Orange. — Water 150 parte Borax 5 parte Glycerine 2 parte Spirit of am monia ... 1 part Ruby shellac 22 parte Orange, water solu- ble 1 part Brown O.S parte Formalin 0.1 part Pkle Brown. — Water 150 parte Borax 5 parte Glycerine 2 parte Spirit of ammonia. . . 0.25 parte White shellac 25 parte Yellow, water solu- ble 8 parte Orange O.S parte Formalin 0.1 part Stir the glycerine and the spirit of ammonia together in a special vessel be- fore putting both into tne kettle. It is also advisable, before the water boils, to pour a little of the nearly boilinff water in to a dean vessel and to dissolve the colors therein with good stirring, adding this solution to the kettle after the shellac has been dissolved. White Shoe Dressing. — I. — Cream of tertor 8 ounces Oxalic acid 1 ounce Alum 1 ounce Milk 8 pinte Mix and rub on the shoes. When they are thoroughly dry, rub them with a mixture of prepared chalk and magne- sium carbonate. II.— Water 186 parte Fine pipe day 454 parte Shellac, bleached. . 186 parte Borax, powdered . . 68 parte Soft soap 8 parte Ultramarine blue. . 5 parte Boil the shellac in the water, adding the borax, and keeping up the boiling until a perfect solution is ootained, then stir in tne soap (5 or 6 parte of "ivory** soap, shaved up, and melted with 2 or 8 parte of water, is better than common soft soap), pipe clay, and ultramarine. Finally strain through a hair-cloth sieve. This preparation, it is said, leaves abso- lutely nothing to be desired. A good deal of stiffness may be imparted to the leather by it. The addition of a little glycerine would remedj^ this. The old application should be wiped away before a new one is put on. This preparation is suitable for military shoes, gloves, belte, and uniforms requiring a white dressing. SHOE LUBRICAUT: See Lubricante. SHOES, WATERPROOFIHO: See Waterproofing. SmO UAO: See Adhesives, under Cemente. SHIP coMPOsrrioHs akd paints : See Painte. SHOW BOTTLES FOR DRUGGISTS: See Bottles. SHOW CASES. Dente in show cases and counters, and, indeed, almost all forms of "bruises** on shop and other furniture, may be re- moved by the exercise of a little patience, and proceeding as follows: Sponge the place with water as warm as can be borne by the hand. Take a piece of filtering or other bibulous paper large enough to fold 6 or 8 times and yet cover the bruise, wet in warm water and place over the spot. Take a warm fnot hot) smoothing iron and hold it on tne paper until the moisture is evaporated (re- newing ite heat, if necessary). If the bruise does not yield to the first trial, re- peat the process. A dent as large as a Digitized by VjOOQ IC 6S6 SICCATIVES dollar and i inch deep in the center, in black walnut of tolerably close texture, was brought up smooth and level with the surrounding surface by two applica- tions of the paper and iron as described. If the bruise be small, a sponge dipped in warm water placed upon it, renewing the warmth from time to time, will be all-sufficient. When the dent is removed and the wood dry, the polish can be re- stored by any of the usual processes. If the wood was originally finished in oil, rub with a little boiled linseed cut with acetic acid (oil, 8 parts; acid. 1 part). If it was ''French polished," apply an al- coholic solution of shellac, and let drv; repeat if necessary, and when completely dry proceed as follows: Rub the part covered with shellac, first with crocus cloth and a few drops of olive oil, until the ridges, where the new and old polish come together, disappear; wipe with a slightly greased but otherwise dean rag and finisn with putz pomade. SHOW-CASE SIONS: See Lettering. SHOW-CASES, TO PREVENT DDC- MHIG OF: See Glass. Siccatives The oldest drier is probably litharge, a reddish - yellow powder, consisting of lead and oxygen. Formerly it was ground finelv m oil, either pure or with admixture of white vitriol and added to the dark oil paints. Litharge and sugar of lead are used to-day only rarely as drying agents, having been displaced bv the liquid manganese siccatives, which are easy to hancfle. E. Ebelin, however, is of the opinion that the neglect of the lead compounds has not been beneficial to decorative painting. Where these mediums were used in suitable quantities hard-drving coatings were almost alwavs obtainea. Ebelin believes that formerly there used to be less lamentation on account of tack^ floors, pews, etc., than at the present time. Doubtless a proposition to grind litharge into the oil again will not be favorably received, although some old master painters have by no means dis- carded this method. Sugar of lead (lead acetate) is likewise used as a drier for oil paint. While we may presume in general that m siccative acts by imparting its oxygen to the lin- seed oil or else prepares the linseed oil in such a manner as to render it capable of readily absorbing the oxygen of the air. it is especially sugar of lead wkicb strengthens us in this belief. If, ac- cording to Leuchs, a piece of charcoal is saturated with lead acetate, the charcotl can be ignited even with a bttrnio^ sponge, and burns entirely to %shtM. (Whoever desires to make the experi* ment should take 2 to S parts, by weight of sugar of lead per 100 parts of cfasr- coal.) This demonstrate that the lugax of lead readily parts with its oxygen, which though not burning itself, »ui>- ports the combustion. Henoe, it may m assumed that it will also as a siccati^t freely give off its oxygen. Tormin reports on a siccative, of which he says that it has been foand valuable for floor coatings. Its produc- tion is as follows: Pour I part of while lead and 1} parts each of litharge, sujar of lead and red lead to 12^ parts ol Fiv- seed oil, and allow this mixture to U4I for 8 to 10 hours. Then remore tie kettle from the fire and add to the c-i- ture 20 parts of oil of turpenti ne. Dnri nt the boilinj;, as well as during and sftrr the pouring in of the oil turpenti ii<^. diligent 8tirrin|f is neceasarv, partly to prevent anything from sticKing to tLr kettle (which would render the drier in)- pure) and partly to cause the li<)uio ntA to be compelled to add lead compoaDd«. which, as experience has shown, csu*' a yellowing of white coatings to »nr white. For ordinary mirposes, I>r. Koller recommends to ado to the lisMro oil 2 per cent (by weight) of litharge aod ) per cent of ainc vttnol, whereupca tbe mixture is freely boiled. If the vhttr vitriol is to be added in powder form, it must be deprived of its constitatiooAl water. This is done in the simplra manner by calcining. The powder, nWh feels moist, ii subjected to the aclioD ti fire on a sheet-iron plate, whereby the white vitriol is transformed into a vcsiev* lar, crumbly mass. At one time it va» ^ound in oil for pure sine white coat- ings onl]r, while for the other ptfiBr»t« litharge is added besides, as atatcdatwr ^ As repurda the manganese pcrpan- tions which are employed for Bicc«t^«r« it must be stated that tney do not ] Digitized by VjOOQ IC SICCATIVES 637 certain disadyantages of the lead prepar- ationfl as, for instance, that of being acted upon by hydrogen sulphide ^s. The ordinary brown manganese dners, however, are very liable to render the paint yellowish, which, of course, is not desirable for pure white ^ coatinffs. In case of too large an addition of the said siccative, a strong subsequent yellowing is perceptible, even if, for instance, zinc white has been considerably "broken" by blue or black. But there are also manganese siccatives or drying prepara- tions offered for sale which are colorless or white, and therefore may unhesitatingl;r be used in comparatively large quanti- ties for white coatings. A pulverulent dr}'ing material of this kind consists, for example, of equal parts of calcined (i. e., anhydrous) manganese vitriol, man- ganous acetate, and calcined zinc vitriol. Of this mixture 8 per cent is added to the zinc white. Of the other manganese compounds, especially that containinjg most oxygen, viz., manganic peroxide, is extensively employed. This body is treated as follows: It is first coarsely powdered, feebly calcined, and sifted. Next, the substance is put into wire gauze and suspended in linseed oil, which should be boiled slightly. The weiffht of the linseed oil should be 10 times that of the manganese peroxide. According to another recipe a pure ulverous preparation may be produced ly treating the manganic peroxide with hydrochloric acid, next filtering, orecipi- tating with hot borax solution, allowing to deposit, washing out and finally dry- ing. Further recipes will probably oe unnecessary, since the painter will hardly prepare his own driers. Unless for special cases driers should be used but sparingly. As a rule 8 to 5 per cent of siccative suffices; in other words, 8 to 5 pounds of siccative should be added to 100 pounds of ground oil paint ready for use. As a standard it may be proposed to endeavor to have the coatinff dry in 24 hours. For lead cctlors a slight addition of drier is^ ad- visable; for red lead, it may be omitted altogether. Where non-tackj coatings are desired, as for floors, chairs, etc., as well as a priminff for wood imitations, lead c<^or shoula always be employed AS foundation, and as a drier also a lead E reparation. On the other hand, no ad compounds should be used for pure sine-white coats and white lacquering. Testiiig Siccatiyefl. — Since it was dis- covered that the lead and manganese compounds of rosin acids had a oetter t and more rapid action on linseed oil than the older form of driers, such as red lead, litharge, manganese dioxide, etc., the number of preparations of the former class has increased enormously. Man- ufacturers are continually at work en- deavoring to improve the quality of these compounds, and to obtain a prep- aration which will be peculiarly their own. Conseauently, with such a larg^ variety of substances to deal with, it becomes a matter of some difficulty to distinjguish the good from the bad. In addition to the general appearance, color, hardness, and a few other such physical properties,' there is no means of ascer- taining the ({uality of these substances except practical testing of their drying Sroperties, that is, one must mix the riers with oil and prove their value for oneself. Even the discovery of an ap- parently satisfactory variety does not end the matter, for experience has shown that such preparations, even when they appear the same, do not give similar results. A great deal depends upon their preparation: for example, manga- nese^ resinate obtained from successive consignments, and containing the same percentage of manganese, does not al- ways give identical results with oil. In fact, variation is the greatest drawback to these compounds. With one prepar- ation^ the oil darkens, with another it remains pale, or sometimes decomposi- tion of the oil takes place in part. The addition of a small proportion of drier has been known to cause the separation of 50 per cent of the oil as a dark vi«cous mass. One drier will act well, and the oil will remain thin, while with another, the same oil will in the course of % few months thicken to the consistency of stand oil. These various actions may all be obtained from the same compound of rosin with a metal, the source only of the drier varying. The liquid siccatives derived from these compounds by solution in turpen- tine or benzine also give widely divergent results. Sometimes a slight foot will separate, or as much as 60 per cent may go to the bottom of the pan, and at times the whole contents of the pan will settle to a thick, jelly-like mass. By increas- ing the temperature, this mass will be- come thin and clear once more, and dis- tillation will drive over pure unaltered turpentine or benzine, leaving behind the metallic compound of rosm in its original state. The compounds of metals with fatty acids which, in solution in turpentine, have been used for many years by var- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 6S8 SICCATIVES nisb-makers, show even greater variation. At the same time, a greater drying power is obtained from them than from rosin acids, quantities being equal. As these compounds leave the factory, they are often in solution in linseed ou or turpen- tine, and undoubtedly many of the prod- ucts of this nature on the market are of very inferior quality. The examination of these bodies may be set about in two wajrs: A. — By dissolving m linseed oil with or without heat. B. — By first dissolving the drier in turpentine and inixing the cooled solu- tion (liquid siccatives) with linseed oil. Before proceeding to describe the method of carrying out the foregoing tests, it is necessary to emphasize the important part which the linseed oil plays in the examination of the driers. As part of the information to be gained bv these tests depends upon the amount of solid matter which separates out, it is essential that the linseed oil should be uniform. To attain this end, the oil used must always be freed from muci- lage before beins used for the test. If this cannot readily be obtained, ordinary linseed oil should be heated to a temper- ature of from 518'' to STS*" F., so that it breaks, and should then be cooled and filtered. With the ordinary market linseed oil, the amount of solid matter which separates varies within wide limits, so that if this were not removed, no idea of the separation of foot caused by the driers would be obtained. It is not to be understood from this that unbroken linseed oil b never to be used for ordinary paint or varnish, the warn- ing being onfv given for the sake of ar- riving at reliable values for the quality of the driers to be tested. A, — Solution of Drier in Linseed OU. — ^The precipitated metallic compounds of rosin (lead resinate, manganese res- inate and lead manganese resinate) dis- solve readily in linseed oil of ordinary temperature (eO^ to TO*" F.). The oil u mixed with 1} per cent of the drier and subjected to stirring or shaking for 24 hours, the agitation beins applied at intervals of an hour. Fused meUllic res- inates are not soluble in linseed oil at or- dinary temperatures, so different treat- ment is required for them. The oil is heated in an enameled pan together with the finely powdered drier, until the latter is completely in solution, care being taken not to allow the temperature to rise above 390'' F. The pan is then re- moved from the fire and its contents allowed to settle. The quantity of drier used should not exceed 1 } to 3 per cent In the case of metallic hnoleates (lead linoleate, manganese linoleate and lesd- manganese linoleate), the tcmpersture must be raised above 290^ F. before tbev will go into solution. In their case also the addition should not be sreater tkAs 3 per cent. Note, after all the tests hat* settied, the amount of undissdTrd matter which is left at the bottom, as tbi» is one of the data upon which an idea of the value of the drier must be formed. B, — Solution of Drier in TurpentiPt or Benzine » — For the preparation oi thetf liquid siccatives 1 to 1.4 parts of tkc metallic resinate or linoleate are add«J to the benzine or turpentine and di*- solved at a genUe heat, or the drier ms} first be melted over a fire and added to the solvent while in the liquid state. The proportion of matter which doe» diH go into solution must be carefully noted as a factor in the valuation of the dner. From 5 to 10 per cent of the liquid sicn- tive is now added to the linseed c»il. asd the mixture shaken well, at intervals dur- ing 24 hours. Samples of all the oils prepared as above should be placed in amall rlesr botUes, which are very narrow inaide. «o that a thin laver of tne oil mav be ob- served. The botties are allowea to stand for 3 or 4 days in a temperate room, without being touched. When sufficient time has been allowed for thorough set- tiing, the color, transparency, and ri>o- sistency of the samples are carefully ob- served, and also the quantity and oatorr of any precipitate which may bs«e settied out. A note should also be made of the date for future reference. Nato- rally the drier which has colored the oil least and left it most dean and thin, ahd which shows the smallest prrcipitatf. i» the most suitable for (ceneral use. The next important test is that of dr?inf power, and is carried out as foUovt: A tew drops of the sample are placed on a clear, clean glass plate, 4x6 laches, a»d rubbed evenly over with the finger*. The plate is then placed, dean side up, in a sloping position with the upper edce resting asainst a wall. In thu way as; excess oi oil is run off and a very tbia equal layer is obtained. It is htst to start the test early in the morning a» it can then be watched throughout the day It should be remarked that the tive from the "tacky" stafe to complete dry- ness is usuall V very snort, so that the ob- server must oe constantly on the walrb If a good drier has been used, thr time may be from 4 to 5 hours, and should sU be more than 18 or at the very higbea Digitized by VjOOQ IC SIGN CLEANING— SILVER 689 15. The bleaching of the layer should also be noted. Many of the layers, even after they have become as dry as they seem capable of becoming, show a slight stickiness. These tests should be set aside in a dust-free place for about 8 days, and then tested with the finger. SIGN CLEAHIRG: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. SIGH LETTBRS: To Remove Black Letters from White Enameled Signs. — It frequently hap- pens that a change has to be made on such signs, one name having to be taken off and another substituted. Primins with white lead followed by dull and glossy sine white paint always looks like a daub and stands out like a pad. Lye, glass paper or steel chips will not attack the bumed-in metallic enamel. The quickest plan is to grind down carefuUy with a gd grindstone. SIGH-LETTER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements. SIGNS, TO REPAIR ENAMELED: See Enamels. SILK: Artificial << Rubbered'* Silk.— A solu- tion of caoutchouc or similar gum in acetone is added, in any desired oropor- tion, to a solution of nitro-cellulose in acetone, and the n^ixture is made into threads by passingit into water or other suitable fiquid. The resulting threads are stated to be very brilliant in appear- ance, extremely elastic, and very resistant to the atmosphere and to water. The product is not more inflammable than natural silk. Artificial Aning of Silk Fabrics.— To give silk goods the appearance of age, exposure to the sun is tne simplest way, but as this requires time it cannot always be employed. ^ A quicker method con- sists in preparing a dirt^-greenish liquor of weak soap water, with addition of a little blacking and gamboge solution. Wash the silk fabric m this liquor and dry as usual, without rinsing in clean water, and calender. BiMlching Silk. — The Lyons process of bleaching skeins of silk is to draw them rapidly through a sort of aqua regia bath. Tnis bath is prepared by mixing 5 parts of hydrochloric acid with 1 of nitric, leaving the mixture for 4 or 5 days at a Seotle beat of about 17^ P., and then Outing with about 15 times its volume of water. This dilution is effected in large tanks cut from stone. The tem- perature of the bath should be from 08^ to 86^ F., and the skeins should not be in it over 15 minutes, and freouently not so long as that; they must be Kept in motion during all that time. When taken out, the silk is immediately im- mersed successively in 2 troughs of water, to remove everv trace of the acid, after which they are dried. Hydrogen peroxide is used as a silk bleach, the silk being first thoroughly washed with an alkaline soap and ammo- nium carbonate to free it of its gummy matter. After repeated washings in the peroxide (prefers dIv rendered alkaline with ammonia ana soda), the silk is "blued** with a solution of blue aniline in alcohol. Washing of Light Silk Goods.— The best soap may cnange delicate tints. The following method is therefore pref- erable: First wash the silk tissue in warm milk. Prepare a light bran infusion, which is to be decanted, and after resting for a time, passed over the fabric. It is then rinsed in this water, almost cold. It is moved about in all directions, and afterwards dried on a napkin. SILK SENSITIZERS FOR PHOTO- GRAPHIC PURPOSES: See Photoffraphy, under Paper-Sen- sitizing Processes. Sflver Antique SUver (see also Plating). — Coat the polished silver articles witn a thin paste of powdered graphite, 6 parts; pow- dered bloodstone, 1 part; ancl oil of tur- pentine. After the drving take off the superfluous powder witn a soft brush and ruD the raised portions bright with a linen rag dipped in spirit. By treatment with various sulphides an old appearance is likewise imparted to silver. If, for ex- ample, a solution of 5 parts of liver of sul- phur and 10 parts of ammonium carbonate are heated in 1 quart of distilled water to 180** F., placing the silver articles therein, the fatter first turn pale gray, then dark gray, and finally assume a deep black-blue. In the case of plated ware, the silverinff must not be too thin; in the case of thick silver plating or solid silver 1 quart of water is suflicient. The colors will then appear more ouickly. If the coloring is spotted or otiierwise imperfect dip the oojects into a warm potassium cyanide solution, whereby thfe silver sulphide formed is immediately Digitized by VjOOQ IC 640 SILVER dissolved. The bath must be renewed after a while. Silver containing much copper is subjected, previous to the col- oring, to a blanching^ process, which is accomplished in a boiling solution of 15 parts of powdered tartar and 30 parts of cooking salt in 2 pints of water. Ob- jects which are to be mat are coated with a paste of potash and water after the blanching, then dry, anneal, cool in water, and toO again. Imitation of Antique SUver. — Plated articles may be colored to resemble old objects of art made of solid silver. For this purpose the deep-lying parts, those not exposed to friction, are provided with a blackish, earthy coatinff, the promi- nent parts retaining a leaden but bright color. The orocess is simple. A thin p^te is made of finely powdered graphite and oil of turpentine (a little blood- stone or red ocher may be added, to imi- tate the copper tinge in articles of old silver) and spread over the whole of the previously plated article. It is then allowed to dry, and the particles not ad- hering to the surface removed with a soft brush. The black coating should then be carefully wiped off the exposed parts by means of a linen rag dipped in alco- hol. Thb process is very effective in making imitations of obiects of antique art, such as goblets, candlesticks, vessels of every description, statues, etc. If it is desired to restore the original bright- ness to the object, this can be done by washing^ with caustic soda or a solution of cyanide of potassium. Benzine can also oe used for this purpose. Blanching SilTer. — I. — Mix |X)w- dered charcoal, 8 parts, and calcined borax, 1 part, and stir with water so as to make a homogeneous paste. Applv this paste on the pieces to be blancneci. Put the pieces on a charcoal fire, taking care to cover them up well; when they have acquired a cherry red, withdraw them from the fire and leave to cool off. Next place them in a hot bath composed of 9 parts of water and 1 part oi sul- Ehuric acid, without causing the bath to oil. Leave the articles in for about 1 hour. Remove them, rinse in clean water, and dry. II. — If the coat of tarnish on the sur- face of the silver is but light and super- ficial, it suffices to rub the piece well with green soap to wash it thoroughly in hot water: then drv it in hot sawdust and pass it through alcohol, finallv rub- bing with a fine cloth or brush. Should the coat resist this treatment, brush with Spanish white, then wash, dry, and pass through alcohol. The employment of Spanish white baa the drawback of shining the silver if the application i* strong and prolonged. If tne ozidmboD has withstood these means and if it u desired to impart to the chain the h*Bd- some mat appearance of new goods, it should be annealed in charcoal dual and passed through vitriol, ^ut this opcrmtioB. for those unused to it, is very dangcrou* to the soldering and consequently may spoil the piece. Coloring SUver. — A rich sold tint may be imparted to silver articlea h^ plune- ing them into dilute sulphuric arid, saturated with iron rust. Froatinf Polished SUTer.— AriiHea of polished silver may be frosted bv putting them into a bath of nitric acta diluted with an equal volume of distilled watrr and letting them remain a few mtQatr« A better effect may be given bv dippinc the article frequently into the bath oDtil the requisite degree of frosting has brrn attained. Then rinse and place for a few moments in a strong bath of potas- sium cyanide; remove and rinse. The finders must not be allowed to touch thr article during either process. It should be held with wooden forcepa or damps. Fulmlnatlnjg SilTer. — Dissolve 1 part of fine silver m 10 parts of nitric acid o4 l.SO specific gravity at a moderate beat, pour the solution into 20 parts ol spirit of wine (85 to 00 per cent) and beat the liquid. As soon as the mixture bc>gtft« to boil, it is removed from the fire and left alone until cooled off. The fulmiaic silver crystallises on cooling in very fine needles of dassling whiteness, which are edulcorated with water and «iried carc^ fully in the air. Hollow SilTtnrara. — A good procew for making hollow figures coaatsts ia covering models of the figures, made i^ a base or easily soluble metal, with a thia and uniform coating of a nobler metal, bv means of the electric current in snrh a wav that this coating takes approxinLstr* Iv tne shape of the model, the latter beiax then removed by dissolring it with arid The model is cast from sine in one or more pieces, a well -chased braaa mold being used for this purpose, and the separate parts are then soldered togetber with an easily fusible solder. The ficwrr is then covered with a nlvaniacd co^tiag of silver, copper, or other metal. Before receiving the coating of silver, the fiprv^ is first covered with a thin depoail «^ copper, the silver being added afterwards in the required thickncas. But in order Digitized by VjOOQ IC SILVER 641 that the deposit of silver may be of the same thickness throughout (this is es- sential if the figure is to keep the right shape), silver anodes, so constructed and arranged as to correspond as closely as possible to the outlines of the figure, should be suspended in the solution of silver and cyanide of potassium on both sides of the figure, and at equal distances from it. As soon aa the deposit is suffi- ciently thick, the figure is removed from the bath, washed, and put into a bath of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, where it is allowed to remain till the zinc core is dissolved. The decomposition of the sine can be accelerated by adding a pin of copper. The figure now requires only boiling in soda and potassic tartrate to acquire a white color. If the figure is to be made of copper, the zinc model must be covered nrst with a thin layer of silver, then with the copper coating, and then once more with a thin layer of silver, so that while the zinc is being dissolved, the copper mav be protect- ed on either side by the suver. Similar precautions must oe taken with other metals, regard being paid to their {pecu- liar properties. Another method is to cast the figures, entire or in separate parts, out of some easily fusible alloy in chased metal molds. ^ The separate por- tions are soldered with the same solder, and the figure is then provided with a coating of copper, silver, etc., by means of the ipil vanic current. It is then placed in boiung water or steam, and the inner alloys melted by the introduction of the water or steam through holes bored for this purpose. Lustrotts Oxide on Silver (see also Plat^ ing and Silver, under Polishes). — Some experience is necessary to reproduce a handsome black luster. Into a cup filled with water throw a little liver of sulphur and mis well . Scratch the sil ver article as bncht as possible with the scratch brush ana dip into the warm liquid. Remove the object after 2 minutes and rinse off in water. Then scratch it up again and return it into the liquid. The process should be repeated 2 or S times, whereby a wonderful glossy black is obtained. Oraamental Designs on Silver. — Select a smooth part of the silver, and sketch on it a monogram or any other design with a sharp lead pencil. Place the article in a gold solution, with the battery in good working order, and in a short time all the parts not sketched with the lead pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. After deaning the article the black lead is easily removed with the finger, whereupon the silver ornament is disclosed. A gold or- nament may be produced by reversing the process. Sepaimtisg Wrtr from Platinum Waste. — Cut the waste into small pieces, make red hot to destroy grease and organic substances, and dissolve in aqua regis (hydrochloric acid, 8 parts, and nitric acid, 1 part). Platinum and all other metals combined with it are thus dis- solved, while silver settles on the bot- tom as chloride in the shape of a gray, spongy powder. The solution is then drawn off and tested by oxalic acid for {^old, which is precipitated as a fine yel- owish powder. Tne other metals re- main untouched thereby. The plati- num still present in the solution is now obtained oy a gradual addition of sal ammoniac as a yellowish-gray powder. These different precipitates are washed with warm water, dried, and transformed into the metallic state by suitable fluxes. Platinum filings, however, have to be previously refined. They are also first annealed. All steel or iron filings are removed with a magnet and the rest is dipped into concentrated sulphuric acid ana heated with this to the boiling point. This process is continued as long as an action of the acid is noticeable. The remaining powder is pure platinum. Hot sulphuric acid dissolves silver with- out touching the platinum. The liquid used for the separation of the platinum is now diluted with an equal quantity of water and the silver expelled from it by means of a saturated cooking salt solu- tion. The latter is added gradually until no more action, i. e., separation, is perceptible. The liquid is carefully drawn off, the residue washed in warm water, dried and melted with a little soda ashes as flux, which yields pure me- tallic silver. The old process for separating silver from waste was as follows: The refuse was mixed with an equal quantity of charcoal, placed in a crucible, and sub- jected to a bright-red heat, and in a short time a silver button formed at the bot- tom. Carbonate of soda is another good flux. Silvering Glass Globes. — Take } ounce of clean lead, and melt it with an equal weight of pure tin; then immediately add } ounce of bismuth, and carefully skim off the dross; remove the alloy from the fire and before it grows cold add 5 ounces of mercury, and stir the whole well together; then put the fluid amal- gam into a clean glass, and it is fit for use. vVhen this amalgam is used for silvering Digitized by VjOOQ IC 642 SILVER let it be first strained through a linen rag; then ffentlv pour some ounces thereof into tne globe intended to be silvered; the alloy snould be poured into the globe by means of a paper or glass funnel reaching almost to the bottom of the globe, to prevent it splashing the sides; the globe should be turned every way very slowly, to fasten the silvering. SilTeiing Powder for Metals. — Cop- per, brass, and some other metals mav be silvered bv rubbing well with the follow- ing powcler: Potassium cyanide, 12 parts; silver nitrate, 6 parts; calcium carbonate, SO parts. Mix and keep in a well-closed bottle. It must be applied with hard rubbing, the bright surface being afterwards rinsed with water, dried, and polished. Great care must be ex- ercised in the use of the powder on account of its poisonous nature. It should not be allowed to come in con- tact with the hands. Silver Testixig. — For this purpose a cold saturated solution of {Mtassium bichromate in pure nitric acid of 1.2 specific gravity is employed. After the article to be tested has been treated with spirit of wine for the removal of any varnish coatins which might be present, a drop of the above test liquor is applied by means of a class rod and the resultant spot rubbed off with a little water. A testing solution of potassium bi- chromate, 1 ounce, pure nitric acid, 6 ounces, and water, 2 ounces, gives the following results on surfaces of the metals named: Metal. Color in one minute. Color of mark left. Pure silver BriKht blood-red Grayish white Dark brown .926 silver Dark red .800 silver Cliooolate Dark brown .500 silver Green Dark brown German silver Dark blue Lightgray Scarcely any Cleaned copper Nickel Turquoise blue Copper Very dark blue Dark brown Bra^ Light brown Lead Nut brown Iveaden Tin Reddish brown Dark Zinc Light chocolate Yellow Steel gray Aluminum No stain Platinum Vanears. Add a little hydrochloric acid with a glass rod. If a white turbidness (silver chloride) sp- |>ears which does^ not vanish upon adoi- tion of water, or, in case of faint silvering or an alloy poor in silver, a weak opal> escence, the presence of silver is ceftsin. Even alloys containing ver^ little silm give this reaction quite distinctly. Pink Color on Stiver. — To produce • beautiful pink color upon silver, dip tbr clean article for a few seconds into a but and strong solution of cupric chlondr, swill it in water and then ory it or dtp it into spirit of wine and ignite the spirit. SILVER. AGEING: See Plating. SILVER, miTATIOH: See Auoys. SILVERING: See Plating. SILVERING OF MIRRORS: See Mirrors. SILVERING, TEST FOR: See Plating. SILVER FOIL SUBSTITUTE: See Metal Foil. SILVER NITRATE SPOTS, TO R£< MOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Mctk- ods. SILVER-PLATING: See Plating. SILVER, RECOVERY GRAPHIC: See Photography. SILVER SOLDERS: See Solders. OF PHOTO* Digitized by VjOOQ IC SLATE— SNAKE BITES 648 SILVER, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, t SILVER, TO RECOVER GOLD FROM: See Gold. SILVERWARE POLISHES: See Polishes. SmiLOR: See Alloys. SniEWS, TREATMENT OF, IN MANU- FACTURING GLUE: See Adhesives. STRUP (RASPBERRY): See Raspberry. SYRUPS: See Essences and Extracts. SIZING: See Adhesives. SIZING WALLS FOR KALSOMINE: See Kalsomine. SKIN-CLEANING PREPARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. SKIN OINTMENTS: See Ointments. SKIN FOODS: See Cosmetics. SKIN TROUBLES: See Soap. SKIN VARNISH: See Varnishes. SKINS: See Leather. SLATE: Artifidal Slate.— The artificial slate coating on tin consists of a mixture of finely ffround slate, lampblack, and a water-glass solution of equal parts of potash and soda water glass (1.25 specific gravity). The process is as follows: I. — First prepare the water-glass solu- tion by finely crushing equal oarts of solid potash and soda water glass and pouring oyer this 6 to 8 times the quan- tity of soft river water, which is kept boiling about 1} hours, whereby the water glass is completelv dissolved. Add 7 |>arts finely crusned slate finely ground with a little water into impalpable dust, 1 part lampblack, which is ground with it, and grind enough of this mass with the previously prepared water-glass solu- tion as is necessary for a thick or thin coating. With this compound the rough- ened tin plates are painted as uniformly as possible. For roofing, zinc plate may be colored in the same manner. The coating protects the zinc from oxidation and consequently from destruction. For painting zinc plate, however, onlv pure potash water glass must be added to the mixture, as the paint would loosen or peel off from the zinc if soda water glass were used. II. — Good heavy paper or other sub- stance is saturated with linseed-oil varnish and then painted, several coats, one after another with the following mixture: Copal varnish 1 part O^of turpentine 2 parts Fine, dry sand, pow- dered 1 part Powdered glass. ..... 1 part Ground slate 2 parts Lampblack 1 part SLIDES FOR LANTERNS: See Photography. SLUGS ON ROSES: See Insecticides. SMARAGDINE: See Alcohol (Solid). SMUT, TREATMENT FOR: See Grain. SNAKE BITES. About 25 years ago. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell and^ Dr. Reichert published results of their investigations of snake ▼enom which indicated that permanga- nate of potassium may prove of material value as an antidote to this lethal sub- stance. Since that time permanganate has been largely used all over the world as a remedy when men and animals were bitten by poisonous snakes, and Sir Lauder firunton devised an instrument by means of which the permanganate may be readil;^ carried in the pocket, and immediately injected into, or into the neighborhood of, the wound. Captain Rodgers, of the Indian Medical Service, recently reported several cases treated by this method, the wounds being due to the bites of the cobra. After making free crucial incisions of the bitten part, the wound was thoroughly flushed with a hot solution of permanganate of po- tassium, and then bandaged. Recovery occurred in each instance, although the cauterant action of the hot solution of permanganate of potassium delayed heal- mg so long that the part was not well for about 8 weeks. About 12 or IS years affo. Dr. Amos Barber, of Cheyenne, Wyoming, reported cases in which ex- cellent results had followed this method of treatment. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 644 SOAPS Soaps (See also Cleaning Compounds and Polishes.) AUnSEPTIC SOAP. L — Various attempts have been made to incorporate antiseptics and cosmetics with soap, but for the most part unsuc- cessfully, owing to the unfavorable ac- tion of the Added components, a good instance of this kind being sodium perox- ide, which, though a powerful antiseptic, soon decomposes in the soap and loses its properties, while the caustic character of the oxide renders its use precarious, even when the soap is fresh, unless great care is taken. However, according to a German patent, zinc peroxide is free from these defects, since it retains its stability and has no corrosive action on the skin, while possessing powerful anti- septic and cosmetic properties, and has a direct curative influence when applied to cuts or wounds. II. — The soap is prepared by melting 80 parts of household soap in a jack- eted pan, and graduallv adding 20 parts of moist zinc peroxide (50 per cent strength), the whole being kept well stirred all the time. The finished mix- ture will be about as stifiF as dough, and is easily shaped into tablets of conven- ient size. III.— Take 50 parts, by weight, of caustic soda of 70 per cent, and free from carbonic acid, if possible; 200 parts, by weight, of sweet almond oil; 160 parts, bv weight, of glycerine of 80® B^.; and suf- ficient distuled water to make up 1,000 parts by weight. First, dissolve the alkali in double its weight of water, then add the glvcerine and oil and stir together. Afterwards, add the remainder of the water and keep the whole on the water bath at a temperature of HO"* to ISS"* F., for 24 to SO hours; remove the oil not saponified, which gives a gelatinous mass. Mix 000 parts, by weight, of it with 70 parts, by weight, of 00 per cent alcohol and 10 parts, by weight, of lemon oil, and as much of the ou of bergamot and the oil of vervain. Heat for some hours at 140° F., then allow to cool and filter on wadding to eliminate the needles of stearate of i>otash. The liquid after filtering remains clear. Carpet Soap. — Fuller's earth ........ 4 ounces Spirits of turpentine. . 1 ounce Pearlash 8 ounces Rub smooth and make into a stiff paste with a sufficiency of soft soap. To Cut Castile Soap. — A thin snatuU must be^ used. To cut straignt, a trough with open ends made with ^inch boards^ should be taken, the^ inside dimensions being 2} inches wide, Sf inches deep, and about 14 inches lon^. Near the end a perpendicular slit is sawed through the side pieces. Passing the spatula down through this slit the bar is cut neatly and straight For trimming off the corners a carpeoter*i small iron plane works well. COLORING SOAP. The first point to be observed is to select the proper shade of flower cor- responding with the perfume used, for instance, an almond soap is left white; rose soap is colored pink or red; mi« gnonette, green, etc. The colors from which the soapmsker may select are numerous; not only sre most of the coal-tar cunded along with the following scenting insredi- ents: 0.15 parts of oil of bitter almond and 0.02 parts of oil of geranium rose, or 0.1 part of the latter, and 0.05 parts of lemon oil. The warm process is preferable, ex- perience having shown tnat boiling is essential to the proper saponification of the fats. In this methoa, 80 parts of lard and 20 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil are melted together in a large pan, 100 parts of potash Ive (20^ B^.) being then crutched in by degrees, and the mass raised to boiling point. The combined influence of the heat and crutching vaporizes part of the water in the lye, and the soap thickens. When the soap has combined, the fire is made up, and another 80 parts of the same potash lye are crutched in gradually. The soap gets thicker and thicker as the water la expelled and finally throws up **rusrs** on the surface, indicating that it is near- ly finished. At this stage it must be crutched vigorously, to prevent scorch- ing against the bottom of the pan and the resulting more or less dark colora- tion. The evaporation period may be shortened by using only 50 to 60 parts of lye at first, and fitting with lye of 23* to 30^ strength. For working on the laner scale iron pans heated by steam are used, a few makers employing stlvrr- lined vessels, which have the advantage that they are not attacked by the alkali. Tinned copper pans are also useful. The process takes from 7 to 8 hours, and when the soap is finished it is transferred into stoneware vessels for storage. Clear vegetable oils (castor oil) may be used, but the soaps lack the requisite nacreoos luster required. TRANSPARENT SOAPS. The mode of production is the same for all. The fats are melted together. sifted into a double boiler, and the lye is stirred in at 111^ F. Cover up for aa hour, steam being allowed to enter slowly. There is now a clear, grain-like soap in the kettle, into which the sugar solution and the alcohol are crutched, whereupon the kettle is covered up. If cuttings are to be used, they are oov added. When same are melted* the kettle will contain a thin, dear aoap, which is colored and scented as per directions, and subsequently filled into little iron molds and cooled. Roie-Glycerine Soap. — I. — Cochin cocoanut oil 70,000 parts Compressed tal- low 40,000 parts Castor oil 30,000 parts Caustic soda lye, 38* B^ 79.000 parts Sugar 54,000 parts Dissolved in Water 60.000 parts Alcohol 40.000 parts Geranium oil (African) t50 parts Lemon oil. ...... 200 parts Palmarosa oil. . . . 1,200 parts Bergamot oil 80 parU Benzoin-Glycerine Soap. — II. — Cochin cocoanut oil 00,000 parts Compressed tal- low 81,000 parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC SOAPS 653 Castor oil S5.000 parts Caustic soda lye, SS^'B^ 66,000 parts Sugar S6,000 parts Dissolved in Water 40,000 parU Alcohol 35,000 parts Brown, No. 120... 200 parU Powdered benzoin (Siam) 4,200 parts Stjrax liquid 1,750 parts Tincture of ben- zoin 1,400 parts Peru balsam 700 parts Lemon oil 200 parts Clove oil 70 parts Sonflower-Olycerine Soap. — lO. — Cochin cocoanut oil 70,000 parts Compressed tal- low 50,000 parts Castor oil 23.000 parts Caustic soda lye, 39*»Be 71,000 parts Sugar 40,000 parU Dissolved in Water 30,000 parts Alcohol 40,000 parts Brown, No. 55. . . 250 parts Geranium oil 720 parts Berffamot oil 300 parts CecUir-wood oil. . . 120 parts Palmarosa oil 400 parts Vanillin 10 parts Tonka tincture. . . 400 parts MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS: Szeeedin Soap. — Tallow, 120 parts; palm Kernel oU, 80 parts. Saponify well with about 200 parts of lye of 24" Be. and add« with constant stirring, the fol- lowing fillings in rotation, viz., potash solution, 20** Be., 150 parts, and cooling salt solution 20"* Be., 380 parts. Instnixnent Soap. — A soap for clean- ing surgical instruments, and other ar- ticles of polished steel, which have be- come specked with rust by exposure, is made by adding precipitated chalk to a strong solution ot cyanide of potassium in water, until a cream-like p»aste is obtained. Add to this white castile soap la fine shavings, and rub the whole to- gether in a mortar, until thoroughly in- corporated. The article to be cleaned should be first immersed, if possible, in a solution of 1 part of cvanide of potash in 4 parts of water, and kept there until the surface dirt and rust disappears. It should then be polished with the soap, made as above oirected. Stoin-IbemoTiiig Soaps. — These are prepared in two ways, either by making a special soap, or by mixing ordinary soap with special detergents. A good recipe is as follows: I. — Ceylon cocoanut or palm seed oil 320 pounds Caustic soda lye, 38'' Be 160 pounds Carbonate of pot- ash, 20" B^ 56 pounds Oil of turpentine . 9 pounds Finely powdered kieselguhr 280 pounds Brilliant green.. . . 2 pounds The oil having been fused, the dye is mixed with some of it and stirred into the contents of the pan. The kieselguhr is then crutched in from a sieve, then the lye, and then the carbonate of potash. These liquids are poured in in a thin stream. When the soap begins to thicken, add the turpentine, mold, and cover up the molds. II. — Rosin grain soap. 1,000 pounds Talc (made to a paste with weak carbo n a t e of potash) ....... 100 pounds Ou of turpentine . 4 pounds Benzine 3 pounds Mix the talc and soap by heat, and when cool enough add the turpentine and benzine, and mold. III. — Cocoanut oil 600 pounds Tallow 400 pounds Caustic soda lye. . 500 pounds Fresh ox gall 200 pounds Oil of turpentine. 12 pounds Ammonia (sp. gr., 0.91) 6 pounds Benzine 5 pounds Saponify by heat, cool, add the gall and the volatile liquids, and mold. Soap Substitutes. — I. — Linseed oil 28 pounds Sulphur 8 pounds Aluminum soap. ... 28 pounds Oil of turpentine 4 pounds II. — Aluminum soap. ... 15 pounds Almadina 25 pounds Caoutchouc 50 pounds Sulphur. . • . • ; 6 pounds Oleum succini 4 pounds Shampoo Soap. — Linseed oil 20 parts Malaga olive oil 20 parts Caustic potash 9} parts Alcohol 1 part Water 30 parU Digitized by VjOOQ IC 654 SOAPS Warm the mixed oils on a large water bath, then the potash and water in another vessel, heating both to 158^ F., and adding the latter hot solution to the hot oil while stirring briskly. Now add and thoroughly mix the alcohol. Stop stirring, keep the heat at 158" F. until the mass becomes clear and a small quantity dissolves in boiling water with- out globules of oil separating. Set aside for a few days before using to make the liquid soap. The alcohol may be omitted if a transparent product is immaterial. Sapo Duma. — Olive oil 100 parts Soda lye, sp. gr., l.SS. 50 parts Alcohol (90 per cent) . 30 parts Heat on a steam bath until saponifica- tion is complete. The soap thus formed is dissolved in 300 parts of hot distilled water, and salted out bv adding a filtered solution of 25 parts of sodium chloride and 5 parts of crystallized sodium car- bonate m 80 parts of water. Sapo Mollis.— Olive oil 100 parts Solid potassium hy- droxide 21 parts Water 100 parts Alcohol (90 per cent) . 20 parts Boil by means of a steam bath until the oil is saponified, adding, if necessary, a little more spirit to assist the saponifica- tion. Sand Soap. — Cocoa oil, 24 parts; soda lye, 38'' Be., 12 parU; sand, finely sifted, 28 parts; cassia oil, .0100 parts; sassafras oU, .0100 parts. Salicylic Soap. — When salicylic acid is used in soap it decomposes, as a rule, and an alkali salicvlate is formed which the skin does not absorb. A German chemist claims to have overcome this defect by thoroughly eliminating all water from potash or soda soap, then mixing it with vaseline, heating the mixture, and incor- porating free siuicylic acid with the re- sulting mass. The absence of moisture prevents any decomposition of the sali- cylic acid. Olein Soap Substitute. — Fish oil or other animal oil is stirred up with sul- phuric acid, and then treated with water. After another stirring, the whole is left to settle, and separate into layers, where- upon the acid and water are drawn off, and caustic soda solution is stirred in with the oil. The finishing stage con- sists in stirring in refined mineral oil. magnesium chloride, borium chloride, and pure seal or whale oil, in succession. Mottled Soap.— Tallow, SO part«: palm kernel oil, 270 l>arts; lye, 20", 347 ( parts; potassium chloride solution, <0% 374 parts. After everything has been boued into a soap, crutch the following dve solution into it: Water, 5) paH»; blue, red, or black, .0315 parts; water glass, 38^ 10 parU; and lye, SS*, 1} parts. Laundry Soap. — A good, commoo hard soap mav be made from dean tal- low or lard and caustic soda, without aoj very special skill in manipulation. TW caustic soda indicated is a crude article which may now be obtained from whole- sale druggists in c|uantities to suit, at s very moderate price. ^ A lye of arersire strength is made by dissolving it in wstrr in the proportion of about 2 Dounds to the gaUon. For the saponincatioo of lard, a given quantity of the grease is melted at a low heat, and } its weight of lye is then added in small portions witk constant stirring: when incorporstioa has been thoroughly effected, another portion of lye equal to the first is added, as before, and the mixture kept at s gentle heat until saponification appears to be complete. If the soap does nut readily separate from the liquid, more lye shoulcf be added, the soap being in- soluble in strong lye. W*hen separation has occurred, pour off the lye, add water to the mass, neat until dissolved, sod again separate by the use of more strong lye or a strong solution of common sah. The latter part of the process is dest^neil to purify the soap and may be omitted where only a cruder article is requirrd The soap is finally remelted on a water bath, kept at a centle heat until as muck water as possible is expelled, and then poured into frames or molds to set Dog Soap. — ^^^"":;;:::::: tl»r Alcohol «lwJi^t Good laundry soap. 15 J ''"^* Heat the petroleum, wax, and alcohol on a water bath until they are weQ mixed, and dissolve in the mixture the soap mt in fine shavings. This may be used on man or beast for driving away Termin. Liquid Tar Soap (Sapo Picis liqui- dus). — Wood Ur . .. 25 |«r1s Uebra*s soap spirit. . . 75 fmrts Os-Gmll Soap for Cleanssng SOk Stuffs. — To wash fine silk stuffs, such a» Digitized by VjOOQ IC SOAPS— SOLDERS 655 piece ^oods, ribbons, etc., employ a soap containing a certain amount of ox gall, a product that is not surpassed for the fiurpose. ^ In making this soap the fol- owing directions wul be found of ad- vantage: Heat 1 pound of cocoanut oil to 100* P. in a copper kettle. While stirring rigorously aaa } pound of caustic soda Ire of 30° Baume. In a separate vessel neat i pound of white Venice tur- pentine, and stir this in the soap in the copper kettle. Cover the kettle well, and let it stand, mildly warmed for 4 hours, when the temperature can be again raised until the mass is quite hot and flows clear; then add the pound of ox gall to it. Now pulverize some good, perfectly dry grain soap, and stir in as much of it as will make the contents of the copper kettle so hard that it will yield slightly to the pressure of the fingers. From 1 to 2 pounds is all the grain soap required for the above quantity of gall soap. When cooled, cut out the soap ana shape into bars. This is an indis- pensable adjunct to the dyer and cleaner, as it will not injure the most delicate color. SOAP, MILK OF: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. SOAP-BUBBLE LIQUIDS, I. — White hard soap. . . 26 parts Glycerine 15 parts Water 1,000 parts II. — Dry castile soap. . . 2 parts Glycerine SO parts Water 40 parts SOAP POLISHES: See Polishes. SOAP, TOOTH: See Dentifrice. SODA PAIHT: See Paint. SODA WATER: See Beverages. SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE: See Photography. SODIUM SILICATE AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Water- Glass Cements. SODIUM SALTS, EFFERVESCEIfT : See Salts. Solders SOLDEROfO OF METALS AND THE PREPARATION OF SOLDERS. The object of soldering is to unite two portions of the same metal or of different metals bv means of a more fusible metal or metallic alloy, applied when melted, and known by the name of solder. As the strength of the soldering depends on the nature of the solder used, the degree of strength required for the joint must be kept in view in choosing a solder. The parts to be joined must be free from oxide and thoroughly clean; this can be secured by filing, scouring, scraping, or pickling with acids. The edges must fit exactly, and be heated to the melting Eoint of the solder. The latter must ave a lower melting point than either of the portions of metal that require to be joined, and if possible only those metals should be chosen for solder which form alloys with them. The solder should also as far as possible have the same color and approximately the same strength as the article whose edges are to be united. To remove the layers of oxide which form during the process of soldering, various so-called "fluxes** are employed. These fluxes are melted and applied to the joint, and act partly by keeping off the air, thus preventing oxidation, and partly by reducing and dissolving the oxides themselves. The choice of a flux depends on the quantity of heat required for soldering. Solders are classed as soft and hard solders. Soft solders, also called tin solders or white solders, consist of soft, readily fusible metals or alloys, and do not possess much strength; they are easy to handle on account of their great fusibility. Tin, lead-tin, and alloys of tin, lead, and bismuth are used for soft solders, pure tin being employed only for articles made of the same metal (pure tin). The addition of some lead makes the solder less fusible but cheaper, while that of bismuth lowers the melting point. Soft solders are used for soldering easilv fusible metals such as Britannia metal, etc., also for soldering tin plate. To prepare solder, the metals are melted together in a graphite crucible at as low a temperature as possible, well stirred with an iron rod, and cast into ingots in an iron mold. To melt the solder when required for soldering, the soldering iron is used; the latter should be kept as free from oxidation as possible, ana the part applied should be tinned over. To make so-called **Sicker" solder, equal parts of lead and tin are melted together, well mixed, and allowed to stand till the mixture begins to set, the part still in a liquid rondition being then poured off. This mixture can, however. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 656 SOLDERS be more easily made bv melting together 37 parts of lead and 68 parts of tin (exactly measured). Soldering irons are usually made of copper, as copper is easily heated and easily ^ives up its heat to the solder. The pomt of tne iron must be "tinned." To do this properly, the iron should be heated hot enough easilv to melt the solder; the point should then be quickly dressed with a smooth flat file to remove the oxide, and rubbed on a piece of tin through solder and sal ammoniac. The latter causes the solder to adhere in a thin, even coat to the point of the iron. A gas or gasoline blow torch or a char- coal furnace is best for heating the iron, but a good, clean coal fire, well coked, will answer the purpose. When in use, the iron should be hot enough to melt the solder readUv. A cold iron produces rough work. This is where the beginner usually fails. If pos- sible, it is well to warm the pieces before applying the iron. The iron must not DC neated too hot, however, or the tin on the point will be oxidized. The surfaces to be soldered must be clean. Polish them with sandpaper, emery cloth, a file, or a scraper.^ Grease or oil will prevent solder from sticking. Some good soldering fluid should be used. A very good fluid is made by dis- solving granulated zinc in muriatic acid. Dissolve as much zinc as possible in the acid. The gas given off will explode if ignited. To granulate the zinc, melt it in a ladle, and pour it slowly into a barrel of water. A orush or swab should be used to spread the fluid on the surfaces to be soldered. If the point of the solder- ing iron becomes dirty, it should be wiped on a cloth or piece of waste that has been dampened with the soldering fluid. Soldering of Metallic Articles. — In a recently invented orocess the parts to be united are covered, on the surfaces not to be soldered, with a protective mass, which ore vents an immediate contact of the solder with the surfaces in question, and must be brushed off only after the soldered pieces have cooled perfectly, whereby the possibility of a cnange of position of these pieces seems precluded. For the execution of this process the objects to be soldered, after tne surfaces to be united have been provided with a water-glass sdution as the soldering a^ent and placed together as closely as possible or united by wires or rivets, are coated in the places where no solder is desired with a protective mass, consisting essentially of carbon (graphite, coke, or charcoal), powdered talc or asbestos, ferric hydrate (with or without ferrous hydrate), aod, if desired, a little aluminum oxide, to- gether with a binding AjS^Qt of the t tomary kind (glue solution, beer). Following are some examples of tbe composition of these preparatioas: I. — Graphite, 50 parts; powdered cob. 5 parts; powdered cnarcoal, 5 parts; pow- dered talc, 10 parts; glue solutioa, iS parts; drop beer, %,5 parts; ferric hydrste. 10 parts; aluminum oxide, 5 parts. II. — Graphite, burnt, 4 parts; grsphjt^ jbumt, 6 parts; powdered charcoal, S arts; powclered asbestos, 1 part; Ume unbumt, 6 jparts; powdered charcoal, S parts; powclered asbestos, 1 part; Ume nydrate, 8 parts; ferrous nydiate, i parts; glue solution, 1 part. The article thus prepared is plunged, after the drying of the protective Isjrr applied, in the metal bath serving u solder (molten brass, copper, etc.), and left to remain therein until the part to be soldered has become red hot, which generally requires about 50 to 60 seconds, according to the size of the ob> ject. In order to avoid, in introdariiK the article into the metal bath, tke scattering of the molten metal, it is vrl! previous^ to warm the article and to dip It warm. After withdrawal from the metal bath the soldered artklcs are al- lowed to cool, and are cleaned with virr brushes, so as to cause the bright snrfsceft to reappear. The process is especially useful for uniting iron or steel Jiarts, such as machinery, arms, and bicyde parts is a durable manner. Soldering Add. — A very satisfactorr soldering acid may be made by the usf « the ordinary soldering add for the ha«r and introducing a certain proportion of chloride of tin and sal ammoniae. Th» gives an add which is superior in every way to the old form. To make 1 caBoa of this soldering fluid take 3 qnaits ^ common muriatic add and allow it to dissolve as much zinc as it will talcr op. This method, of course, is the nsnal oor followed in the manufacture of ordioan soldering acid. The add, as is wrU known, must be placed in an carthro- ware or glass vessel. The zinc may br sheet clippings or common plate sp(lt«^ broken into small pieces. Flaoe the ao * in the vessel and add the sine b udai. Eortions so as toprevent the whole fr»Bi oiling over. When all the sine ba» been added and the action has slopped, li indicates that enough has been tazeo sp Care must be taken to see that tbcfv if a little zinc left in the bottom^ as olhr^ Digitized by VjOOQ IC SOLDERS 667 wise the add will be in excess. The idea is to have the acid take up as much sine as it can. After this has been done there will remain some residue in the form of a black precipitate. This is the lead which all sine contains, and which is not dis- solved by the muriatic acid. This lead may be removed by filtering through a funnel in the bottom of which there is a little absorbent cotton,^ or the solution may be allowed to remain overnight until the lead has settled and the dear solu- tion can then be poured off. This lead predpitate is not particularly injurious to the soldering fluid, but it is better to get rid of it so Uiat a good, dear solution may be obtained. Next, dissolve 6 ounces of sal ammoniac in a pint of warm water. In another pint dissolve 4 ounces of chloride of tin. The chloride of tin solution will usually be doudy, but this will not matter. Now mix the 8 solutions together. The solution will be slightly doudy when the 3 have been mixeo, and the addition of a few droos of muriatic acid will render it perfectly dear. Do not add any more acid than b necessary to do this, as the solution would then contain too much of this ingredient and the results would be in- jurious. This soldering add will not spatter when the iron is applied to it. It has also been found that a poorer grade of solder may be used with it than with the usual soldering acid. ALUMINUM SOLDERS. To solder aluminum it is necessarv preriousl;^ to tin the parts to be solderea. This tinning is done with the iron, using a composition of aluminum and tin. Replace the ordinary soldering iron by an iron of pure aluminum. Prepara- tion of aluminum solder: Commence by fu.^n^ the cop^r; then add the alumi- num in several installments, stir the mix- ture well with a piece of iron; next add the zinc and a little tallow or benzine at the same time. Once the zinc is added do not heat too strongly, to avoid the volatilisation of the zinc. I.-^Take 5 parts of tin and 1 part of aluminum. Solder with the iron or with the blowpipe, according to the aitide in question. II- — The pieces to be soldered are to be tinned, but instead of usin^ pure tin, alloys of tin with other metals are em- ployed, preferably those of tin and alominum. For articles to be worked after soldering, 45 parts of tin and 10 parts of aluminum afford a good alloy, malleable enouffh to be hammered, cut, or turned. If tpey are not to be worked, the alloy requires less aluminum and may be applied in the usual manner as in soldering iron. Aluminum Bronze.-j-I. — Strong solder: Gold, 89 parts; fine silver, S parts; cop- per, 6 parts. II. — Medium solder: Gold, 54 parts; fine silver, 27 parts; copper, 19 parts. III.— Weak solder: Gold, 14 parU; silver, 57 parts; copper, 15 parts; brass, 14 parU. BRASS SOLDERS. Brass solder consists of brass fusible at a low temperature, and is made by melting together copper and zinc, the latter bring in excess. A small quantity of tin is often added to render the solder more^ fusible. Hard solders are usuallv sold in the form of granules. Although many workers in metals make their own solder, it is advisable to use hard solder made in factories, as complete uni- formitv of quality is more easily secured where large quantities are manufactured. In making hard solder^ the melted metal is poured through birch twigs in order to granulate it. The granules are afterwards sorted by passing them through sieves. When brass articles are soft-soldered, the white color of the solder contrasts unpleasantly with the brass. If this is obiected to, the soldered part can be colored vellow in the followmg manner: Dissolve 10 parts of copper sulphate in S5 parts of water; applv the solution to the solder, and stir with a clean iron wire. This gives the part the appear^ ance of copper. To produce the jrellow color, paint the part with a mixture consisting of 1 part of a solution of equal parts of zinc and water (1 part each) and 2 parts of a solution of 10 to 35 parts respectively of copper sulphate and water and rub on with a zinc rod. The result- ing yellow color can, if desired, be im- proved by careful polishing. The quality of soft soMer is always judfled in the trade from the appearance of Uie surface of the castings, and it is considered important that this surface should be radiant and crvstalline, showing the so-called "flowers. These should be more brilliant than the dull background, the latter being like mat silver in appearance. If the casting has a uniform whitish-gray color, this is an indication that the alloy contains an insufficient quantity of tin. In this < Digitized by VjOOQ IC 658 SOLDERS the alloy should be remelted and tin added, solder too poor in tin being ex- tremely viscid. Most of the varieties of brass used in the arts are composed of from 68 to 70 per cent copper and from S2 to 30 per cent zinc. Furthermore, there are some kinds of brass which contain from 24 to 40 per cent zinc. The greater the quantitv of zinc the greater will be the resemblance of the alloy to copper. Consequently, the more crystalline will the structure become. For hard solder- ing only alloys can be employed which, as a general rule, contain no more than 34 per cent of zinc. With an increase in copper there follows a rise in the melting point of the brass. An alloy containing 00 per cent of copper will meet at 1,940^ P.; 80 per cent copper, at 1,868'' F.; 70 per cent copper, at 1,796° F.; 60 per cent cop|>er, at 1,742° F. Because an mcrease in zinc causes a change in color, it is sometimes advisable to use tin for zinc, at least in part, so that the allo^ becomes more bronze-like in its properties. The durability of the solder is not seriouslv affected, but its fusibility is lowered, if more than a certain proportion of tin be added, thin and verv fluid solders are obtained of grayish- wnite color, and very brittle — indeed, so brittle that the solder- ing joints are apt to open if the object is bent. Because too great an addition of tin is injurious, the utmost caution must be exercised. If verv refractory metals are to be soldered, brass alone can be used. In some cases, a solder can be produced merely bv melting brass and adding copper. The following hard solders have been practically tested and found of value. YELLOW HARD SOLDERS: Applebaum'8 Compositioiis. — I. — Copper 68 parts Zinc 42 parts II.— Sheet brass. . . 85.42 parU Zinc 13.58 parts Karmarsch'8 Composition. — III.— Brass 7 parts Zinc 1 part IV.— Zinc 49 parU Copper 44 parts Tin 4 parU Lead 2 parts Prechti'8 Composition. — V. — Copper 53.3 parts Zinc 43.1 parts Tin 1.3 parts Lead 0.3 parts All these hard-solder compositions have the fine yellow color of braaa, arr very hard, andean be fused only at higb temperatures. They are well adapted for all kinds of iron, steel, copper, and bronze. Solders which fuse at somewhat lower temperatures and, therefore, well adaptrd for the working of brass, are the follow- ing: VI.— Sheet brass. . . 81.12 parts Zinc 18.88 parts VII.— Copper 54.08 parts Zinc 45.20 parts VIII.— Brass S to 4 parU Zinc 1 part A solder which is valuable because it can be wrought with the hammer, rolM out, or drawn into wire, and beeause it is tough and ductile, is the following: IX.— Brass 78.26 parts Zinc 17.41 parts Silver 4.33 parU Fusible White Solder.— X. — Copper 57.4 parts Zinc 28 parts Tin 14.6 parts BasUy Fusible SoUecs«— XI. — Brass 5 parts Zinc 2.5 parte XII. — Brass 5 parts Zinc 5 paria Semi-White Hard Soldert.— XIII. — Copper 53.3 parts Zinc 46.7 paria XIV.— Brass 12 parts Zinc 4 to 7 parts Tin 1 part XV.— Brass 22 parts Zinc 10 parts Tin 1 part X VI.— Copper 44 parts Zinc 40 parts Tin 3.20 parte Lead 1.20 parte Formulas XIII and XVI ai« Ikirt; fusible. White Hard Solden.— XVII.— Brass 20 parte Zinc 1 part Tin 4 parte XVin.— Copper 58 parte Zinc 17 parte Tin 15 parte XIX.— Brass 11 parte Zinc 1 part Tin 2 parte Digitized by VjOOQ IC SOLDERS 659 XX. — Brass 6 parts Zinc 4 parts Tin 10 parts XXI.— Copper 57.44 parts Zinc 27.08 parts Tin 14.58 parts For BnM Tubes. — I. — Copper, 100 parts; lead, 85 parts. II. — A very strons solder for soldering brass tubes to be arawn, etc.» is com- posed of 18 l>arts brass, 4 parts zinc, and 1 part fine silver. For Fastening Brass to Tin. — To SO parts of fine, reduced copper, add suffi- cient sulphuric acid to make a stiff paste. To this add 70 parts of metallic mercury, and work in, at the same time applying heat until the mass assumes a wax-like consistency. Warm or heat the plates to be united, to. about the same tempera- ture, apply the mixture, hot, to each, then press together, and let cool. COPPER SOLDERS. The copper solders which are used for soldering €x>pper as well as bronze are mixtures of copper and lead. By in- creasing the quantity of lead the fusi- bility is increased, but the mixture de- parts from the color and toughness of copper. The most commonly employed copper solder is the following: I. — Copper 5 parts Lead 1 part II. — Copper 80 parts Lead 15 parts Tin 5 parts For Red Copper. — I. — Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part. II. — Copper, 7 parts; sine, 8 parts; tin« 2 parts. FATS FOR SOLDERIKG. I. — Soldering fat or grease is com- monly a mixture of rosin and tallow with the addition of a small quantity of sal a m moniac It is particularly adapted to the soldering of tinned ware, because it is easily ^ wiped off the surface after the joint is made, whereas if rosin were uaed alone, the scraping away might reodovc some of the tin and spoil the object. 11. — The following is a well-tried recipe for a soldering grease: In a pot of sufficient sise and over a slow nre nadt together 500 parts of olive oil and 400 parts of tallow; then stir in slowly S50 parts of rosin in powder, and let the whole boil up once. Now let it cool down, and add 125 parts of saturated solution of sal ammoniac, stirring the while. When cold, this preparation will be ready for use. FLUIDS FOR SOLDERINO. I. — To the ordinary zinc chloride, prepared by digesting chips of zinc in strong hydrochloric acid to saturation, add } spirits of sal ammoniac and } part rain water, and filter the mixture. This soldering liouid is especially adapted to the soft soldering of iron and steel, be- cause it does not make rust spots. To solder sine, the sine chloride may be used without any spirit sal ammoniac. II. — Mix phosphoric acid with strong spirits of wine in the following propor- tions: Phosphoric acid solu- tion 1 quart Spirits of wine (80 per cent) 1} quarts More or less of the spirits of wine is used depending upon the concentration of the phosphoric acid solution. When this soldering liquid is applied to the metal to be soldered, the phosphoric acid immediately dissolves the oxide. The hot soldering iron vaporizes the spirits of wine verv quickly and causes the oxide released oy the pnosphoric acid to form a |[lazed niass with the surplus phosphoric acid, which mass can be easily removed. III. — Dissolve in hydrochloric acid: 2«inc, 50 parts (by weight); sal am- moniac, 50 parts. IV. — Hydrochloric acid, 600 parts (by weight); sal ammoniac, 100 parts. Put zinc chips into the acid to saturation, next add the sal ammoniac. Fitter when dissolved and preserve in flasks. V. — ^Eight hundred parts of water with 100 parts of lactic acid and 100 parts of glycerine. This dispenses with the use of chloride of zinc. Add-Free Soldering Fluid. — I.<-^Five parts of zinc chloride dissolved in 85 parts of boOing water. Or, 20 parts of zinc chloride, 10 parts of ammonia chloride, dissolved in 100 parts of boil- ing water and put into glass carboys. II. — Chloride zinc 1 drachm Alcohol 1 ounce Substitute for Soldering Fluid. — As a substitute for the customary soldering fluid and soldering mediums an am- monia soap is recommended, which is obtained by the mixture of a finely pow- dered rosin with strong ammonia^ solu- tion. Of this soap only the finely divided Digitized by VjOOQ IC 660 SOLDERS rosin remains on the soldered place after the soldering.. This soldering process is well adapted for solderinff together copper wires for electrical conduits, since the rosin at the same time serves as an insulator. FLUXES FOR SOLDERING. The fluxes generally used in the soft- soldering of metals are powdered rosin or a solution of chloride of sine, alone or combined with sal ammoniac. A neutral soldering liquid can be prepared by mixing 27 oarts neutral sine chloride, 11 parts sal ammoniac, and 62 parts water; or, 1 part sugar of milk, 1 part glycerine, and 8 parts water. A soldering fat for tin-plate, preferable to ordinary rosin, as it can be more easily removed after soldering, is prepared as follows: One hundred and fifty parts beef tallow, 250 parts rosin, and 150 parts olive oil are melted together in a crucible and well stirred, 50 parts powdered sal ammoniac dissolved in as uttle water as possible beinff added. Solderinff ftki for iron is composed of 50 parts olive oil and 50 parts powdered sal ammoniac. Soldering fat for al- uminum is made by melting together equal parts of rosin and tallow, half the Quantity of sine chloride being added to Uie mixture* Solderinff fMste consists of neutral soldering fiquid thickened with starch paste. This paste must be applied more lightly than tne soldering liauid. Soldering salt is prepared by mixing equal parts of neutral zinc chloride, free from iron, and powdered sal ammoniac. When required for use, 1 part of the salt should be dissolved in 3 or 4 parts water. Borax is the flux most freauently used for hard-soldering; it shoula be applied to the soldering seam either dry or stirred to a paste witn water. It is advisable to use calcined borax, i. e., borax from which the water of crystallisation has been driven out by heat, as it does not become so inflated as ordinal^ borax. Borax dissolves the metallic oxides form- ingon the joint. Finely powdered cryolite, or a mixture of 2 parts powdered cryolite and 1 part phosphoric acid, is also used for hard- soldering copper and copper alloys. Muller's nard-soldenng liquid con- sists of equal parts of phosphoric acid and alcohol (80 per cent). A mixture of eaual parts of cryolite and barium chloride is used as a flux in hard-soldering aluminum bronze. A Vf*ry good dry-soldering preparation consists oftwo vials, one of wnich is filled with sine chloride, and the other vh^ ammonium chloriae. To use, dissolve a little of each salt in water, apply tke ammonium chloride to the object to be soldered and heat the latter until H begins to give off vapor of ammoniam, then apply the other, and immediately thereafter the solder, maintaining the heat in the meantime. This answen for very soft solder.^ For a harder solder dissolve the sine in a very amall por- tion of the ammonium chloride solntioa (from } to } pint). When steel is to be soldered on slr^. or iron on steel, it is necessarv to Ttmovt every trace of oxide of iron Dctwera tW surfaces in contact. Melt in an earthen vessel: Borax, 8 parts; colophoo?, i Sirts; pulverised glass, 8 parts; ster} ings, 2 parts; carbonate off potash. \ part; hard soap, powdered, 1 part Flov the melted mass on a cold plate of sbeH iron, and after cooling break tap tht pieces and pulverise them. This pov^ is thrown on the surfaces a few miaotet before the pieces to be soldered tie brou|(ht together. The boimx and gU» ntained in the composstioa disioliv. and consequently liquefy all ol the is>- purities, which, if they were skat op between the pieces soldered, might foro scales, at times dangerous, or interfma< with the resistance of the pteoe. To prepare rosin for soldering brij^t tin, mix 1} pounds of olive oil, 1 ) poas^ of tallow, and 12 ounces of pulvYrisrd rosin, and let them boil up. Whea t^tf mixture has become cool, add !{ mu of water saturated with pulverised u\ ammoniac, stirring oonstaatly OAS SOLDERIRO. The soldering of small metallic artkin where the production is a wholesale one. is almost exclusively done by the u» (4 gas, a pointed flame being produced M air pressure. The air pressure it vi^ tained by the workman who dors tbe soldering settinff in motion a tmdk with his foot, which, resting on rubber bellows, drives by pressure on the mnt the aspirated air into wind bcll«v« From here it is sent into the soldrriaf pipe, where it is connected with the fit* and a pointed flame is produced. U order to obtain a rather unifonn hrst the workman has to tread continaifl?. which, however, renders it almofl im- possible to hold the article to be soidrrrJ steady,^ although this is neoeasaiy if the work b to proceed quickly. Hracv. absolutely skillful and expensive hasi* are required, on whom toe emplovvr •• often entirely dependent. To improtv Digitized by VjOOQ IC SOLDERS 661 this method of soldering and obviate its drawbacks, the soldering may be con- ducted with good success m the following manner: For the production of the air current a small ventilator is set up. The wind is conducted through two main con- duits to the work tables. Four or six tables may, for instance, be placed to- cher, the wind and the gas pipe end- ing in the center. ^ The gas is admitted as formerly, the wind is conducted into wind bellows by means of joint and hose to obtain a constant pressure and from here into the soldering pipe. In this manner any desired flame may be pro- duced, the workman operates quietly and without exertion, wnich admits of cmpiayin|g youthful hands and consequently of a savmg in wages. The equipment is considerablv cheaper, since the rubber bellows under the treadle are done away with. GERMAN-SILVER SOLDERS. Because of its peculiar composition Gcrman-sQver solder is related to the ordinary hard solders. Just as hard solders may be regarded as varieties of brass to which sine has been added, German-silver solders may be regarded as German silver to which sine has been added. The German-sflver solder be- comes more easily fused with an increase in sine, and vice versa. If the quantity of anc be increased beyond a certain proportion, the resultant solder becomes too brittle. German-sflver solders are characterised by remarkable strength, and are therefore used not only in sol- dering German sflver, but in many cases where special strenffth is required. As German silver can be made of the color of steel, it is frequently used for solder- ing fine steel articles. Solder for ordinary German sflver can be made of 1,000 parts German-sflver chips. Its parts sheet-brass chips, 142 parts sine, and 83 parts tin; or, of 8 parts German sflver and 8 to 8 parts sine. Soft Gennan-SUver Solder. — I. — Copper 4.5 parts Zinc 7 parts Nickel 1 part II. — Copper 85 parts Zinc 56.5 parts Nickel S.5 parts III. — German sflver 5 parts Zinc 5 parts Compositions I and II have^ analo- gous properties. In composition III GcrmaD sflver" is to be considered as a mixture of copper, zinc, and nickel, for which reason it is necessary to know the exact comoosition of the German silver to be used. Otherwise it is advisable to experiment first with small quantities in order to ascertain how much zinc is to be added. The proper proportion of German sflver to zinc is reached when the mixture reveals a brilliancv and condition which renders it possiole to barely^ pulverize it whfle hot. A small auantitv when brought in contact with le soldering iron should just fuse. Hard Gennan-Silver or Steel Solder. — I. — Copper 85 parts Zinc 56.5 parts Nickel 9.5 parts n. — Copper 88 parts Zinc 50 parts Nickel 1« parU Composition I reauires a fairly high temperature in order to be melted. Composition II requires a blow pipe. GOLD SOLDERS: Hard Solder for Gold.— The hard solder or gold solder which the jeweler frecjuently requires for the execution of various works, not onlv serves for solder- ing gold ware, but is also often employed for soldering fine steel goods, such as spectacles, etc. Fine gold is only used for soldering articles of platinum. The stronger the alloy of the gold, the more fusible must be the solder. Generallv the gold solder is a composition of gold, sflver, and copper. If it is to be verv easily fusible, a little zinc may be added, but, on the other hand, even the copper is sometimes left out and a mixture con- sisting only of ^old and sflver (e. g., equal parts of both) is used. The shade of the solder also requires attention, which must be regulated by varying proportions of sflver and copper, so that it may be as nearly as possible the same as that of the gold to be soldered. I. — For 84-carat gold: Twenty-two parts gold (24 carat), 2 parts silver, and 1 part copper; refractory. II. — For 18-carat gold: Nine parts gold (18 carat), 2 parts sflver, and 1 part copper; refractory. III. — For 16-carat gold: Twenty^our rirts gold (16 carat), 10 parts sflver, and parts copper; refractory. IV. — For 14-carat gold: Three parts gold (14 carat), 2 parts sflver, and 1 part copper; more fusH>le. V. — Gold solder for allojrs containing smaUer quantities of gold is composed Digitized by VjOOQ IC 662 SOLDERS of 8 parts gold, 10.5 parts silver, and 5.5 parts copper, or, VI.— Ten parU gold (13.5 carat), 5 parts silver, and 1 part xinc. VII. — The following easilv fusible solder is used for ordinary gold articles: Two parts gold, 0 parts suver, 1 part copper, and 1 part zinc. Articles soldered witn this solder cannot be subjected to the usual process of coloring the gold, as the solder would become black. VIII. — A refractory enamel solder for articles made of 20-carat and finer gold, which can bear the high temperature required in enameling, consists of 87 parts gold and 9 parts sOver, or 16 parts gold (18 carat), S parts silver, and 1 part copper. Which of these compositions should be employed depends upon the degree of the fusibility of the enamel to be ap- plied. If it is verv difficult of fusion only the first named can be used; other- wise it may happen that during the melting on of the enamel the soldering spots are so stronsiy heated that the solder itself melts. For ordinary articles, as a rule, only readily fusible enamels are employed, and consequently the readily fusible enamelins solder may here oe made use of. Soldering with the latter is readily accomplished with the aid of the soldering pipe. Although the more hardly fusible gold solders may also be melted by the use of the ordinary soldering piipe, the employment of a special small blowing apparatus is recommended on account of the resulting ease and rapidity of the work. SOLDERS FOR OLASS. I. — Melt tin, and add to the melted mass enough copper, with constant stir- ring, until the melted metal consists of 95 per cent of tin and 5 per cent of copper. In order to render the mixture more or less hard, add } to 1 per cent of zinc or lead. II. — A compound of tin (05 parts) and zinc (5 parts) melts at 892^ F., and can then be firmly united to glass. An alloy of 90 parts of tin and 10 parts of aluminum melts at 7S4^ F., adheres, like the preceding, to j^lass, and is equally brilliant. With either of these alloys ((lass may be soldered as easily as metal, in two ways. In one, heat the pieces of glass in a furnace and rub a stick of soldering alloy over their surfaces. The alloy wiU melt, and can be easily spread bv means of a roll of paper or a slip of aluminum. Press the pieces firmly to- gether, and keep so until cool. In the other method a common sddenng iron, or a rod of aluminum, is healed over i coal fire, a gas jet, or a flame 8Upplar- solvent. Care should be taken thst neither the soldering irons nor the glsM be brought to a temperature above tfap melting point of the alloy, lest the Utter should be ozidised» and tacfeulBd frun adhering. HARD SOLDBRS. Hard solders are distinguished at brass, German silver, copper, sold, sil vrr. etc., according to the sJloys useo ( see Bra>t Solders, Copper Solders, etc., for €>thrr hard solders). The desi^ation "hard sender" i* used to distmguish it from the ea«ilj running and softer solder used by tin> smiths, and it applies solely to a cti»- position that will not flow under a rvd neat. For the purposes of the jeweirr solder may be classified according to hs composition and purpose, into gold or silver solder, whicn means a solder ooa- sisting of ^ an alloy^ of gold with salvrr. copper, tin, or sinc-like metal or an alloy of silver with copper, tin« or ziac> like metal. According to the uses, thr solder is made hard or soft; thus in gnld solders there is added a greater amoant of silver, whereas for silver aoldera thrrr is added more tin or sinc-like meiaL In the production of solder for thr enameler*s use, that is for combiniar gold with gold, gold with sQver, or gold with copper, which must be enaiDrlrd afterwards, it is necessary always to krrp in mind that no solder can be oard effectually that contains any tin, siar, zinc alloys, or tin or sinc-like metab m any great quantities, since it b these trn metals that contribute to the cracking effect a union of the parts. It b thrrr^ fore absolutely necessary to confine thcw additions to the lowest poasible ptr* centage, so that only a trace ia apparrat. Moreover, care must be taken to nsr he enameling purposes no base alloy, be- cause the tenacity or durability of thr compound wijl be afferled tbcrrby; ia other words, it must come vp to tW standard. In hard soldering with borax, dvvrt. several obstacles are eneonnlered tkat make the process somewhat dificnh. ia Digitized by VjOOQIC SOLDERS 663 the firat place the salt forms jgp«at bubbles in contact with the soldenng iron, and easily scales awav from the simace of the parts to be soldered. Besides this, the parts must be carefully cleaned each time prior to applying the salt. All these dif- ficulties vanish u instead of borax we use its componentparts, boric acid and sodium carbonate. The heat of the soldering iron acting on these causes them to combine in such a way as to produce an excellent flux, free from the difficulties mentioned. Compontioii of Varioua Hud Solden. — Yellow solders for brass, bronze, cop- per, and iron: ^ I. — Sheet- brass chips, 5 parts, and zinc, 3 to 5 parts, easily fusible. ^ n. — Sheet brass chips, 8 parts, and zinc, 1 part; refractory. ^ III. — ^Sheet- brass chips, 7 parts, and zinc, 1 part; very refractory and firm. Semi-white solders, containing tin and consequently harder: I. — Sheet brass, 12 parts; zinc, 4 to 7 parts, and tin, 1 part. Il.-^Copper, 16 parts; zinc, 16 parts, and tin, 1 part. III.— Yellow solder, 20 to SO parts, and tin, 1 part. White solders: I. — Sheet brass, 20 parts; zinc, 1 part, and tin« 4 parts. II. — Copper, S parts; zinc, 1 part, and tin, 1 part. To Hud-Solder Parts Formerlj Sol- dered with Tin Solder. — To repair g^old or silver articles which have been spoiled with tin solder proceed as follows: Heat- ing the object carefully by means a of small spirit lamp, brush the tin off as much as possible with a chalk brush; place the article in a diluted solution of nydrochloric acid for about 8 to 10 hours, as required. If much tin re- mains, perhaps^ 12 hours may be neces- sary. Next withdraw it, rinse off and dry; whereupon it is carefully annealed and finally put in a pickle of dilute sulphuric acid, to remove the annealing film. When the article has been dipped, it may be hard soldered again. SILVER SOLDERS. Silver solder is cast in the form of ingots, which are hammered or rolled into tlun sheets. From these small chips or *^links," as they are called, are cut off. TTie mehed solder can also be poured, when slightly cooled, into a dry iron mor- tar and pulverized while still warm. The solder can also be filed and the filings used for soldering. Silver solders are used not only for soldering silver objects, but also for soldering metals of which ^reat resist- ance is expected. ^ A distinction must be drawn between silver solder consisting either of copper and silver alone, and silver solder to which tin has been added. Very Hud Silver Solder for Fine Silverware. — I. — Copper 1 part Silver 4 parts Hard silver solder. II. — Copper 1 part Silver 20 parts Brass 0 parts III. — Copper 2 parts Silver 28 parts Brass 10 parts Soft silver solder. I v.— Silver 2 parU Brass 1 part v.— Silver 8 parU Copper 2 parts Zinc 1 part VI.— Silver 10 parts Brass 10 parts Tin 1 part These solders are preferably to be employed for the^ completion of work begun with hard silver solders, defective parts alone being treated. For this purpose it is sometimes advisable to use copper-silver alloys mixed with zinc, as for example: VII.— Silver 12 parts Copper 4 parts Zinc 1 part VIII.— Silver 5 parU Brass 6 parts , Zinc 2 parts This last formula (VIII) is most com- monly used for ordinary silverware. Silver Solden for Soldering Iron, Steely Cast Irony and Copper. — I.— Silver 10 parU Brass 10 parts II. — Silver 20 parts Copper SO parts Zinc 10 parts III.— Silver 80 parts Copper 10 parts Tin 0.5 parU I v.— Silver 60 parts Brass 60 parts Zinc 5 parts Digitized by VjOOQ IC 664 SOLDERS In those solders in which brass is used care should be taken that none of the metals employed contains iron. Even an inappreciable amount of iron dele- teriously affects the solder. V. — Copper, SO parts; zinc, 12.85 parts; silver, 57.15 parts. VI. — Copper, 23.88 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 66.67 parts. VII. — Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 68.84 parts. VIII. — Silver, 66 parts; copper, 24 parts, and zinc, 10 parts. Tliis verv strraig solder is frequently used for soldering silver articles, but can also be used for soldering other metals, such as brass, copper, iron, steel band-saw blades, etc. IX. — Silver, 4 parts, and brass, 8 parts. X. — A very refractory silver solder, which, unlike the silver solder containing zinc, is of great ductilit^r and does not break when hammered, is composed of 8 parts silver and 1 part copper. Soft SUver Solders. — I. — A soft silver solder for resoldering parts already soldered is made of silver, 8 parts; cop- per, 2 parts, and zinc, 1 part. II. — Silver, 1 part, and brass, 1 part; or, silver, 7 parts; copper, 8 parts, and zinc, 2 parts. III. — A readily fusible silver solder for ordinary work: Silver, 5 parts; copper, 6 parts, and zinc, 2 parts. IV.— (Soft.) Copper, 14.75 parts; zinc, 8.20 parts; silver, 77.05 parts. V. — Copper, 22.84 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts; silver, 67.18 parts. VI.— Tin, 68 parts; lead, 87 parU. French Soldere for Silver. — I. — For fine silver work: Fine silver, 87 parts; brass, 13 parts. II. — For work 702 fine: Fine silver, 88 parts; brass, 17 parts. III. — For work 712 fine: Fine silver, 75 parts; brass, 25 parts. IV. — For work 683 fine: Fine silver, 66 parts; brass, 84 parts. V. — For work 572 fine: Fine silver, 55 parts; brass, 45 parts. Solder for SUverBinitfaai etc. — Gold, 10 parts; silver, 55 parts; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 6 parts. Hud Solder. — Silver, 60 parts; bronze, 89 parts; arsenic, 1 part. Soft Solder. — Powdered copper, 80 parts; sulphate of zinc, 10 parts; mer- cury, 60 parts; sulphuric acid. Put the copper and the line sulphate io a porcelain mortar, and then the sttlphnrie acid. Enough acid is required to cover the composition; next add the mercuiy while stirring constantly. When tlie amalgamation is effected, wash several times with hot water to remove the acsd, then allow to cool. For use» it is snffi- cient to heat the amalgam until h takts the consistency of wax. Appiv on the parts to be soldered and let cool. Solder for SUver-Pktad Work.— I.— Fine silver, 2 parts; bronze, 1 part. II. — Silver, 68 parts; copper, 24 parts; zinc, 17 parts. Solder for Silver Chains. — I. — Fine silver, 74 parts; copper, 24 parts; or^- ment, 2 parts. II. — Fine silver, 40 parts; orpiment. 20 parts; copper, 40 parts. SOFT SOLDERS: See also Brass Solders, Copper Solden, Gold Solders. I. — ^Fifty parts bismuth, 25 parts tin. and 25 parts lead. This mixture melu at802'»F. II. — ^Fifty parts bismuth, 30 PMia lead, and 20 parts tin. This wiU melt at 874« F. III.— The solder that is used in solder* ing Britannia metal and block tin pipes is composed of 2 parts tin and 1 part lead. This melts in the blow-pipe flane at many degffes lower temperature than either tin or Britannia metal, and k is nearly of the same color. Care rntut be taken in mixinc these solders to keep them well stirred when pourinc tntu molds. Care should also be taken ttiai the metal which melts at a higher temperm- ture be melted first and then aQowed tu cool to the melting temperature of the next metal to be added, and so on Articles to be soldered with these soldert should be joined with a blow pipe to crt the best results, but if a copper is used it must be drawn out to a long, tliin point For a flux use powdered rosin or swcrt oil. Tin solders for solderinc lead, siiir. tin, tin-plate, also copper ana brass vhm special strength is not required, are pre- pared as follows: I. — Tin, 10 parts; lead, 4 parU; ndt- ing point, 856* F. II. — Tin, 10 parU; lead, 5 parU; mell* ing point, 865* F. III.— Tin, 10 parU: lead, • melting point, 374^ P. Digitized by VjOOQ IC SOLDERS 665 IV.— Tin, 10 parts; lead, 10 parts; melting point, S9f? F. V. — Tin, 10 parts; lead, 15 parts; melting point, 482'' F. VI.— Tin, 10 parU; lead, 20 parts; melting point, 464"* F. The last of the above mixtures is the cheapest, on account of the large quantity of lead. Bismuth solder or pewterer's solder fusible at a low temperature is prepared by melting together: I. — ^Tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; melting point, 266^ F. n. — Tin, S parts; lead, 4 parts; bis- muth, 2 parts; melting point, 297'' F. III. — Tin, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; bis- muth, 1 part; melting point, 820^ F. STEEL SOLDERING. DtssolTe scraps of cast steel in as small a quantity as possible of nitric acid, add finely pulveriied borax and stir vigor- ously until a fluid oaste is formed, Uien dilute by means of sal ammoniac and put in a bottle. When soldering is to De done, apply a thin layer of the solu- tion to the two parts to be soldered, and when these have been carried to or- dinary redness, and the mass is con- sequently plastic, beat lightly on the anvil with a flat nam mer. This recipe is useful for cases when the steel is not to be soldered at an elevation of temperature to the bright red. To Solder a Piece of Hardened Steel. — To hard-aolder a piece of hardened steel such as index (regulator), stop spring (in the part which is not elastic), dick, etc., lake a very flat charcoal if the piece is difficult to attach; hard-solder and as soon as the soldering has been done, plunge the piece into oil. All that re- mains to be done is to blue it again And to polish. Soldering Powder for Steel. — Melt in an earthen pot 8 parts of borax, 2 of col- ophony, 1 of potassium carbonate, as much powdered hard soap, to which must be added 8 parts of finely powdered ^ass and 2 parts of steel filings. The melted mass is run out upon a cold plate of sheet iron, and when it is completely chilled it is broken into small bits or finely powdered. To solder, it is neces- sary to sprinkle the powder on the sur- faces to oe joined several minutes be- fore bringing them together. Soldering Solution for Steel. — A sol- dering solution for steel that will not rust or blacken the work is made of 6 ounces alcohol, 2 ounces glycerine, and 1 ounce oxide of zinc. PLATINUM SOLDERS. There are many platinum solders in existence, but the main principle to be borne in mind in jewelry work is that the soldering seam should be as little perceptible as possible; the solder, there- tore, should have the same color as the alloy. I. — A platinum solder which meets these requirements very satisfactorily is composed of 0 parts gold and 1 part palladium; or, 8 parts gold and 2 parts palladium. n. — The following is a readily fusible platinum solder: Fine silver, 1.555 parts, and pure platinum, 0.588 parts. This melts easily in the ordinary draught fur- nace, as well as before the soldering pipe on a piece of charcoal. Of similar action is a solder of the following com- position, which is very useful for places not exposed to the view: III. — Fine gold, 1.555 parts; fine sil- ver, 0.65 parts; and pure copper, 0.824 parts. SOLDER FOR IRON: See also under Silver Solders. Copper, 67 parts; sine, 88 parts; or, copper, 60 parts; sine, 40 parts. TIN SOLDERS: See also Soft Solders. Gold jewelry which has been rendered unsightly by tin solder may be freed from tin entirely by dipping the article for a few minutes into the following solution and then brushing off the tin: Pulverize 2 parts of freen vitriol and 1 part of saltpeter and boil in a cast-iron pot with 10 parts of water until 'the larger part of the latter has evaporated. The ciystals forming upon cooling are dissolved in hydroch^ric acid (8 parts of hvdrochloric acid to 1 part of crystals). If the articles in question have to be left in the liquid for some time, it is well to dilute it with 8 or 4 parts of water. The tin solder is dissolved by this solu- tion without attacking or damaging the article in the least. VARIOUS RECIPES FOR SOLDERING: To Conceal Soldering. — Visible solder- ing may be obviated by the following methocu: For copper ^oods a concen- trated solution of Diue vitriol is prepared and applied to the places by means of an iron rod or iron wire. The thickness of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 666 SOLDERS the layer may be increased by a repeti- tion of the process. In order to give the S laces thus coppered the appearance of le others, use a saturated solution of zinc vitriol, 1 part, and blue vitriol, 2 parts, and finish rubbing with a piece of sine. By sprinklinff on gold powder and sub- sequently poUshing, the color is rendered deeper. In the case of gold articles the places are first coppered over, then cov- ered with a thin layer of fish glue, after which bronze filings are thrown on. When the glue is dry rub off quickly to produce a fine polish. The places can, of course, also be electro-gilt, whereby a greater uniformity of the shade is obtained. In silver objects, the soldering seams, etc., are likewise coppered in the above-de- scribed manner; next they are rubbed ikith a brush dipped into silver powder and freshly polisned. Solder for Articles which will not Bear a High Temperature. — Take powdered copper, the precipitate of a solution of the sulphate by means of zinc, and mix it with concentrated sulphuric acid. According to the degree of hardness re- quired, take from 20 to SO or 36 parts of copper. Add, while constantly snaking, 70 parts of quicksilver, and when the amalgam is complete, wash with warm water to remove the acid; then allow it to cool. In 10 or 12 hours the composi- tion will be hard enough to scratch tin. For use, warm it unbl it reaches the consistency of wax, and spread it where needed. When cold it will adhere with great tenacity. Soldering a Ring Containing a Jewel. — I. — Fill a small crucible with wet sand and bury the part with the jewel in the sand. Now solder with soft gold solder, holding the crucible in the hand. The stone will remain uninjured. II. — Take tissue paper, tear it into strips about 8 inches m width, and make them into ropes; wet them thoroughly and wrap the stone in them, passing around tne stone and through tne ring until the center of the latter is slightly more than half filled with paper, closelv wound around. Now fix on charcoal, permitting the stone to protrude over the edge of the charcoal, and solder rapidly. The paper will not only protect the stone, but also prevent oxidation of the portion of the ring which is covered. Soldering without Heat. — For solder- ing objects without heating, take a large copper wire filed to a point; dip into soldering water and rub the parts to be ' soldered. Then heat the copper wire j and apply the solder, which melts on contact. It mav then be applied to the desired spot without heating the object. COLD SOLDERmO: See also Adhesivcs and Cements. For soldering articles which cmnnot stand a high temperature, the following process may be employed: I. — Take powdered copper precipi- tated from a solution of sulphate by means of zinc and mix it in a cast-irun or porcelain mortar with concentratr«i sulphuric acid. The number of parts oi copper varies according to the degree td hardness which it is wished to obtain. Next add, stirring constantly, 70 parta ^4 mercurv, and when the amalgam U finished, allow to cool. At the end cif lO to 12 hours the mposition is sufficsenf ty hard. For use, heat until it acquires the consistency of wax. Apply to the sur- face. ^ When cool it will aohere with grrat tenacity. II. — Crush and mix 6 parts of sulphur. 6 parts of white lead, and 1 part of borax. Make a rather thick cement uf this powder by triturating it with sul- phuric acid. The paste is spread on the surfaces to be welded, and the articles pressed firmly together. In 6 or 7 day-s the soldering is so strong that the two pieces cannot be separated, even by striking them with a hammer. Cast-iron Soldering. — A new proorv consists in decarbonising the surtarrs ti/ the cast iron to be soldered^ the molten hard solder being at the same taaor brought into contact with the red-hut metallic surfaces. The admission of air. however, should be carefullv guanlr^l against. First pickle the surfaces oi the pieces to be soldered, as usual, with acid and fasten the two pieces together. The place to be solderen is now covered with a metallic oxygen coinpound and any one of the customary fluxes and heated until red hot. The preparation best suited for this purpose is a paste made by inti- mately mingling together cuprous oxide and borax. The latter melU in solder- ing and protects the pickled surfaces as well as the cuprous oxide from oxidatiaa through the action of the air. Duiiog the heating the cuprous oxide imparts K« oxygen to the carbon contained in tW cast iron and burns it. Metallic copper separates in fine subdivision. Now arolv hard solder to the place to be united, mimik in melting forms an alloy with the eltBt< nated copper, the alloy combining with the decarburixed surfaces of the cma i Digitized by VjOOQ IC SOLDERS— SPIRIT 667 Soldering Block. — This name is given to a Tery useful support for hard solder- ing and can be readily made. The in- gredients are: Charcoal, asbestos, and plaster of Paris. These are powdered in equal parts, made into a thicK paste with water, and poured into a suitable mold. Thus a sort of thick plate is obtained. When this mass has aried it is removed from the mold and a very thin cork plate is affixed on one surface by means of thin glue. The mission of this plate is to receive the points of the wire clamps with which the articles to be soldered are attached to the soldering block, the as- bestos not affording sumcient hold for them. SOLDERS FOR JEWELERS: See Jewelers' Formulas. SOLDER FROM GOLD, TO REMOVE: See Gold. SOLDERIKG PASTE. The semi-liquid mass termed solder- ing paste is produced by mixing zinc chloride solution or that of ammonia- zinc chloride^ with starch paste. For preparing this composition, ordinary potato starch is made with water into a milky liquid, the latter is heated to a boil with constant stirring, and enough of this mass, which becomes eelatinous after cooling, is added to Die above-men- tioneo solutions as to cause a I^Quid resembling thin syrup to result. The use of all zinc preparations for soldering presents the drawback that vapors of a strongly acid odor are generated by the heat of the soldering iron, but this evil is offset bv the extraordinarv convenience afforded when working with these prepar- ations. It is not necessary to subject the places to be soldered to anv sf^ecial cleaning or preparation. All that is re- quired IS to coat them with the soldering mediam, to apply the solder to the seam, etc., and to wipe the places with a sponge or moistened rag after the solder has cooled. Since the solder adheres readily with the use of these substances, a skillful workman can soon reach such perfection that he has no, or very little, subsequent polishing to do on the soldering seams. Soft Soldering Paste. — Small articles of anv metals that would be very delicate to solder with a stick of solder, especially where parts fit into another and only require a little solder to hold them to- ^oer, can best be joined with a solder- ing paste. This paste contains the ■older and flux comoined, and is easily applied to seams, or a little applied be- fore the parts are put together. The soldering name will cause the tin in the paste ^ to amalgamate quickly. The paste is made out of starch paste mixed with a solution of chloride of tin to the consistency of syrup. SOLUTIOHS, PERCENTAGE: See Tables. SOOTHHrO STRUP: See Pain Killers. SOUP HERB EXTRACT: See Condiments. SOZODOUT: See Dentifrices. SPARKS FROM THE FIHGER TIPS: See Pyrotechnics. SPATTER WORK: See Lettering. SPAVIN CURES: See Veterinary Formulas. SPECULUM METAL: See Alloys. SPICES. ADULTERATED: See Foods. SPICES FOR FLAVORING: See Condiments. Spirit INDUSTRIAL AND POTABLE ALCO- HOL: SOURCES AND MANUFAC- TURE. Abttraet of a Farmen^ BvlUtin prepared for the United StaU» Deparhntfd of AgrieuL- iunby Dr, Harvey W. Wiley, The^ term "industrial alcohol," or spirit, is used for^ brevitv, and also be- cause it differentiates snarply between alcohol used for beverages or for medicine and alcohol used for technical purposes in the arts. Alcohol Defined.— The term "alcohol" as here used and as generally used means that particular product which is obtained bv the fermentation of a sugar, or a starch converted into sugar, and which, from a chemical point of view, is a compound of the hypothetical sub- stance "ethyl" with water, or with that part of water remaining after the separa- tion of one of the atoms of hydrogen. This is a rather technical expression, but it is very difficult, without using technical language, to give a definition of alcohol from the chemical point of view. There are three elementary substances repre- sented in alcohol: Carbon, the chemical symbol of which is C; hydrogen, symbol Digitized by VjOOQ IC 668 SPIRIT H; and oxygen, symbol O. These atoms are put together to form common alcohol, or, as it is called, ethyl alcohol, in which preparation 2 atoms of carbon and 5 atoms of hydrogen form the hypothet- ical substance ethyl," and 1 atom of oxygen and 1 atom of hydrogen form the n^droxyl derived from water. The chemical symbol of alcohol therefore is CtHftOH. Absolutely pure ethyl alcohol is made only with great difficulty, and the purest commercial forms still have as- sociated with them traces of other volatile products formed at the time of the dis- tillation, chief among which is that group of alcohols to which the name fused oil" is applied. So far as in- dustrial purposes are concerned, how- ever, ethvl alcohol is the only com- ponent of any consequence, just as in regard to the character of beverages the ethyl alcohol is the component of least consequence. Sources of Potable Alcohol. — The raw materials from which alcohol is made consist of those crops which con- tain sugar, starch, gum, and cellulose (woody fiber) capable of being easily converted into a fermentable sugar. Alcohol as such is not used as a beverage. The alcohol occurring in distilled bever- ages is principally derived from Indian corn, rye, barley, and molasses. Alcohol is also produced for drinking purposes from fermented fruit juices such as the juice of grapes, apples, peaches, etc. In the procfuction ot alcoholic beveraj^es a caretul selection of the materials is re- quired in order that the desired character of drink may be secured. For instance, in the production of rum, the molasses derived from the manufacture of sugar from sugar cane is the principal raw material. In the fermentation of mo- lasses a particular product is formed which by distillation gives the alcohol compound possessing the^ aroma and flavor of rum. In the making of brandy, only sound wine can be used as the raw material, and this sound wine, when sub- jected to distillation, gives a product con- taining the same kind of alcohol as that found in rum, but associated with the products of fermentation which give to the distillate a character entirely dis- tinct and separate from that of rum. Again, when barley malt or a mixture of barley malt and rye is properly mashed, fermented, and subjected to distilla- tion, a product is obtained which, when properly concentrated and aged, becomes potable malt or rye whisky. In a sim- ilar manner, if Indian corn and bar- ley malt are propeilv maahed. with a small portion of rye, tne mash lermeAted and subjected to distillation* and the distillate properly prepared aod aged, the product is known as Bourbon whisky. Thus, everr kind of alcoholic beverage gets its real character, taste, and aroma, not from the alcohol which it contaias but from the products of fermciitatioa which are obtained at the Mine time tKe alcohol is made and which are carried over with the alcohol at the time of dis- tillation. Agricultnnd SourcM of Indnacrial AloohoL — The chief alcohol-ytcldiac ma- terial produced in farm crops is aftarch. the second important material ia sugar, and the third and least imporlAnI raw material is cellulose, or woodj fiber. The quantity of alcohol produced fnm cellulose is so small as to be of tto im- portance at the present time, and there- fore this source of alcoht^ will oalv be discussed under the headings **Utdisa- tiott of Waste Material or By-Prod ttcu" and "Wood Pulp and Sawdust.** Starch-Prodttdng Ptantk — Starch is a compound which, from the chemiral point of view, belongs to the daas know a as carbohydrates, that is, compottads la which the element carbon is aaaortated by a chemical union with water. Starch is therefore a compound made of carbon* hydrogen, and oxygen, existing ia th? proportion of 8 atoms of hydrugea to I atom of oxygen. Each molecule of •tan'H contains at least 6 atoms of carboa, 10 atoms of hydro^n, and 5 atoms %4 oxygen. The simplest ezpreasioa U^ starch is therefore CfHieO». Iaasoi«<^ this is the simplest erprfsioa tut what the chemist knows as a molecule uf starch, and it is very probable that ^rry many, perhaps a hundred or more, ri these molecules exist together, tke proper expression for starch from a comical point of view would be (C«H|«0*)«'. The principal starch-prod uciag plants are the cereals, the potato, and caMa\a. With the poUto may be dasaed. tho^^i not botanicalW related thereto, tl^ swert IK>tato and tne yam. Am«uig cwvat* rice has the largert percentage of ilarv i and oats the smallest. The potato* a» grown for the table* has aa averaf* content of about 15 per rent of statrh When a potato is grown specifically f^ the production of alcohol it coafatas a larger qoantitf , or nearly fO per rrat. Cassava contains a larger prrrtflita«r «f starch than the potato, varying froa tm to SO per cent. Sugar-Plrodticiag Plants. — JSnfer anr. Digitized by VjOOQ IC SPIRIT 669 etc. While sugar is present in some degree in all veffetable growths, there are some plants wnich produce it in lar^r quantities than are required for im- mediate needs, and this sugar is stored in some part of the plant. Two plants are preiSminently known for their rich- ness in sugar, namely, the su|[ar cane and the sugar beet. In Louisiana the sugar .canes contain from 0 to 14 per cent of sugar, and tropical canes contain a still larijer amount. The juices of the sugar beet contain from 12 to 18 per cent of sugar. There are other plants which produce large quantities of sugar, but which are less available for su|{ar- making purposes than those just mentioned. Amon^ these, the sorghum must be first mentioned, con- taining in the stalk at the time the seed is iust mature and the starch hardened from 9 to 15 per cent of sugar. Sorghum seed will also yield as much alcohol as cc^ual weights of Indian^ corn. The juices of the stalks of Indian corn con- tain at the time the grain is hardening and for some time thereafter large quan- tities of sugar, varying from 8 to lo per cent. In the case of the sorghum and the Indian-corn stalk a large part of the sui^ar present is not cane sugar or sucrose as it is commonly known, but the invert sugar derived therefrom. For the pur- poses of making alcohol the invert sugar is even more suitable than cane sugar. Many^ other plants contain notable quantities of sugar, but, with the excep- tion of fruits, discussed under the follow- ing caption, not in sufficient quantities to be able to compete with those just men- tioned for making either sugar or alcohol. Cane sugar is not direcUy susceptible to fermentation. Chemically considered, it has the formula exoressed by the symbols: CisHtsOn. Wnen cane sugar having the above composition becomes inverted, it is due to a process known as favdrolysis, which consists in the molecule off cane sugar taking up 1 molecule of water and splitting off into 2 molecules of sugar having tne same formula but different physical and chemical properties. Thus the process may be represented as follows: CfiiHttOii (cane sugar) + HtO (water) - CiH„Oft (dextrose) + C«H,tOi (levulose). These two sugars (dextrose and levulose) taken together are known aa inVert sugar and are directly sus- c?eptible to fermentation. All cane sugar aasumes the form of invert sugar before it becomes fermented. FruiU. — Nearly all ^ fruit juices arc rich in sugar, varying in content from 5 to 80 per cent. The sugar in fruits is composed of both cane sugar and its invert products (dextrose and levulose), in some fruits principally the latter. Of the common fruits the grape vields the largest percentage of sugar. ^ The normal grape used for wine making contains from 16 to 80 per cent-of sugar, the usual amount being about 20 per cent. Fruit juices are not usually employed in anv country for making industrial alcohol, because of their very much greater value for the production of beverages. Compoiitioii and Yield of Alcohol- Produong Cropa. — The weight of alcohol that may oe produced from a given crop is estimated at a little less than one-half of the amount of fermentable substance present, it being understood that the fermentable substance is expressed in terms of sugar. Pasteur was the first to point out the fact that when sugar was fermented it yielded theoretically a little over one-half of its weight of alcohol. It must be remembered, however, that in the production of alcohol a process of hydrolysis is taking place wnich adds a certain quantity of alcohol to the products which are formed. For this reason 100 parts of sugar yield more than 100 parts of fermentable products. The distribution of the weights produced, as theoretically calculated by Pasteur, is as follows: One hundred parts of sugar yield the following quantities of the products of fermentation: Alcohol 51.10 parts Carbonic acid 49.20 parts Glycerine. 8.40 parts Organic acids, chiefly succinic 65 parts Ethers, aldehydes, fur- fural, fat, etc 1.80 parts ToUl weight fer- mentation prod- ucts produced. .. 105.65 parts ArtiehokeM. — The artichoke has been highly recommended for the manu- facture of alcohol. The fermentable material in the artichoke is neither starch nor sugar, but consists of a mixture of a number of carbohydrates of which inulin and levulin are the principal constituents. When these carbohydrate materials are hydrolised into sugars they produce levulose instead of dextrose. Tne levu- lose is eoually as valuable as dextrose for the production of alcohoL Artichokes ma^ be harvested either in the autumn or in the spring. As they keep well during the winter, and in a few places Digitized by VjOOQ IC 670 SPIRIT may be kept in hot weather, they form a raw material which can be stored for a long period and still be valuable for fermentation purposes. Under the term "inulin*' are included all the fermentable carbohydrates. The above data show, in round numbers, 17 per cent of fermentable matter. Theo- retically, therefore, 100 pounds of arti- chokes would yield approximately 8} pounds of industrial alcohol, or about 1} gallons. Bananat. — The banana is a crop which grows in luxurious abundance in tropical countries, especially Guatemala ana Nicaragua. The fruit contains large Jiuantities of starch and sugar suitable or alcohol making. From 20 to 25 per cent of the weight of the banana consists of fermentable material. It is evident that in the countries where the banana grows in such luxuriance it would be a cheap source of industrial alcohol. Barley and the Manufacture of MaU, — A verv important cereal in connection with tne manufacture of alcohol is barley which is quite universally employed for making malt, the malt in its turn being used for the conversion of the starch of other cereals into sugar in their prepara- tion for fermentation. Malt is made by the sprouting of barlev at a low temperature (from 50^ to 60** r.) until the small roots are formed and the germ has grown to the length of } an inch or more. The best malts are made at a low temperature requiring from 10 to 14 days for the growth of the barley. The barley is moistened and spread upon a floor, usually^ of cement, to the depth of 1 foot or 18 inches. As the barley becomes warm by the process of |[ermination, it is turned from time to time and the room is kept well ven- tilated and cool. It is better at this point in the manufacture of malt to keep the temperature below 60* F. After the sprouting has been continued as above noted for the proper length of time, the barley is transferred to a drier, where it is subjected to a low temperature at first and finally to a temperature not to ex- ceed 140<' or 158*" F., until all the water is driven off, except 2 or 3 per cent. Great care must be exercised in drying the barlev not to raise the temperature too high, lest the diastase which is formed be deprived of its active qualities. The malt has a sweetish taste, the principal portion of the starch having been con- verted into sugar, which is known chemically as '*maltose.'* This sugar is, of course, utilised in the fermentation for the production of alcohol. Malt is chiefly valuable, however, not because of the amount of alcohol that may be pro- duced therefrom, but from the fact that in quantities of about 10 per cent it i> capable of converting the starch of the whole of the un malted grains* whaterw their origin may be, into maJtoae, thus Breparing the starch for fermentation, ianey is not itself used in this country as a source of industrial alcohol, but it i* employed for producing the lugbr«t grades of whisky, made of pure barlrr malt, which, after fermentation* is dis- tilled in a pot still, concentrated is another pot still to the proper strength, placed in wood, and stored lor a numbrr of years. Barley malt is too expeasiTe a source of alcohol to justify ita use f<>r industrial purposes, it is, however, oor of. the cheapest and best methods *4 converting tne starch of other cereaU into sugar preparatory to fermcatatioo Barley has, in round numbers* ab«>Qt 08 per eent of fermentable matter. The weight of a bushel of barley (48 pound* > muUiplied by 0.08 gives S2 pounds of fermentable matter in a bushelof barirr Caeeava, — Cassava is grown over a large area of the South Atuintic and i» ulf States of this country. Of all the sub- stances which have been mentione«i. n- cept the cereals, cassava con tains tbr largest amount of alcoholic or ferrarni* able substances. The root, deprived of its outer envelope, contains a little o^rr SO per cent of starch, while the un- determined matter in the analyse* i* principally sugar. If this be added to the starch, it is seen that approxtaatrlv S5 per cent of the fresh root is ferment- able. This of course represents a \try high ^ade of cassava, the ordinary ro^^u containinff \try much leas fermeataUk matter. If. however, it is assumed that the fermentable matter of c&ssavm rwol will average 25 per cent, tbis amount is much greater than the ayermge of the potato, or even of the sweet polatii and the yam. Twenty-five per cent u undoubtedly a low average content v( fermentable matter. In the dry n*fi there is found nearly 78 per cent M starch and 17 per cent of extract* prio- cipally sugar. Assuming that 15 per rrnt of this is fermentable, and adding tht* to the 72 per cent, it is seen that 87 fwr cent of the dry matter of the c«saafa i* fermentable. This appears to be a rrn high figure, but it doubtless represent* almost exactly the conditions wh«rb exist. It would be perfectly sale lo «»▼. discounting any exceptional qualities «^ the samples examined, that HO prv ml of the dry matter of the • Digitized by VjOOQ IC SPIRIT 671 ca|Mible of being converted into alcohol. It thus becomes in a dry state a source of alcohol almost as valuable, pound for pound, as rice. Careful examinations, however, of ac- tual conditions show that if 5 tons per acre of roots are obtained it is an average vield. In very many cases, where no fertilixer is used and where the roots are grown in the ordinary manner, the yield IS far less than this, while with improved methods of agriculture it is greater. The bark of the root, has very uttle ferment- able matter in it. If the whole root be considered, the percentage of starch is less than it would be for the peeled root. If cassava yields 4 tons, or 8,000 pounds, per acre and contains 25 per cent of fer- mentable matter, the total weight of fermentable matter is 2,000 pounds, yield- ing approximately 1,000 pounds of 05 per cent alcohol, or 148 gallons of 05 per cent alcohol per acre. Corn (Indian Corn or M aize). -^The crop which at the present time is the source of almost all of the alcohol made in the United States is Indian corn. The fermentable matter in Indian corn-^that is, the part which is capable of being converted into alcohol — amounts to nearly 70 per cent of the total weight, since the unfermentable cellulose and pentosans included in carbohydrates do not exceed 2 per cent. Inasmuch as a bushel of Indian corn weighs 56 pounds, the total weight of fermentable matter therein, in round numbers, is 89 pounds. The weight of the alcohol which is pro- duced under the best conditions is little less than one-half of the fermentable matter. Therefore the total weight of alcohol which would be yielded by a bushel of average Indian corn would be, in round numbers, about 10 pounds. The weight of a gallon of 05 per cent al- cohol is nearly 7 pounds. Hence 1 bush- el of corn would produce 2.7 gallons. If the average price of Indian com be placed, in round numbers, at 40 cents a bushel, the cost of the raw material — that is, of the Indian corn — for manu- facturing 05 per cent industrial alcohol is about 15 cents a gallon. To this must be added the cost of manufacture, stor- age, etc., which is perhaps as much more, making the estimated actual cost of in- dustrial alcohol of 95 per cent strength made from Indian corn about 80 cents per gallon. If to this be added the profits of the manufacturer and dealer, It appears that under the conditions cited, industrial alcohol, untaxed, should be sold for about 40 cents per gallon. P0 pounds of starch. The quantity of sugar in the 8,000 pounds b about 950 pounds, wbich added to the starch, makes 8,850 pound* of fermentable matter per acre. Thb will yield 1,185 pounds of industriaJ alcohol of 05 per cent strength, or ap- proximately 160 gallons per acre. The percentage of starch b markedly grcatrr than in the white or Irish potato. In all cases over 80 per cent of starch was ob> tained in the South Carolina sweet potatoes, and in one instance over 84 per cent. As much as 8,600 pounds of stami were produced per acre. In addition to starch, the sweet potato contains notable quantities of aui^r. sometimes as high as 6 per cent bnoK present, so that the total fermentablr matter in the sweet potato may be reek- Digitized by VjOOQ IC SPIRIT 678 oned at the minimum at 25 per cent. A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 55 pounds, and one-quarter of this is fer- mentable matter, or nearly 14 pounds. This would yield, approximately, 7 pounds, or a little over 1 galloc of 95 per cent alcohol. It may be fairly stated, therefore, in a general way, that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield 1 gallon of industrial alcohol. Experiments have shown that the quantity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on storing. Further, it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet potatoes which are most esteemed for table use there is less starch and perhaps more sugar than stated above. The total quantity of fermentable matter, however, does not greatly chanse, although there is prob- ably a slight Toss. Utilization of Waste Haterial or By- Pfoducti. — Molerfectly legitimate method of procedure in the manufacture of in- •dustrial alcohols. Suffars and starches are usualljr asso- ciated in nature with another variety of carbohydrates known as cellulose, and this cellulose itself, when acted upon by an acid, is converted very largely into sugars, which, on fermentation, yield alcohol. For industrial purposes, the alcohol produced in this manner is just as valuable as that made from sugar and starch. Whether the diastatic method of converting the starch and suffar into fermentable suffars be used, or tne acid method, is simply a question of economy and yield. On the other hand, when alcoholic beverages are to be made, those processes must oe employed, irrespective of the magnitude of the yield, which give the finest and best flavors to the products. DistiUation.— The object of distilla- tion is to separate the alcohol which has been formed from the non-volatile sub- stances with which it is mixed. A typical form of distilling apparatus for the con- centration of the dilute alcohol which is formed in the beer or wash from the fer- mentation tanks, is represented in Fig. 5. This apparatus is of the continuous type common to Europe and America. It consists of a "beer stul" provided with m number of chambers fitted with per- forated plates and suitable overflow pipes. It is operated as follows: The syrup and alcohol are pumped into the top of the beer still through a pipe O; the tank O may also be placed above the center of the still and the con- tents allowed to flow into the still by gravity; steam is admitted through an open pipe into the kettle A at the bottom of the column or b produced by heating the spent liquor by means of a coil. The steam ascends through the perforations in the plates, becoming richer and richer in alconol as it passes through each lav- er of liquor, while the latter gradually descends by means of the overflow pipes to the bottom of the column B and finally reaches the kettle completely exhausted of alcohol, whence it is removed by means of a pump connected with the pipe line H, On reaching the top of the beer still B the vapors of tne alconol and the steam continue to rise and pass into the alcohol column C. This column is also divided into chambers, but by solid instead of perforated plates, as shown at Fn. 5w— CONTINUOUS DI8TILUNQ APPARATUS. K. Each chamber is provided with a return or overflow pipe and an opening throuffh which the vapors ascend. In the alcohol column the vapors are so directed as to pass through a layer of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 678 SPIRIT— SPONGES liquid more or less rich in alcohol which is retained by the plate separating the compartments. An excess of liquids in these compartments overflows through the down pipes, gradually works its way into the beer still, and thence to the kettle. On reaching the top of the col- umn the TafK>rs, wnich have now be- come quite rich in alcohol, are passed into a coil provided with an outlet at the lowest part of each bend. These outlets lead into the return pipe P, which con- nects with the top chamoer of the alcohol column. This coil is technically termed the "goose" and is immersed in a tank called the "^oose tub." A suitable ar- rangement IS provided for controUing the temperature of the water in the tub bv means of outlet and inlet water pipes. When the still is in operation the temper- ature of the "goose" is regulated accord- ing to the required density of the alco- hol. The object of the '^goose" is the return to the column of all low products which condense at a temperature be- low the boiling point of ethyl alcohol of the desired strength. On leaving the "goose" the vapors enter a condenser £, whence the liquid alcohol is conducted into a separator F. This separator con- sists simply of a glass box provided with a cylinder through which a current of alcohol is constantly flowing. An alcohol spindle is inserted in this cylinder and snows the density of the spirit at all times. A pipe, with a funnel-shaped opening at its upper extremity, connects with the pipe leading from the condens- er and gives vent to any objectionable fumes. The^ separator is connected by means of a pipe with the alcohol storage tank. The pipe O is for emptying the upper chambers when necessary. The valves N, communicating by means of a small pipe with a condenser M, are for testing tne vapors in the lower chambers for alcohol. Substances Used for Denaturing Alco- hol.—The process of rendering alcohol unsuitable for drinking is called ^denatur- ing," and consists, essentially, in adding to the alcohol a substance soluble there- in of fk bad taste or odor, or both, of an intensity which would render it impos- sible or impracticable to use the mixture as a drink. Among the denaturing sub- stances which have been proposed are the following: ^ Gum sheHac (with or without the ad- dition of camphor, turpentine, wood spirit, etc.), coiophonium, copal rosin, Manila gum, camphor, turpentine, acetic acid, acetic ether, ethylic ether, methyl alcohol (wood alcohol), pyridine, acetone. methyl acetate, methyl violet, methylene blue, aniline blue, eosin, fluorescein, naphthalene, castor oil, benxine, carbolic acid, caustic soda, musk, animal oUa, etc. Methyl (wood) alcohol and benxine are the denaturing agents authorised in the United States, in the following pro- portions: To 100 parts, by volume, of ethyl alcohol (not less than 90 per cent strength) add 10 parts of approved methyl (wood^ alcohol and J of 1 part of approved benxine. Such alcohol is dbund as completely denatured* Formulas iar special denaturation may be submitted for approval by manufacturers to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who will determine whether the;r may be used or not, and only one special denaturaal will be authorised for the same class of industries unless it shall be shown that there is good reason for additional special denaturants. Not less than SOO wine gallons can be withdrawn from a bonded warehouse at one time for denaturing purposes. Spirit. — Proof spirit is a term used by the revenue department in assessing the tax on alcoholic liquors. It means a liauid in which there is 60 per cent (hw volume) of absolute alcohol. As it ts the actual alcohol in the whisky, brandy, dUute alcohol, etc., which is taxed, and as this varies so widelv, it is necessary that the actual wine gallons be converted into groof gallons before the tax rate can be xed. A sample that is half aln»b<4 and half water (let us say for conven- ience) is "100 proof." A sample that is f alcohol and t water is 150 proof, and the tax on every gallon of it is I) timcv the regular government rate per gallon. Absolute alcohol is ioo proof and has to pav a double tax. The legal definition of proof spirit is, "that alcoholic liquor which contains one-half its volume of alcohol of a spe- cific gravity of 0.7980 at 60* F." SPONGES: Bleaching Sponfea. — I. — Soak in dilute hydrochloric acid to remove the lime, then wash in water, and placv for 10 minutes in a S per cent solation oi potassium permanganate. The brown color on removal from this solution b due to the deposition of manganous osidr, and this may be removed by steeping fte a few minutes in very dilute siilpharie acid. As soon as the spon|pei ^PP^n^ white, they are washed out in wnler to remove the acid. II. — A sponge that has been ttacee steel. SPRINGS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers' Formulas. SPRUCE BEER: See Beverages. STAIN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. STAINS: See Paints, Varnishes and Wood SUins. STAINS FOR LACQUERS: See Lacquers. STAINS FOR PAPER: See Paper. Stamping (See also Dyes.) Stamping Colors for Use with Rubber Stamps. — Blue: 0.3 parts of water-blue IB. 1.5 parts of dextrin, 1.5 parts of dis- tilled water. Dissolve the aniline dye and the dextrin in the distilled water, over a water bath, and add 7 parts of refined glycerine, 28*^ Be. Other colors may be made according to the same formula, substituting the following quantities of dyes for the water-blue: Methyl violet S B, 0.02 parts; diamond fuchsine I, 0.02 parts; aniline green D. 0.04 parts; vesuvine B, 0.05 parts; phenol black, 0.03 parts. Oleaffi- nous colors are mostly used for metallic stamps, but glycerine colors can be used in case of necessity. OleaEinous Stamping Colors. — Mix 0.8 parts ofindi^o, ground fine with 2.5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, and 0.5 parts of olein. Add 2 parts of castor oil and 5 parts of linseed oil. For other colors accord- ing to the same formula, use the following quantities: Cinnabar, 2} parts; verdigris, 2} parts; lampblack, 1.2 parts; oil-soluble aniline blue A, 0.35 parts; oil-soluble aniline scarlet B, 0.3 parts; aniline yellow (oil-soluble), 0.45 parts; oil-soluble aniline black L, 0.6 parts. Stamping Liquids and Powden. — Dis- solve 1 drachm each of rosin and copal Digitized by VjOOQ IC 680 STAMPING— STARCH in 4 fluidounces of benzine and with a little of this liquid triturate ) drachm of Prussian blue and finally mix thoroughly with the remainder. Ultramarine* to which has been added a small proportion of powdered rosin, is generally used for stamping embroidery patterns on white goods. The powder IS dusted through the perforated pattern, which is then covered with a paper and a hot iron passed over it to melt the rosin and cause the powder to. adhere to the cloth. The following are said to be ex- cellent powders: I. — White. — One part each of rosin, copal, damar, mastic, sandarac, borax, and bronze powder, and 2 parts white lead. II. — Black. — Equal parts of rosin, dam- ar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue, ivory black, and bronze powder. III. — Blue. — Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue, ultramarine, and bronze powder. In all these powders the gums are first to be thoroughlv triturated and mixed by passing through a sieve, and the other ingredients carefully added. Other colors may be made^ by using chrome yellow, burnt or raw sienna, raw or burnt umber, Vandyke brown, etc. For stamping fab- rics liable to be injured by neat, the stamping is done by moistening a suitable powder with alconol and using it like a stencil ink. Stamping Powder for Embroideries. — "Stamping powders" used for outlining embroidery patterns are made by mixing a little finely powdered rosin with a suit- able pigment. After dusting the powder through the perforated pattern it is fixed on the fabric by laying over it a piece of »aper and then passing a hot iron care- ully over the paper. By this means the rosin is melted and the mixture adheres. When white goods are to be "stamped,** ultramarine is commonly used as the pigment; for dark goods, zinc white may be substituted. Especial care should be taken to avoid lead compounds and other poisonous pigments, as they may do mischief by dusting off. On velvets or other materials likely^ to be injured by heat, stamping is said to be done by moistening a suitable powder with alco- hol and using it as stencil paint. A small addition of rosinous matter would seem required here also. Starch Black Starch.-~Add to the sUrch a certain amount of logwood extract be- R fore the starch mixture is boiled. The quantitv varies according to the depth of the black and the amount of starch. A small quantity of potaasinm biehro- mate dissolved m hot water is used to bring out the proper shade of black. In place of bichromate, black iron liquor may be used. This oomea ready pre- pared. Starch Glo«. — I. — Melt 2) pounds of the best paraffine wax over a slow fire. When liquefied remove from the fire to stir in 100 drops of oil of citronella^ Place several new pie tins on a level table, coat them slightly with sweet oil« and pour about 6 tablespoonfuls of the melted paraffine wax into each tin. Tbe pan may be floated in water sufficietttl) to permit the mixture to be cut or stamped out with a tin cutter into small cakes about the size of a peppemint lozenge. Two of these cakes added to each pint of starch will cause the smooth- ing iron to impart the finest possible finish to muslin or linen, besides perfum- ing the clothes. II. — Gum arabic, pow- dered. . .^ S parts Spermaceti wax .... 0 parts Borax, powdered. . . 4 parts White cornstarch ... 8 parts All these are to be intimately mixed in the powder form by sifting throogh a sieve several times. As the wax b in a solid form and does not readiljr become reduced to powder by pounding in a mor- tar, the best method of reducing it to such a condition is to put the wax into a bottle with some sulphuric or rectified ether and then allow the fluid to emp- orate. After it has dissolved the wax* as the evaporation proceeds, the wax will be deposited *g^B in the solid form, bat in fine thin Bakes, which will cnsily break down to a powder form when rubbed up with the other ingredients in a oold mortar. Pack in paper or in cardboard boxes. To use, 4 teaspoon- fuls per pound of dry starch ate to be added to all dry starch, and then the starch made in the usual way as boilrd starch. Refining of Potato Starch. — A suit- able^ quantity of chloride tuating according to its quality betn«*n i to 1 part per 100 {tarts of starch, w made with little water into a thick pasfr To this paste add gradually with ron- stant stirring 10 to 15 times the quantity of water, and filter. The filtrate is now added to the lUrrh stirred up with water; } part nf ordinaiy Digitized by VjOOQ IC STARCH— STEEL 681 hydrochloric acid of 20^ B^. preyioufllj diluted with four times the quantity m water in mixed in, for everjr part of chloride of lime, the whole is stirred thoroughljr, and the starch allowed to stand. When the starch has settled* the supernatant water is let off and the starch is washed with fresh water until all odor of chlorine has entirely disappeared. The starch now obtained is the resulting final product. If the starch thus^ treated is to be worked up into dextrin, it is treated in the usual manner with hydrochloric acid or nitric acid and will then furnish a dex- trin perfe€!tly free from taste and smell. In case the starch is to be turned into "'soluble" starch proceed as usual, in a similar manner as in the production of dextrin, with the single difference that the starch treated with hydrochloric or nitric acid remains exposed to a temper- ature of 212^ F., only until a test with tincture of iodine gives a bluish-violet reaction. ,The soluble starch thus pro- duced, which is clearly soluble in boning water, is odoriess and tasteless. Sttrdi Powder. -— Finely powdered starch is a ver^ desirable absorbent, ac- cording to Snively,^ who says that for toilet preparations it is usually scented by a little otto or sachet powder. Frangi- panin powder, used in tne proportion of 1 part to 80 of the starch, he adds, gives a satisfactory odor. STARCHES: See Laundry Preparations. STARCH nr JELLY, TESTS FOR: See Foods. STARCH PASTE: See Adhesives. STATUE CLEAiriNG: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. STATUETTES, CLEAHIHG OF: See Plaster. STATUETTES OF UPOWITZ METAL: Sec Alloys. Steel (See also Iron and Metals.) AHHEALmG STEEL: See also Hardening Steel and Temper- ing Steel. This work requires the use of sub- stances which yield their carbon readily and quickly to the tools on contact at a hi^ temperature. Experience has shown that the best results are obtained by the use of yellow blood-lye salt (vel- low prussiate of potash), which, wlien brought in contact with the tool at a cherry-red heat, becomes fluid, and in this condition has a strong cementing effect. The annealing process is as fol- lows: The tool is heatea to a cherry red and the blood-lye salt sprinkled over the surface which is to be annealed. A fine sieve should be used, to secure an even distribution of the substance. The tool is then put back into the fire, heated to the proper temperature for tempering, and tempered. If it is desired to ^ve a higher or more thorough tempering to iron or soft steel, the annealing process is repeated 2 or S times. The surface of the tool must, of course, be entirely free from scale. Small tools to which it is desired to impart a considerable degree of hardness by annealing with blooo-lye salt are tempered as foUows: Blood-lye salt is melted in an iron vessel over a moderate fire, and the tool, heated to a brown-red heat, placed in the melted salt, where it is allowed to remain for about 15 minutes. It is then heated to the hardening temperature and hardened. A similar but milder effect is produced in small, thin tools ^ by making them re- peatedly red hot, immersing them slowly in oil or grease, reheating them, and finally tempering them in water. To in- crease the effect, soot or powdered char- coal is added to the oil or grease (train oil) till a thick paste is H)rmed, into which the red-hot tool is plunged. By this means the tool is covered with a thick, not very combustible, coating, which produces a powerful cementation at the next heating. Bv mixing flour, yellow blood-lye salt, saltpeter, norn shavings, or ground hoofs, grease, and wax, a paste is formed which serves the same purpose. A choice mav be made of any of the preparations sold as a "hardening paste"; they are all more or less of the same composition. This is a sample: Melt 600 grains of wax, 600 grains tal- low, 100 grains rosin, add a mixture of leather-coal, horn shavings, and ground hoofs in equal parts till a paste is formed, then add 10 grains saltpeter and 50 to 100 grains powdered vellow blood-lye salt, and stir well. The tools are put into this paste while red hot, allowed to cool in it, then reheated and tempered. More steel is injured, and sometimes spoiled, by over-annealing than in any other way. Steel heated too hot in an- nealing will shrink badly when being hardened; besides, it takes the life out in it. It should never be heated above a Digitized by VjOOQ IC 682 STEEL low cherry red, and it should be a lower heat than it is when being hardened. It should be heated slowly and given a uniform heat all over and through the piece. This is difficult to do in long bars and in an ordinary furnace.^ The best wav to heat a piece of steel, either for anneal- ing or hardening[, is in red-hot, pure lead. By this method it is done uniformly, and one can see the color all the time. Some heating for annealing is done in this way: Simply cover up the piece in sawdust, and let it cool there, and good results will be obtained. Good screw threads cannot be cut in steel that is too soft. Soft annealinff produces a much greater shrinkage ana spoils the lead of tne thread. This mixture protects the api>earance of polished or matted steel objects on heating to redness: Mix 1 part of white soap, 6 parts of chemically pure boracic acid, and 4 ,parts of phosphate of soda, after pulverizing, and malce with water into a paste. For use, apply this to the article oefore the annealing. COLORING STEEL: Black. — I. — Oil or wax may be em- ployed on hard steel tools; with both methods the tool loses more or less of its hardness and the blacking process there- fore is suited only for tools which are used for working wood or at least need not be Tery hard, at any rate not for tools which are employed for working steel or cast iron.^ The handsomest glossv^ black color is obtained by first polishing the tool neatly again after it has been hardened in water, next causing it to assume on a ^rate or a hot plate the necessary tempering color, yellow, vio- let blue, etc., then dipping it in molten, not too hot, yellow wax and burning off the adhering wax, after withdrawal, at a fire, without, however, further heating the tool. Finally dip the tool again into the wax and repeat the burning off at the flame until the shade is a nice lustrous black, whereupon the to<^ may be cooled off in water. The wax is sup- posed to impart greater toughness to the tool. It is advisable for ail tools to have a trough of fat ready, which has been heated to the necessary tempering de- gree, and the tools after hardening in water are suspended in the fat until they have acquired the temperature of the fat bath. When the parts are taken out and slowly allowed to cool, they will be a nice, but not lustrous, black. II; — The following has been suggested for either steel or iron: Bismuth chloride . . . Mercury bichloride . Copper chloride. . . . Hvdrochloric acid . . Alcohol . 1 part t parts 1 part 6 parts 5 parta Water sufficient to make 04 parts. Mix. As in all such processes a great deal depends upon having the artiHe to be treated absolutely clean and free from grease. Unless this is the case nnifom results are impossible. The Hqoid may be applied with a swab, or a brtt»li« bat if the object is small enough to dip into the liquid better results may tliua be obtained than in any other way. The covering thus put on is said^ to be very lasting, and a sure protection a^inst oxidation. Blue. — I. — Heat an iron bar to redne«s and lay it on a receptacle filled wilh water. On this bar place the objeets !« be blued, with the polished side up. A« soon as the article has acquired the desired color cause it to fall auickly into the water. The pieces to be Dluedfrnust always previously be polished with puai- ice stone or fine emery. II. — For screws: Take an old watrh barrel and drill as many holes tnlo the head of it as the number of screws to be blued. Fill it about one-fourth full of brass or iron filings, put in the head. and then fit a wire long enough to beod over for a handle, into the arlH>r boles — head of the barrel upward. Brighten the heads of the screws, set them, puint downward, into the holes alreadv ilrulrd, and expose the bottom of the oarrrl to the lamp until the screws aaaums the color you wish. III. — To blue gun-barreU» etc.. di»* solve 2 parts of crystallised chloride of iron; 2 parts solid chloride of antimooy. 1 part i^llic acid in 4 or 5 parts of wairr; appl}r with a small sponge, and let dry in the air. Repeat this two or three time*. then wash with water, and dry. Rub with boiled linseed oil to deepea the shade. Repeat this until satisfied with the result. IV. — The bluing of gun^ barrels tt effected bv heating eveiuy in a malBe until the desired blue color is raised, the barrel being first made clean and bright with emery cloth, leaving no marks uf grease or dirt upon the metal wbea th* bluing takes place, and then afluw to cool in the air. It requires cunsidcrmbl* experience to obtain an even dear bitte Brown. — I. — The followinit recipe f<»r browning is from the United Slalto Ord- nance Manual: Spirits of wiac« 1) Digitized by VjOOQ IC STEEL ounces; Uncture of Iron, 1} ounces; cor- rosive sublimate, 1) ounces;^ sweet spirits of niter, 1^ ounces; blue vitriol, 1 ounce; nitric acid, } ounce. Mix and dissolve in 1 <)uart of warm water and keep in a S^ass jar. Clean the barrel well witb caustic soda water to remove grease or oil. Then clean the surface of all stains and marks with emery paoer or cloth, so as to produce an even, oright surface for the acid to act upon, and one without finger marks. Stop the bore and vent with wooden plugs. Then ap- ply the mixture to every part with a sponge or rag, and expose to the air for 24 hours, when the loose rust should be rubbed off with a steel scratch brush. Ujie the mixture and the scratch brush twice, and more if necessary, and finally wash in boiling water, dry quickly, and wipe with linseed oil or varnish with shellac. II. — Apply four coats of the following solution, allowing each several hours to dry. Brush after each coat if necessary. After the last coat is dry, rub down hard. Sulphate of copper. . . 1 ounce Sweet spirits of niter. . 1 ounce Distilled water 1 pint Hiello. — This is a brighlly polished metal, which is provided with a black or blue- black foundation by heating, is cov- ered with a design by the use of a suitable matrix and then treated with hydro- chloric acid in such a manner that only the black ground is attacked, the metal underneath remaining untouched. Next, the acid is rinsed off and the reserve is removed with suitable solvents. The |Nirts of the metal bared by the acid may also be provided with a galvanic coating of silver or other metal. Another method is to plunffe the artides for a few minutes into a solution of ox- alic acid and to dean them by passing them through alcohol. In this way the polish can even be brought back with- out the use of rouge or diamantine. Whitening or Blanchixig.— -If dissatis- fied with the color acquirra in tempering, dip the article into an add bath, which wnitens it, after which the bluing opera- tion is repeated. ^ This method is of great service, but it is important to remember always thoroughly to wash after the use of add and then allow the object to re- niain for a few minutes in alconol. Sul- Churic add does not whiten well, often taving dark shades on the surface. Hy- drochloric add gives better results. Small pieces of steel are also whitened with a piece of pith moistened with dilute sul- phuric acid, else the fine steel work, such ' as a watch hand, is fixed with lacquer on a plate and whitened by means of pith and polishing rouge, or a small stiff brush is charged with the same material. It is then detached by heating and cleaned in hot alcohol. TEHPERIHG STEEL. The best temperature at which to ouench in the tempering of tool steel is tne one just above the transformation point of the steel, and this temperature ma][ be accurately determined in the fol- lowing manner, without the use of^ a pyrometer. The pieces of stee} are in- troduced successively at eoual intervals of time into a muffie heated to a tempjcr- ature a little above the transformation point of the steel. If, after a certain time, the pieces be taken out in the re- verse order thejr will at first show pro- gressively increasing degrees of brightness, these pieces being at tne transformation point. When this point is passed the pieces again rapidly acc|uire a brightness superior to that of their neighbors, and should then be immediately quenched. I. — Heat red hot and dip in an un- guent made of mercury and the fat of bacon. This produces a remarkable degree of harciness and the steel pre- serves its tenacity and an elasticity whidi cannot be obtained by other means. II. — Heat to the red white and thrust quick] jr into a stick of sealing wax. Leave it a second, and then change it to another place, and so continue until the metal is too cool to penetrate the wax. To pierce with drills hardened in this way, moisten them with essence of turpentine. To Temper Small Coil Soring Tools. — To temper small coil springs in a furnace burning wood the springs are exposed to the heat of the flame and are quenched in a composition of the follow- ing preparation: To a barrd of fish oil, 10 quarts of rosin and 12 quarts of tallow are added. If the springs tempered in this mixture break, more tallow is added, but if the break indicates brittleness of the steel rather than excessive hardness, a ball of yellow beeswax about 6 inches in diameter is added. The springs are drawn to a reddish purple b/ being placed on a frame having honzontall;r radiating arms like a star which u mounted on the end of a vertical rod The springs are laid on the star and are lowered into a pot of melted lead, being held there for such time as is required to draw to the desired color. It is well known that the addition of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 684 STEEL 'certain soluble substances powerfully affects the action of tempering water. This action is strengthened if tne heat- conducting power of the water is raised by means of these substances; it is re- tarded if this power is reduced, or the boiling point substantially lowered. The substance naost frequently used for the purpose of increasing the heat-conduct- ing power of tempering water is common salt. This is dissolved in varving pro- portions of weight, a saturated solution being generally used as a quenchinjg; mixture. The use of this solution is always advisable when tools of com- plicated shape, for which a considerable degree of hardness is necessary, are to be tempered in large quantities or in fre- ouent succession. In using these cooling fluids, care must be taken that a suffi- cient quantity is added to the water to prevent any great ^ rise of temperature when the tempering process is pro- tracted. For tnis reason the largest possible vessels should be used, wide and shallow, rather than narrow and deep, vessels being selected. Carbonate of soda and sal ammoniac do not increase the tempering action to the same extent as common salt, and are therefore not so frequently employed, though they form excellent additions to tempering water in certain cases. Tools of very complicated construction, such as fraises, where the danger of fracture of superficial parts has always to be kept in view, can with advantage be tempered in a solution of soda or sal ammoniac. Acids increase the action of tempering water consider- ably, and to a far greater extent than common salt. They are added in quan- tities up to 2 per cent, and frequent- ly in combination with salts. Organ- ic acids (e. g., acetic or citric) have a milder action than mineral acids (e. ^., hvdrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric). Acid- ulous water is employed in tempering tools for which the utmost degree of hardness is necessary, such as instru- ments for cutting exceptionally hard ob- t'ects, or when a sufficiently hard surface las to be given to a kind of steel not capable of much hardening. Alcohol lowers the boiling point of water, and causes so vigorous an evaporation when the water comes in contact with the red- hot metal, that the tempering is greatly retarded (in proportion to the amount of alcohol in tne mixture). Water con- taining a large quantity of alcohol will not temper. Soap ana soap suds will not temper steel; this propertv is made use of in the rapid cooling of steel for which a great degree of hardness is not desirable. When certain parts of com- pletely tempered steel have to be rendered soft, tnese parts are heated to a red heal fkud then cooled in soap suds. This is done with the tangs of files» knives, swords, saws, etc. Soluble organic sub- stances retard the tempering process in proportion to the quantity used, and thus lessen the effect of pure water. Such substances (e. g., milk, soar beer, etc.) are employed only to a limited extent. To Caseharden Locally. — In case- hardening certain articles it is sometimes necessary, or desirable, to leave spots or sections in the original soft uncarboiiiaed condition while the remainder is carbon- ized and hardened. This may be ef- fected by first covering the parts to be hardened with a protecting coat of japan, and allowing it to dry. Then put the piece in an electroplating bath and de- posit a heavy coat of nickel ortr the parts not protected by the japan. Th« piece thus prepared may be treated in the usual manner in casehardening. The coat of nickel prevents the metal beneath being carbonised, so it does not harden when dipped in the bath. A plating, of copper answers the same purpose as nickel and is often used. A simpler plan, where the shape of the piece permits, is to protect it from the action of the carbonizinff material with an iron pipe or plate closelv fitted or luted with clay. Another scheme is to machine the parts wanted soft after carbonizing but before hardening. By this procedure the carbonised material is removed where the metal is desired soft, and when heated and dipped these parts do not harden. To Harden a Hammer. — To avoid the. danger of '^checking" a hammer at the eye, heat the hammer to a good untform hardening heat and then oip the anall end almost up to the eye and cool as ouickly as possible by moving about in tne hardening bath: then dip the lAHTt end. To harden a hammer soccesafufly by this method one must work quickly and cool the end dipped first enough ta harden before the neat is lost oo the other end. Draw the temper from the heat left about the eye. The result is a hammer hard only where it should be and free from "checks." Hardenine Staal Wire. — Pass the stciri wire through a lead bath heated to a temperature of I,200<* to 1.500" P. after it has previously been coated with a paste of chalk, so as to prevent the formatioo Digitized by VjOOQ IC STEEL 685 of oxides. The wire is thus heated in • uniform manner and, according^ to whether it is desired hard or elastic, it is cooled in water or in oil. Hardeniiif of SpringB. — A variety of ateel must be chosen which is suitable for the production of springs, a very touffh quality with about 0.8 per cent of carDon being probably the best. Any steel works of good reputation would no doubt recommend a certain kind of steel. In shaping a spring, for^ng and ham- mering should be avoided if possible. In forging[, an uneven treatment can scarcely be avoided; one portion is worked more than the other, causing tensions which, especially in springs, must be guarded against. It is most advantageous if a material of the thickness and shape of the spring can be obtained, which, by bending and pressinji; throu|;h, is shaped into the desired spring. Since this also entails slight tension, a careful annealing is advisable, so as to prevent crackins or distorting in hardening. The annealing is best conducted with exclusion of the air, by placing the springs in a sheet-iron box provided with a cover, smearing all the joints well up with loam. The heat- ing may be done in a muffled furnace; the box, with contents, is, not too slowly, healed to cherry red and then allowed to cool gradually, together with the stove. The springs must only be taken out when Uiey have cooled off enough that they will give off no hissing sound when touched bv water. In order to uniform- ly heat tne springs for hardening, a muffle furnace is likewise employed, wherein they are heated to cherry-red beat. For cooling liquid, a mixture of oil, tallow, and petroleum is employed. A mass consisting of fish oil, tallow, and wax also renders good service, but one should see to it that there is a sufficient ouantity of these cooling liquids, so that tlie spnngs ma^ be moved about, same aa when cooled in water, without causing an appreciable increase in the tempera- ture of the liquid. In most cases too amaU a Quantity of the liquid is responsi- ble for tne many failures in hardening. When the springs have cooled in the hardening liquio,, they are taken out, dried off suoerficially, and the oil still adhering is ourned off over a charcoal fire. Tiiis enables one to moderate the temper according to the duration of the burning off and to produce the desired elasticity. An even heating bein|^ of great importance in hardenins springs, the electric current has of late oeen suc- cessfully employed for this purpose. To Temper a Tap. — After the tap has . been cut and finished heat it in a pair of tongs to a blood-red heat over a charcoal fire or the blue flanie of a Bunsen burner or blow pipe, turning it around so that one point does not get heated before another. Have ready a pail of clean, cold water, into which a handful of com- mon salt has been put. ^ Stir the water in the pail so that a whirlpool is set up. Then plunge the tap, point first and verticafly, into the vortex to cool. The turning of the tap during heating, as well as the swirl of the qiiendiing[ water, pre- vents distortion. In tempennff, the tem- per of the tap requires to be drawn to a light straw color, and this may be done as follows: Get a piece of cast-iron tube about 8 inches in diameter and heat it to a dull-red heat for about 4 inches of its length. Then hold the Up, with the tones, up the center of the tube, mean- while turning the tap around until the straw color appears all over it. Then dip the tap in tne water, when it will be found perfectly hard. The depth of the color, whether light or dark straw, must be determined bv the nature of the cast steel being useci, which can be gained only from experience of the steel. SdBaon Hardening. — The united legs of the scissors are uniformly heated to a dark cherry red, extending from the point to the screw or rivet nole. This may be done in the naked fire, a feeble current of air being admitted until the steel commences to glow. ^ Then the fire is left to itself and the scissor parts are drawn to and fro in the fire, until all the parts to be hardened show a uniform dark cherry red. The two lees are hardened together in water and then tempered purple red to riolet. Tne simultaneous heating, hardening, and tempering of the parts belonging together is necessary, so that the degree of heat is the same and the harder part does not cut the softer one. In accordance with well-known rules, the immersion in the hardening bath should be done with the point first, slowly and vertically up to above the riveting hole. Hardening without Scaling. — Articles made of tool steel and polished may be hardened without raising a scale, thereby destroying the polish, by the following method: Prepare eoual parts in bulk of common salt and (nne) corn meal, well mixed. Dip the article to be hardened first into water, then into the mixture and place it carefully into the fire. When hot enough to melt the mixture, take from Digitized by VjOOQ IC 686 STEEL the fire and dip or roll in the^ salt and meal, replace in the fire and bring to the required heat for hardening. Watch the piece closely and if any part of it shows si^ns of getting dry, sprinkle some of the mixture on it. The mixture, when exposed to heat, forms a flux orer the surface of the steel which excludes the air and prevents oxidation, and when cooled in water or oil comes off easily, leaving the surface as smooth as before heating. Borax would possibly ffive the same result, but is sometimes difficult to remove when cold. Hardening with Glycerine. — ^I. — The glycerine employed must be of the density of 1.08 to 1.26 taken at the temperature of 802^ F. Its weight must be equal to about 6 times the weight of the pieces to be tempered. For mtrd temper add to the gl vcerine i to 4 per cent of sulphate of potash or of manganese, and for soft temper 1 to 10 per cent of chloride of manganese, or 1 to 4 per cent of chloride of potassium. The temperature of the tempering bath is varied according to the results desired. II. — Glycerine, 8,000 parts, hj weight; cooking salt, 500 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 100 parts, by weight; con- centrated hydrochloric acid, 50 parts; and water, 10,000 parts, by weight. Into this liquid the steel, heated, for example, to a cherry red, is dipped. A reheating of the steel is not necessary. To Remove Burnt OU from Hardened Steel. — To remove excess oil from parts that have been hardened in oil, place the articles in a small tank of gasoline, which, when exposed to the air, will dry off immediately, allowins the part to be polished and tempered without the con- fusing and unsightly marks of burnt oil. VARIOUS RECIPES: To Put an Edge on Steel Tools. — Aluminum will put an edge on fine cut- ting instruments such as surgical knives, razors, etc. It acts exactly Tike a razor- hone of the finest Quality. When steel is rubbed on the aluminum, as, for in- stance, in honing a knife blade, the met- al disintegrates, forming an infinitely minute powder of a greasy unctuous quality that clings to steel with great tenacity and thus assists in cutting away the surface of the harder metal, bo fine is the edge produced that it can in no wise be made finer by the strop, which used in the ordinary way merely tends to round the edge. To Restore Burnt Steel. — To restore burnt cast steel heat the piece to a red heat and sprinkle over it a miztiire oC 8 parts red chromate of potassioni; 4 parts saltpeter; | part aloes; | part gun arable; and i part rosin. To Remove Strains in Metal hf HcjU- ing. — ^In making springs of piano witv, or, in fact, any wire, if the meial is heated to a moderate degree tlie spring will be improved. Piano or any steel wire should be heated to a blue, brass wire to a degree sufficient to cause tal- low to smoke. Heating makes the met- al homogeneous; before nesting, it is full of strains. If a piece of metal of any land is straightened cold and then put into a lathe and a chip turned off, it will be far fran true. Before turning, it was held tme by the strain of the particles on the outside, they having changed position, while the particles near the axis are only sprung. The outside particles being removed by the lathe tool, the sprung particles at the center return to their old positions. If, after straightening, the metal is heated to a temperature of 400"* P., the particles settle together and the strains are i^ moved. This is the case in the manufacture of saws. The saw is first hardened and tempered and then straightened on aa anvQ by means of a hammer. After it m hammered true, it is ground and polished a little,^ then blued to stiffen it and then is subjected to the grinding procesa. Before bluing, the met^ is full of strains; these are entirely removed bv the heat required to produce the mue color. Often a piano-wire spring will ncrt stand long wear if used witnout heating, whfle if heated it will last for years. To Render Rne Cmcks in Tools Visi- ble,— It is often of importance to rr<«jc nize small cracks which appear ta the metal of the tools. For this purpose it is recommended to moisten the fusafed surface with petroleum; next mb and dry with a rajr and rub again, but thts time with chalk. The petroleum which has entered the cracks soon comes o«t i^sin and the trace is plainly shown hy the chalk. To UtiUxe Drill Chips.— There is aae modem mschining process that prodorrs a shaving that has more value than that of mere scrap, and that is driUia^ nfle barrels with the oil-tube drill. The cutting edge of this drill is broken np i»- to steps and the chips produced are Iner- ally shaviuM, being long hair-like thiuwb of steel. These snavinj^s are consider^ ably used in woodworking factories far smoothing purposes. Digitized by VjOOQ IC STEEL 687 To RemoTe Ftrngmenta of Steel from OUier Metals. — The removal of broken spiral drills and taps is an operation which even the most skOlful machinist has to perform at times. A practical process for removing such broken steel pieces consists in preparing in a suitable kettle (not iron) a solution of 1 part, by weight, of commercial alum in 4 to 5 parts, bj weight, of water and boiling the object in this solution until the piece which is stuck works itself out. Care must be taken to place the piece in such a position that the evolving gas bubbles may rise and not adhere to the steel to protect it from the action of the alum solution. Testing SteeL— A bar of the steel to be tested is provided with about nine notches running around it in distances of about I of an inch. Next, the foremost notched piece is heated in a forge in such a manner that the remaininc por- tion of the bar is heated less by tne fire proper than by the transmitted heat. When the foremost piece is heated to burning, i. e., to combustion, and the color of the succeeding pieces gradually passes to dark-brownish redness, the whole rod is hardened. A test with the file wUI now show that the foremost burned piece possesses the greatest hard- ness, that several softer pieces will follow, and that again a piece ordinarily situ- ated in the second tnird, whose tempera- ture was the right one for hardening, is almost as hard as the first one. If the different pieces are knocked off, the fra<;ture of the piece hardened at the correct temperature exhibits the finest grain« This will give one an idea of the temperature to be employed for harden- ing the steel in question and its behavior in general. Very hard steel will readily crack in this process. Welding Compound. — Boracic acid, 41 i ^rts; common salt 85 parts; ferro- cyanide of potassium, 20 parts; rosin, 7) parts; carbonate of sodium, 4 parts. Heat the pieces to be welded to a lifht- red heat and apply the compound; tnen heat to a strong yellow heat and the welding may to accomplished in the usual manner. The precaution should be observed, the same as with any of the cyanides, to avoid breathing the poisonous fumes. Softening SteeL — ^Heat the steel to a brown red and plunge into soft water, river water being the best. Care should be taken, however, not to heat over brown red* otherwise it will be hard when im- mersed. The steel wfll be soft enough to be cut with ease if it is plunged in the water as soon as it turns red. Draw-Tempering Cast Steel. — First heat the steel liff hUy by means of char- coal until of a cherry-red shade, where- upon it is withdrawn to be put quickly into ashes or dry charcoal dust until completelv cooled. The steel may also be heateci in the forge to a red cherry color, then hammered until it turns blue and then plunged into water. Drilling Hard SteeL — To accomplish the object quickly, a drill^ of cast steel should be made, the point gradually heated to the red, the scales taken on, and the extremitv of the point immersed at once in quicKsilver; then the whole auenched in cold water. Thus pre|>ared, le drill is eoual to any emergency; it will bore througn the hardest pieces. The quantity of quicksilver needed is trifling. En^ving or Etehing on Steel. — Dis- solve in 150 parts jof vinegar, sulphate of copper, SO parts; alum, 8 parts; kitchen salt, 11 parte. Add a lew drops of nitric acid. According to whether this liquid is allowed to act a longer or shorter time, the steel may be engraved upon deeply or Uie surface may be given a very ornamenUl, frosted appearance. To Distinguish Steel from Iron. — Take a very dean file and file over the flame of an alcohol lamp. If the filed piece is made of steel, little burning and crack- ling sparks will be seen. If it consists of iron, the sparks will not crackle. STEEL, BROWKING OF: See Plating. STEEL, DISTINGUISHnfG IROH FROM: See Iron. STEEL ETCHIHG: See Etching. STEEL-HARDENING POWDER: See Iron. STEEL, OXIDIZED: See Plating. STEEL PLATING: See Plating. STEEL POLISHES: See Polishes. STEEL, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 688 STEREOCHROMY— STONE STENCILS FOR PLOTTING LETTERS OF SIGN PLATES: See Enameling. STENCIL INKS: See InkB. STEREOCHROMY. Stereochromatic colon can be bought ground in a thickly liouid water-glass solution. They are only diluted with water-glass solution before application on the walls. The two solutions are generally slightly dissimilar in their composition, the former containing less silicic acid, but more alkali, than the latter, which is necessary for the better preservation of the paint. Suitable pij;- ments are zinc white, ocher with its different shades of light yellow, red, and dark brown, black consisting of a mix- ture of mancanese and lampblack, etc., etc. White lead cannot be used, as it coagulates with the water glass, nor vermilion, because it fades greatly under the action of the light. The plastering to be coated must be porous, not fresh, but somewhat hardened. Otherwise the caustic lime of the plaster will q^uickly decompose the water glass. This circumstance mav account for the un- satisfactory results which have fre- quently been obtained with water-glass coatinffs. Before applying the paint the wall snould first be impregnated with a water-glass solution. The colors may be kept on hand ground, but must be protected from contact with the air. If air is admitted a partial separation of silica in the form of a jelly takes place. Only pure potash water glass, or, at least, such as only contains little soda, should be used, as soda will cause efflor- STEREOPTICON SLIDES: See Photography. STEREOTYPE METAL: See Alloys. STERILIZING WITH GAS: See Preserving. STONE, ARTIFICIAL. The following is a process of manu- facture in which the alkaline silicates prepared industrially are employed. The function of Uie alkaline silicates, or soluble glass, as constituents of arti- ficial stone, is to act as a cement, forming with the alkaline earths, alumina, and oxide of lead, insoluble silicates, which weld together the materials (quarts sand. pebbles, granite, fluorspar, and the waste of aay bricks). The mass may be colored black bv the addition oC a quantity of charcoal or graphite to the extent of 10 per cent at the maxiinitm. binoxide of mannnese, or ocher; red« by 6 per cent of coTcothar; briek red, by 4 to 7 per cent of cinnabar; orancc, by 6 to 8 per cent of red lead; yellow, by 6 per cent of yellow ocher, or 5 per cent ol chrome yellow; green, by 8 per cmt ol chrome 8[reen; blue, by 6 to 10 per orat of Neuwied blue, Bremen blue, Caaarl blue, or Napoleon blue; and while, bv iO per cent, at the maximum, of sine wnite. Chrome green and sine oxide priK duce an imitation of malachite. Am imitation of lapis lasuli is obtainrd by the simultaneous employment of C*asd blue and^ pyrites in grains. The oictallic oxides 3rield the corresponding sjlirmtra. and sine oxide, mixed with deaased chalk, yields a brilliant marble. The ingredients are mixed in a kind of mechanical kneading trough, fomiahed with stirrers, in variable proportiont, according to the percentage of the sola- tion of alkaline silicate. The whole is afterwards molded or compresaed by the ordinary processes. The imitation of granite is obtained by mixing lime, 100 parts; sodium silicalr (42^' B6.), S6 parU; fine quarU aaad. IM to 180 parts; and coarse sand, 180 to ISO parts. Artificial basalt may be prepared br adding potassium sulphite and lead acetate, or equal parts of antimony or» and iron filings. To obUin artificial marble, 100 pounds of marble dust or levigated chalk are mixed with 80 parts of ground fta** and 8 parts of fine lime and aodiuai silicate. The coloring matter ta mixed in proportion depending on the effect to be produced. A fine product for molding is obtained by mixing alkaline silicate, 100 parts; washed chalk, 100 parts; slaked time. 40 parts; ouick lime, 40 parts, fine qaarts sand, 800 parts; pounded glass, SO parts: infusorial earths, 80 parts: fluors|iar, IM parts. On hardening, there ia mock contraction. Other kinds of artificial stone are prepared by mixing hydraulic lime or cement, 50 parts; sand, 800 parts; sodiam silicate, in dry powder, 50 parts; the whole is moistened with 10 per ccat of water and molded. A hydraulic cement maj be employed, to which an alkaline silicate is ad4e«i The stone or object molded ought to br covered with a layer of fiuosjliratir Digitized by VjOOQ IC STONE 689 A weather-proof water-resisting stone is manufactured from sea mud, to which 5 per cent of calcic hydrate is added. The mass is then dried, lixiviated, and dried once more at 212^ F., whereupon the stones are burned. By an admixture of crystallized iron sulphate the firmness of these stones is still increased. Saad-Lime Brick. — In a French patent for making bricks from pitch and coal tar, powdered coke and sea sand are gently heated in a suitable vessel, and ^0 per cent of pitch and 10 per cent of coal tar added, with stirring. The pasty m&ss obtained is then molded under pressure. The product obtained may be employed alone, or together with a framework of iron, or with hydraulic lime or cement. According to a French patent for veining marble, etc., in one or more colors, coloring matters of all kinds are mixed with a sticky liquid, which is then spread in a very thin layer on the surface of another immiscible and heavier liq- uid. By agitating the surface, colored veins, etc., are obtained, which are then transferred to the object to be decorated (which may be of most varied kind) by applying it to the surface of the heavy liouid. A suitable composition with wnich the colors may be mixed consists of: Oil of turpentine, 100 parts; colo- phony, 10 parts; linseed oil, 10 parts; ticeaUf woieil, 5 parts. The heavy liq- uid may be water, mercury, etc.; and any colors, organic or mineral, may be used. CONCRETE. Concrete is the name applied to an artificial combination of various mineral substances which under chemical action become incorporated into a solid mass. There arc one or two compositions of cromparatively trifling importance which receive the same name, though differing fundamentally from true concrete, their solidification being independent of chem- ical influence. These compositions only «;aU for passing mention; they are: Tar concrett, m'&de of broken stones (mac- adam) and tar; iron concrete, comjiosed of iron turnings, asphalt, bitumen, and pitch; and lead concrete, consisting of broken bricks set in molten lead. The last two varieties, with rare exceptions, are only used in connection with military engineering, such as for fortifications. Concrete proper consists essentially of two groups or classes of ingredients. The first, termed the aggregate, is a hetero- geneous mass, in itself inactive, of mineral material, such as shingle, broken stone, broken brick, gravel, and sand. These are the substances most com- monly in evidence, but other ingredients are also occasionally employed, such as slag from iron furnaces. Burnt clay, in any form, and earthenware, make ad- mirable material for incorporation. The second class constitutes the active agency which produces adhesion and solidifica- tion. It is termed the matrix, and con- sists of hydraulic lime or cement, com- bined witn water. One of the essential features in good concrete is cleanliness and an entire absence of dirt, dust, greasy matter, and impurities of any description. The ma- terial will preferably be sharp and angu- lar, with a rough, porous surface, to which the matrix will more readily adhere than to smooth, vitreous sub- stances. The specific gravity of the ag- gregate will depend upon the purpose for which the concrete is to be used. For beams and lintels, a light aggregate, such as coke breeze from gasworks, is per- missible, especially when the worK is designed to receive nails. On the other hand, for retaining walls, the heaviest possible aggregate is desirable on the ground of stabOity., The aggregate by no means should be uniform in size. Fragments of different dimensions are most essential, so that the smaller material may fill up the interstices of the larger. It is not in- frequently stipulated by engineers that no individual fragment shall be more than 4 inches across, and the material is often specified to pass through a ring 1 ) to i inches in diameter. The absolute limits to size for the aggregate, however, are determinable by a number of con- siderations, not the least important of which is the magnitude and bulk of the work in which it is to be employed. The particles of sand should also be of vary- ing degrees of coarseness. A fine, dust- like sand is objectionable; its minute subdivision prevents complete contact with the cement on all its faces. Another desideratum is that the particles should not be too spherical, a condition brought about by continued attrition. Hence, pit sand is better in many cases than river sand or shore sand. The matrix is almost universally Portland cement. It should not be used in too hot a condition, to which end it is usually spread over a wooden floor to a depth of a few inches, for a few days prior to use. By this means, the alumin- ate of lime becomes partially hydrated, and its activity is thereby modified. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 690 STONE Roman cement and hydraulic lime may also be used as matrices. Portland cement will take a larger proportion of sand than either Roman cement or hydraulic lime; but with the larger ratios of sand, its tenacity is, of course, correspondingly reduced. One part of cement to 4 parts of sand should therefore be looked upon as the upper limit, while for the strongest mortar the proportion need hardly exceed 1 part of cement to 1 } or 2 parts of sand. In the ensuinff calculations there is assumed a ratio of 1 to S. For impermeability, the proportion of 1 to 2 should be observed, ancl for Roman cement this proportion should never be exceeded. The ratio will even advantageously be limited to 2 to 3. For hydraulic lime equal parts of sand and cement are suitable, though 2 parts of sand to 1 part of cement may be used. The quantity of mortar required in reference to the aggregate is based on the vacuities in the latter. For any particu- lar aggregate the amount of empty space may DC determined by filling a tana of known volume with the minerals and then adding sufficient water to bring to a level surface. The volume of water added (provided, of course, the aggregate be impervious or previously saturated) «ves tne net volume of mortar required. To this it is necessary to make some ad- dition (say 10 per cent of the whole), in order to insure the thorough flushing of every part of the work. Assuminj; that the proportion of interstices is 30 per cent and adding 10 for the reason just stated, we derive 40 parts as the quantity of mortar to 100 — 10-90 parts of the affgregate. An allowance of \ volume tor shrinkage brings the volume of the dry materials (sand and cement) of the mortar to 40 + 40/3 - 53 J parts, which, divided in the ratio of 1 to 3, yields: Cement -^ - 13J parts Sand. J X 53| - 40 parts Aggregate 00 parts ToUl 143) parts As the resultant concrete is 100 parts, the total shrinkage is 30 per cent. Expressed in terms of the cement, the concrete would have a composition of 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, 7 parts gravel and broken stone, and it would form, approximately, what is commonly known as 7 to 1 concrete. There are other ratios depending on the proportion of sand. Thus we have: Cement 1.., 1... 1... 1.. . 1... 1... Sand ..IJ.. ..« .. ..«J.. ..8 . . ..Si.. ,.4 , . Agigrcigaie .. .,5 .. ..« ...7 It .8 The cost of concrete may be materiallr reduced without affecting the strengtli uV efficacv of the work, by a plentiful uae U stone plums'* or "burrs." These ar« bedded in the fluid concrete during its deposition in ttfii, but care must be taken to see that they are thoroughly mr- rounded by mortar and not in contart with each other. Furthermore, if the; are of a porous nature, they should be well wetted before use. The mixing of concrete is important If done by hand, the matertaU lorminf the aggregate will be laid out on a plat- form and covered by the cement in a thin layer. The whole should be turned orrr thrice in the dry state, and^ as naoj times wet, before depositing, in order to bring about thorough and complrte amaliiamation. Once mixed, the con* Crete is to be deposited immediately and allowed to remain undisturbed until ibr action of setting is finished. Depositit»a should be effected, wherever pussiblr. without tipping from a height of m«>rr than about 6 feet, as in greater falls thrrv is a likelihood of the heavier portiott* «i^ the aggregate separating from the lighter In extensive undertakings, concrrte i« more economically mixed by mechanK-al appliances. The water used for mixing may b^ either salt or fresh, so far as the strength of the concrete is concerned. For surf*'-*' work above the ground level, salinity m any of the ingredients is object ionaVlr. since it tends to produce efflorescence - an unsightly, floury deposit, diffimlt i<> get rid of. The quantity of water rr> <|uired cannot be stated with exactitndr. it will depend upon the proportion of tk< aggregate and its porosity. It is br«t determined by experiment in each par- ticular case. Without being prviiuw enough to **drown** the roocretc, it should be plentiful enough to act a* sa efficient intermediary between evrri fiarticle of the aggre|{ate and r^rr% particle of the matrix. Inanfiorot moisture is, in fact* as deletetiovis as as excess. Voids.— The strength of eooerete dr- pends greatly upon its density, and Ihi* i» secured bv using coarse material wkirh contains the smallest amount of voids «# empty spaces. Different kiada of aaad. Digitized by VjOOQ IC STONE 691 gravel, and stone vary greatly in the amount of voids they contain, and by judiciouslv mixing coarse and fine material the voids may be much reduced and the density increased. The density and percentage of voids in concrete ma- terial may be determined by filling a box of 1 cubic foot capacity and weigninj; it One cubic foot of solid quartz or lime- stone, entirely free from voids, would weigh 165 |>ounds, and the amount by which a cuoic foot of any loose material falls short of this weight represents the proportion of voids contained in it. For example, if a cubic foot of sand weighs 115| pounds, the voids would be 49}-165ths of the toUl volume, or 30 per ccnt- The following table gives the per cent of voids and weight per cubic foot of some common concrete materials: Per Cent Wt. per Voids Cu.Tt. Sanduskv Bay sand . 32.3 111.7 poun ds Same through SO- mesh screen 38.5 101.5 pounds Gravel, ) to^ inch....42.4 05.0 pounds Broken limestone, egg-size 47.0 87.4 pounds Limestone screen- ings, dust to } inch 26.0 122.2 pounds It will be noted that screenins the sand through a 20-mesh sieve, and thus takinj^ out the coarse grains, consider- ably increased the voids and reduced the weight: thus deddedly injuring the sand for making concrete. The following figures show bow weight can be increased and voids reduced by mixing fine and coarse material: Per Cent Wt. per Voids Cu. Ft. Pebbles, about 1 inch 38.7 101.2 pounds Sand, 30 to 40 mesh. 35.9 105.8 pounds Pebbles plus 38.7 per cent sand, by vol. . 10.2 133.5 pounds Experiments have shown that the stren^b of concrete increases greatly with its density; in fact, a slight increase in weight per cubic foot adds very de- cidedly to the strength. The gain in strength obtained by adding coarse material to inixtures of cement and sand is shown in the fol- low in|^ table of results of experiments made m Germany by R. Dykerhoff. The blocks tested were 2i-inch cubes, 1 day in air and 27 days in water. Proportaons by MMumre. Per Cent. Cement. Com- preesion Strength. Cement. Send. QraveL Vc^me. Lbe.per Sq.In. 2 2 3 3 4 4 6* si 33 0 12.5 25.0 9.5 20.0 7.4 2.125 2.387 1.383 1.515 1.0S3 1.204 These figures show how greatly the strength is improved bv adding coarse material, even though the proportion of cement is thereby reduced. A mixture of 1 to 12 1 of properly proportioned sand and gravel is, in fact, stronger than 1 to 4, and nearly as strong as 1 to 3, of cement and^ sand only. In selecting materials for concrete, those should De chosen^ which give the greatest density. If it is practicable to mix two materials, as sand and gravel, the proportion which gives the greatest density should be determined by ex- periment, and rigidly adhered to in making concrete, whatever proportion of cement it is decided to use. Well-pro- portioned dry sand and gravel or sand and broken stone, well shaken down, should weigh at least 125 |>ounds per cubic foot. Limestone screenings, owing to minute pores in the stone itself, are somewhat lighter, though giving eijually strong concrete. They should weigh at least 120 pounds per cubic foot. If the weight is less, there is probably too much fine dust in the mixture. The density and strength of concrete are also greatly improved by use of a liberal amount of water. Enough water must be used to make the concrete thoroughly soft and plastic, so as to quake strongly when rammed. If mixed too dry it will never harden properly, and will be light, porous, and crum- bling. Tnorough mixing of concrete materials is essential, to increase the density and give the cement used a chance to produce its full strength. The cement, sand, and gravel should be intimately mixed dry, then the water added and the mixing continued. If stone or coarse gravel is added, this should be well wetted and thoroughly mixed with the mortar. Materials for Concrete Building Blocks. — In the making of building blocks the spaces to be filled with concrete are gen- erally too narrow to permit the use of very coarse material, and the block- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 692 STONE maker is limited to mvel or stone not exceeding ) or ^ incn in size. A con- siderable proportion of coarse material is, however, just as necessary as in other kinds of concrete work, and gravel or screenings should be chosen wnich will give the greatest possible densitv. For good results, at least one-thirci of the material, bv weight, should be coarser than ) inch. Blocks made from such gravel or screenings, 1 to 5, will be found as good as 1 to 3 with sand only. It is a mistake to suppose that the coarse fragments wiU show on the surface; if the mixing Lb thorough this will not be the case. A moderate degree of rough- ness or variety in the surface of blocks is, in fact, desirable, and would go far to overcome the prejudice whicn many architects hold against the smooth, life- less surface of cement work. Sand and gravel are, in most cases, the cheapest material to use for block work. The {>resence of a few per cent of day or oam Lb not harmful provided^ the mixing is thorough. Stone screenings, if of good quality, give fully as strong concrete as sand and gravel, and usually yield blocks of some what lighter color. Screen- ings from soft stone should be avoided, also such as contain too much dust. This can be determined from the weight per cubic foot, and by a sifting test. If more than two-thirds pass | inch, and the weight (well jarred down) is less than 120 pounds, the material is not the best. Cinders are sometimes used for block work; they vary greatly in quality, but if clean and of medium coarseness will give fair results. Cinder concrete never de- velops great strength, owing to the por* ous character and crushability of the cinders themselves. Cinder blocks may, however, be strong enough for manv purposes, and suitable for work in whicn great strength is not required. lime. — It is well known that slaked lime is a valuable addition to cement mortar, especially for use in air. In sand mixtures, 1 to 4 or 1 to 5, at least one-third of the cement may be replaced bv slaked lime without loss of strength. The most convenient form of lime for use in block- making is the dry-slaked or hydrate lime, now a common article of commerce. This is, however, about as expensive as Portland cement, and there is no great saving in its use. Added to block concrete, in the proportion of } to i the cement used, it wiU be founa to make the blocks lighter in color, denser, and decidedly less permeable by water. Cement. — Portland cement is the only hydraulic material to be senoa«ly fim sidered by the block maker. NatuAi and slag cements and hydraulic lime are useful for work which remains coastAAtlj wet, but greatly inferior in strength anU durability when exposed to dry air. A further advantage of Portland cement » the promptness with which it hArdre* and develops its full strength; tlu« quality alone is suflScient to put all oth«T cements out of consideration for blori work. Proportioiit. — There are three im- portant considerations to be kept in virv in adjusting the proportions of matenal« for block concrete — ^strength* pcrmr» bility, and cost. So far as strength gur^. it may easily be shown thai ooacTrtr« verv poor in cement, as 1 to 8 or I to U\ will nave a crushing resistance far Iv^ yond any load that they may be callf^i upon to sustain. Such concrrir* an. however, extremely porous, and abMir^* water like a sponge. The blocks mit4 bear a certain amount of rough bao«l ling at the factory and while bring rmxir^l to work and set up in the wall. Safrt> in this respect calls for a much grvmttr degree of hardness than would Iw nm'^ti to bear the weight of the buildiiig. Ajr^iu strength and hardness, with a fnvrn im*- portion of cement, depend grraUv on tb- character of the other materials um-^1: blocks made of cement and sand, 1 to .1. will not be so strong or so impeniirat*;< to water as those nuue from a good imin! sand and gravel, 1 to 5. On the wbolr. n is doubtful whether blocks of satisCarion quality can be made, by band mitiw and tamping, under ordinary fart«>ri conditions, from a poorer mivturr tlua 1 to 5. Even this proportion rrqmrr* U*t good results the use of properly cTad«>i sand and gravel or screenings, a lilw-rsJ amount of water, and thorough ni&iia< and tampinff. When suitable gravrl i* not obtainable, and coarse mixed «ard only is used, the proportion should not ^ less than 1 to 4. Pine sand aloae u a very bad material, and good blocks r»-i- not be made from it except by the n^r .< an amount of cement which would mai* the cost very high. The mixtures above recommeailrd« I to 4 and 1 to 5, will necessarily be aootf^ what porous, and may be decidedly so if »s gravel or screenings used is not prvp*-**) graded. The water- resisting qaa!itir« may be greatly improved, without Iom «^ strength, by replacing a part of tht cement by Inrdrate lime. Tais is a hgl't extreroelv nne material, and a givr« weight of it goes much foxllwr tluA thr Digitized by VjOOQ IC STONE 693 same amount of cement in filling the pores of the concrete. It has also the effect of making the wet mixture more plastic and more easily compacted by ramming, and gives the finished blocks a lighter color. The following mixtures, then, are to be recommended for concrete blocks. By "graver* is meant a suitable mix- ture of sand and gravel, or stone screen- ings, containing grains of all sizes, from fine to i inch. 1 to 4 Mixtures, by Weight Cement, 150 parts; gravel, 600 parts. Cement, 125 parts; hydrated lime, 25 puts; gravel, 600 parts. Cement, 100 parts; hydrated lime, 50 parts; gravel, 600 parts. 1 to 5 Mixtures, by Weight. Cement, 120 parts; gravel, 600 parts. Cement, 100 parts; hydrated kme, 20 parts; gravel, 600 parts. Proportioii of Water. — This is a matter of the utmost consequence, and has more effect on the quality of the work than is generally supposed. Blocks made from too dry concrete will always remain soft and weak, no matter how thoroughly sprinkled afterwards. On the other hand, if blocks are to be re- moved from the machine as soon as made, too much water will cause them to stick to the plates and saff out of shape. It Is perfectly possible, how- ever, to give the concrete enoujzh water for maximum density and nrst-class hardening properties, and still to remove the blocks at once from the mold. A good proportion of coarse material allows the ^ mixture to be made wetter without sticking or sagg^ing. Use of plenty of water vastly improves the strength, hardness, and waterproof qual- ities of blocks, and makes them decid- edly lighter in color. The rule should be: Use as much water as possible with- out causing the blocks to stick to the plates or to sag out of shape on removing from the machine. The amount of water required to pro- duce this result varies with the materials used, but is generally from 8 to 9 per cent of the weight of the diy mixture. A prac- ticed blockmaker can judge closely when the right amount of water has been added, by soueezing some of the mixture in the hana. Very slight variations in propor- tion of water make such a marked differ- ence in the qualitv and color of the blocks that the water, when the proper quantity for the materials used nas been deter- mined, should always be accuratelj^ meas- ured out for each batch. In this way much time is saved and uncertainty avoifled. Fadng. — Some blockmakers put on a facing of richer and finer mixture, making the body of the block of poorer and coarser material. As will De ex- plained later, the advantage of the prac- tice is, in most cases, questionable, but facings may serve a good purpose in case a colored or specially waterproof surface is required. Facinss are senerally made of cement and sand, or nne screenings, passing a |-inch sieve. To get the same nardness and strength as a 1 to 5 gravel mixture, at least as rich a facing as 1 to S will be found necessary. Probably 1 to 2 will be found better, and if one- third the cement be replaced by hydrate lime the waterproof qualities and ap- pearance of the blocks will be improved. A richer facing than 1 to 2 is liable to show greater shrinkase than the body of the block, and to adnere imperfectly or develop hair-cracks in consequence. Poured Work. — The above sugges- tions on the question of proportions of cement, sand, and gravel for tamped blocks apply equally to concrete made very wet, poured into the n^old, and allowed to harden a day or longer before removing. Castings in a sand mold are made by the use of very liquid concrete; sand and gravel settle out too rapidly from such thin mixtures, and rather fine limestone screenings are generally used. Uzing.— To get the full benefit of the cement used it is necessary that all the materials shall be very thoroughly mixed together. The strength of the block as a whole will be only as great as that of its weakest part, and it is the height of folly, after putting a liberal measure of cement, to so slight the mixing as to get no better result than half as much ce- ment, properly mixed, would have given. The poor, shoddy, and crumbly blocks turned out bv many small-scale makers owe their faults chiefly to careless mixing and use of too little water, rather than to too small proportion of cement.^ The materials should be mixed dry, until the cement is uniformly distributed and perfectly mingled with the sand and gravel or screenings; then the water is to be added and the mixing continued until all parts of the mass are equallv moist ana every particle is coated with the cement paste. Concrete Mixers. — Hand mixing is always imperfect, laborious, and slow. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 694 STONE and it is impossible b^ this method to secure the thorough stirring and knead- ing action which a ^ood mixing machine fives. If a machme taking 5 or 10 orse-power requires 5 minutes to mix one-third of a yard of concrete, it is of course absurd to expect that two men will do the same work dv hand in the same time. And the machine never gets tired or shirks if not constantly urged, as it is the nature of men to do. It is hard to see how the manufacture of concrete blocks can be successfully carried on without a concrete mixer. Even for a small business it will pay well in economv of labor and excellence of work to install such a machine, which may be driven by a small electric motor or gasoline engine. In work necessarily so exact as this, requiring perfectly uniform mixtures and use oi a constant percentage of water, batch mixers, which take a^ meas- ured quantity of material, mix it, and discharge it, at each operation, are the only satisfactory type, and continuous mixers are unsuitaole. Those of the pug-mill tvpe, consisting of an open trough witn revolving paddles and bot- tom discharge, are positive and thorough in their action, and permit the whole operation to be watched and controlled. They should be provided with exten- sible arms of chilled iron, which can be lengthened as the ends become worn. Concrete Block Systems. — For smaller and less costly buildings, gevarate bloekt, made at the factory and built up into the walls in the same manner as brick or blocks* of stone, are simpler, less ex- pensive, and much more rapid in con- struction than monolithic work. Thev also avoid some of the faults to which solid concrete work, unless skillfully done, is subject, such as the formation of shrinkage cracks. There are two svstems of block mak- ing, differing in tne consistency of the concrete used: 1. Blocks tamped or pressed from semi- wet concrete, and removed at once from the mold. S. Blocks poured or tamped from wet concrete, and allowed to remain in the mold until hardened. Tamped Blocki from Semi-Wet Mix- ture.— These are practically always made on a block machine, so arranged that as soon as a block is formed the cores and side plates are removed and the block lifted from the machine. By far the larger part of the blocks on the market are made in this way. Usually these are of the onc-iiicoe type, in which a sinffle block, provided with hollow €N>m, makes the whole thickness of the wall. Another plan is the two-piece syntem* io which the face and back of the wall art made up of different blocks, so lappinc over each other as to give a bona ami hold the wall together. Blocks ot the two-piece type are generally formed in a hand or hydraulic press. Various shapes and sises of blocks arr commonly made; the builders of the most popular machines have, howrvrr. adopted the standard length of 9t inrbrt and height of 9 inches for the full-^ixrd block, with thickness of 8, 10, and \i inches. Len^hs of 24, 16, and 8 inrh#-« are also obtained on the same machinr^ by the use of parting plates and suilablv divided face plates; anv intermcvlute lengths and any desired heigh t« nisr be produced by simple adjustments mV blocking off. Blocks are commonly made plain« rock-faced, tool-faced, panelrtl. and ^ witn vertical and those with horisontal face. In the former the fsr« plate stands vertically, and the block is «implf lifted from the machine on its Imsr pUtr as soon as tamped. In the otKer type the face plate forms the bottom of the mold; the cores are withdrawn horizon- tally, and by the motion of a levrr thr block with its face plate is tipped up inia a vertical position lor removal. In caar it is desired to put a facing on the blocks machines of the horisontal-faor tynr arr considered the more convenient* laongh a facing may easily be put on with tbr verticaUface machine by the use ol a parting plate. Blocks Poured from Wet Coe — As already stated, concrete made t««» dry is practically worthless, and an ex- cess of water is better than a drfirieac? The above-described machine prurrMw in which blocks are tamped from damp concrete and^ at once removed* gitrs blocks of admirable hardness and quality if the maximum of water b uaed. A method of making blocks from rrry wet concrete, by the use of a large nninbrr of separable molds of sheet st«cl, rnio which the wet concrete is ponrrd and m which the blocks are left to harden t%wtk Digitized by VjOOQ IC STO>4E 695 hours or longer, has come into consider- able use. ay this method blo<^8 of excellent hardening and resistance to water are certainly obtained. Whether the process is the equal of the ordinary machine method in respect of economy and beauty of product must be left to the decision of those who have had actual experience with it. The well-known cast-stone process consists in pouring liquid concrete mix- ture into a sand mold made from a pattern in a manner similar to that in which molds for iron castings are pro- duced. The sand absorbs tne surplus water from the liouid mixture, and the casting is left in the mold for 24 hours or longer until thoroughly set. This process necessitates the making of a new sand mold for every casting, and is neces- sarily much less rapid than the machine method. It is less extensively used for building blocks than for special orna- mental architectural work, sills, lintels, columns, ca|>itals, etc., and for purposes of this kind it turns out products of the highest quality and beauty. Tampinf of Concrete Blocks. — This b generally done by means of hand rammers. Pneumatic tampers, operat- ed by an air compressor, are in use at a few plants, apparently with considerable saving in time and labor and improve- ments in quality of work. Hand tamping must be conscientious and thorough, or poor work will result. It is important that the mold should be filled a little at a time, tamping after each addition; at least four fillinffs and tampings should be given to each block. If the mixture is wet enough no noticeable layers will be formed by thb process. Hardening and Storage. — Triple- decked cars to receive the blocks from the machines will be found a great sav- ing of labor, and are essential in factories of considerable size. Blocks will gener- ally require to be left on the plates for at least 24 hours, and must then be kept under roof, in a well-warmed room, with frequent sprinkling, for not less than 5 days more. They may then be piled up out of doors, and in dry weather should be wetted dailv with a hose. ^ Alternate wetting and drying is especially favor- able for the hardening oi cement, and concrete so treated gains much greater strength than ^ if kept continuously in water or dry air. Blocks should not be used in building until at least 4 weeks from the time they are made. During this period of sea- soning, blocks will DC found to shrink at least i'^ inch in length, and if built up in a wall ^ when ^ freshly made, shrinkage cracks in the joints or across the blocks will surely appear. Efflorescence, or the appearance of a white coating on the surfaces, sometimes takes place when blocks are repeatedly saturated with water and then dried out; blocks laid on the ground are more liable to show this de^ct. It results from diffusion of soluble sulphates of lime and alkalies to the surface. It tends to dis- appear in time, and rarely is sufficient in amount to cause any complaint. Properties of Concrete Blocks — Strength. — In the use of concrete blocks for the walls of buildings, the stress to which they are subjected is almost en- tirely one of compression. In compres- sive strength weil-made concrete does not differ greatly from ordinary building stone. It is difficult to find reliable records of tests of sand and gravel con- crete, 1 to 4 and 1 to 5, such as is used in making blocks; the following figures show strength of concrete of approxi- mately this richness, also the average of several samples each of well-known building stones, as stated by the author- ities named: Limestone, Bedford, Ind. (Indiana Geographical Survey) 7,792 pounds Limestone, Marblehead, Ohio (Q. A. Gillmore) 7,393 pounds Sandstone, N. Amherst, Ohio (Q. A. GUI- more) 5,831 pounds Gravel concrete, 1:1.6- :«.8, at 1 year (Cand- lot) 5,500 pounds Gravel concrete, 1:1.6- :3.7, at 1 year (Cand- lot) 5,050 pounds Stone concrete, 1:2:4 at 1 year (Boston El. R. R.) 8,004 pounds Actual tests of compression strength of hollow concrete blocks are difficult to make, because it is almost impossible to apply the load uniformly over the whole surface, and also because a block 10 inches long and 8 inches wide will bear a load of 150,000 to 200,000 pounds, or more than the capacity of anv but the largest testing machines. Tnree one- quarter blocks, 8 inches lon(^, 8 inches wide, and 9 inches high, with hollow space equal to one-third of the surface, tested at the Case School of Science, showed strengths of 1,805, 2,000, and Digitized by VjOOQ IC STONE 1,530 pounds per square inch, respec- tively, when 10 weeks old. Two blocks 6 X 8 X 9 indies, 2:2 Bontks old, showed crushing stresittli of t^539 and 2.610 dovmIs per tc^iaxv isck. Tkese biorks wm ma^ oi »mfmt U pMtss. filar « parL flHi«t Maui zraTi-i 4 saetiL ax»d w«pr tunpct ^^m tmoio Tii-irng^e- luitrssk. ~ Ti i. » _ a ohk iiift 1. T'a*. -«r""a».'- « c>*» Titian? ntae*^ ^r. .r«tir-»rrr: r •tw*fnni»«w a -unuiue. - *r^ :^"* ••h ■•»*r'.A* uttt & ^ •••§ >,. - .^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^, f^^ ^ ^jtm -. '*< > - • " . -^ »r i« -vfniie » ^i ' ^ • «*> • ••tu'i 'M nacTf^i •«»% i;i . VIAA Ifllttlt • • -^^Ni^ • « •* %«.•»*;♦! ^ tf-^i^ "han - - •^ % ^•*^.* 3r -trxHiacTh 'it ». «. t. , •ot .^ .^*« ^ - . . -s^ --^« . »«. •• •!% '.^'i 'o ^tittrxx x^ .-^ III r^/ior *K- 'v u >»i»\'«^ftr. a .,.^ . r ^»ii\'**^tf I to 'is •!)«• ^ti..iv«^«r *v Hr «>a0^rd * *^ »\>"»*>ar>f H >n. «U jviiilO^ ptfT ^ :•>• %--»i:'K ^' two '^•^ >*4 lA.'*? «^oC «ach« *.«x. %-avi wsc^are, tx>* *iv i»t:»* w^Mictxt *,-• •.•v'U >c A)oat o«e- K^ *^.s :< woit*s ^.x*^ %>t>u fc* :»*? ab«oTe ,^-^>. X Jiv.'*.'^^*^ with «^» ^"t. *•'.'* W ntr vjv* >»^'s'v: and if used in walls not over 44 feet hi^^h, with 0oors and roof calculated as abovf for 25 feet span, would be loaded only to 56 pounds per square inch of actual surface. This would give a factor of aafetjT of 18, assuming a minimum oom- pression ^rength of 1,000 pounds. There is no doubt that blocks with oDe third opening are inconvenientlj aad unnecessarily heavy. Such a block. 92 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 9 caches high, mis walls about 3} inchf^ tfuck, and weighs 180 pounds. A biock with 50 per cent open space would kare walls and partitions 2 inches io thickness, and would weigh about ISO powids. With proper care in manu- Bctare, especiallv by using as much watrr able, blocks with this thicknr»^ (4 may be made thoroughly stroiic. sd, and durable. It is certainU better for strength and watcr-resistiu? tonalities to make thin-walled blocks of nch ouxture, rather than heavy blocks ul poor and porous material. Filling the voids with cement is ■ rather expensive method of secunnc waterproof qualities, and gives stroni^rr eoQcretes than are needed. The samr mav be accomplished more cheaply hj rep«acin([ part of the cement by slakrti lime, whicn is an extremely fine-grained material, and therefore very efTectivr in closing pores. Hydrate kme b tbf most convenient material to use, but nearly as costly as Portland cement it present prices. A 1 to 4 mixturr in which one-third the cement is repUtrd by hydrate lime will be found equal tu s I to S mixture without the lime. A 1 to 4 concrete made from cement. I. hydrate lime, ); sand and gravel. 6 i^v weight), will be found fairiy water-tii^ht. and much superior in this respect to oor of the same richness consisting of cemrnt 1); sand and ffravel, 6. The cost of lime may be greatly r>^ duced by using ordinary* lump Ihim* slaked to a paste. The lime muii, bt>«- ever, be very thoroughly hydrated, ^> that no unslaked fragments may rrmAjn to make trouble by subsequent exnaa- sion. Lime paste is also very difficult io mix, and can pe used successfully odr u a concrete mixer of the pug-mill tj'p' Ordinary stiff lime paste contains aUiu* 50 per cent water; twice as much of it Sf weight, should therefore be used as u! drjr hydrate lime. Waterproof Oualitiet. — The chief f salt of concrete building blocks, as ordinani.^ made, is their tendency to absorb vitrr In this respect they are ganeraAjr no Digitized by VjOOQ IC STONE 697 worse than sandstone or common brick; it b well known that stone or brick walls are too permeable to allow plastering di- rectly on the inside surface, and must be furred and lathed before plastering, to avoid dampness. This practice is gen- erally followed with concrete blocks, but their use and popularity would be greatly increased if tney were made sufficiently waterproof to allow plastering directly on the inside surface. For this purpose it is not necessary that blocks should be perfectly water- proof, but only that the absorption of water shall be slow, so that it may pene- trate only part wajr through the wall during a ^ long-continued rain. ^ Walls made entirely water-tight are, in fact, objectionable, owing to their tendency to **sweat'* from condensation of moisture on the inside surface. For health and comfort, walls must be slightly porous, so that any moisture formed on the in- side may be gradually absorbed and carried away. Excessive water absorption may be avoided in the following ways: 1. Use of Properly Graded Materials. — It has been shown by Feret and others that porosity and permeability are two different thmgs; porosity is the total proportion of voids or open spaces in the mass, while permeability is the rate at which water, under a given pressure, will pass through it. Permeability depends on the size of the openings as well as on their total amount. In two masses of the same porosity or percentage of voids, one consisting of coarse anathe other of fine particles, the permeability will be ereater in the case of the coarse material. The least permeability, and also the least porosity, are, however, obtained by use of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine particles. Pro]>erly graded gravel or screenings, containing plenty of coarse fragments and also enough fine material to nU up the pores, will be found to give a much less permeable concrete than fine or coarse sand used alone. £. Use of Rich Mixtures. — All con- cretes are somewhat permeable by water under sufficient pressure. Mixtures rich in cement are of course much less permeable than poorer mixtures. If the amount of cement used is more than sufficient to fill the voids in the sand and gravel, a very dense concrete is obtained, into which the penetration of water is extremely slow. The permeability also decreases considerably with age, owing to the gradual crystallization of the cement in the pores, so that concrete which is at first quite absorbent may be- come practicallv impermeable after ex- posure to weatner tor a few weeks or months. There appears to be a very decided increase in permeability when the cement is reduced below the amount necessary to fill the voids. For example, a well-mixed sand and gravel weighing 123 pounds per cubic foot, and therefore containing 25 per cent voids, will give a fairly impermeable concrete in mixtures up to 1 to 4, but with less cement will be found quite absorbent. A q;ravel with only 20 per cent voids would give about equally good results with a 1 to 5 mix- ture; such gravel is, however, rarelv met with in practice. On the other hand, the best sand, mixed fine and coarse, seldom contains less than 33 per cent voids, and concrete made from such material will prove permeable if poorer than 1 to 3. 3. Use of a Facing. — Penetration of water may be effectively prevented by giving the blocks a facing of richer mixture than the body. For the sake of smooth appearance, facings are generally made of cement and fine sand, and it is often noticed that these do not harden well. It should be remembered that a 1 to 3 sand mixture is no stronger and little if any better in water absorption than a 1 to 5 mixture of well -graded sand and gravel. To secure good hardness and resistance to moisture a facing as rich as 1 to 2 should be used. 4. Use of an Impervious Partition. — When blocks are made on a horizontal- face machine, it is a simple matter, after the face is tamped and cores pushed into place, to throw into each opening a small amount of rich and rather wet mortar, spread this fairly evenly, and then go on tamping in the ordinary mixture until the mold is filled. A dense layer across each of the cross walls is thus obtained, which effectuallv prevents moisture from passing beyond it. A method of ac- complishing[ the same result with vertical- face machines, by inserting tapered wooden blocks in the middle of the cross walls, withdrawing these blocks after tamping, and filling the spaces with rich mortar, has been pa ten tea. In the two- piece svstem the penetration of moisture through the wall is prevented by leaving an empty space between the web of the block and the inside face, or by filling this space with rich mortar. 5. Use of Waterproof Compounds. — There are compounds on the market, of a fatty or waxy nature, which, when mixed with cement to the amount of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 698 STONE only 1 or 2 per cent of iU weight, in- crease its water-resisting qualities in a remarkable degree. By thoroughly mix- ing 1 to 2 pounds of suitable compound with each sack of cement used, blocks which are practically waterproof may be made, at very small additional cost, from 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 mixtures. In purchasing waterproof compound, how- ever, care should oe taken to select such as has been proved to be permanent in its effect, and some of the materials used for this purpose lose their effect after a few days' exposure to weather, and are entirely wortnless. 6. Application to Surface after Erect- ing.— Various washes, to make concrete and stone impervious to water, have been used witn some success. Among these the best known is the Sylvester wash of alum and soap solution. It is stated that this reauires frequent re- newal, and it is hardly likelv to prove of any value in the concrete industry. The writer's experience has been that the most effective remedy, in case a concrete building proves damp, is to give the out- side wails a very thin wash of cement suspended in water. ^ One or two coats will be found sufficient. If too thick a coating is formed it will show hair cracks. The effect of the cement wash is to make the walls appear lighter in color, and if the coating is thin the ap- pearance is in no way injured. General Hints on Waterproof Quali- ties.— To obtain good water-resisting properties the first precaution is to make the concrete suffidentljr wet. Dry- tamped backs, even from rich mixture, will always be porous and absorbent, while the same mixture in plastic con- dition will give blocks which are dense, strong, and water-tight. The difference in this respect is shown by the following tests of small concrete blocks, made by the writer. The concrete used was made of 1 part cement and 5 parts mixed fine and coarse sand, by weight. No. 1. With 8 per cent water, rather dryer than ordinary block concrete, tamped in mold. No. 2. With 10 per cent water, tamped in the moid, and the moid removed at once. No. 8. With «5 per cent water, poured into a mold resting on a flat surface of dry sand ; after 1 hour the sur- face was troweled smooth; mold not removed until set. These blocks were allowed to harden a week in moist air, then dried. The weights, Yoi<^> <^ned, af- ter 2 hours, per cent of weight ... 8.8 6.4 10 3 The rate at which these blocks aK- sorbed water was then determined hj drying them thorou^bjy, then placiui; them in a tray containing water \ inrh in depth, and weighing them at interral*. 1 2 S Dimp- Wet- bl^.-^* Umped Umpail »^»«»^ } hour 2.0 0.9 1 h 1 hour 3-2 1.1 2.3 2 hours 4.1 1.6 S.< 4 hours 5.2 2.0 S.s 24 hours 6.1 3.4 7.0 48 hours 6.4 4J 7.5 These figures show that coacrrie which is sumciently wet to be tborouffalT plastic absorbs water much more Juv- ly than dryer concrete, and prove the importance of using as much water as possible in the damp-tampin^ procesa. Cost. — Concrete blocks can be uAd and laid up at a good profit at 25 rrnt< per cubic foot of wall. Common rrd brick costs (at this writing) geacrallv about $12 per thousand, laid. At 24 tu the cubic foot, a thousand brick arr equal to 41.7 cubic foot of wmB: ur. $12, 29 cents per cubic foot. Brick wall* with pressed brick facing coat from U> cents to 50 cents oer cubic fooi, and dressed stone from $1 to $1.50 per foo4. The factory cost of concrete blorl* varies according to the cost of material Let us assume cement to be $1.50 prr l>arrel of 380 pounds, and sand and g***^ 25 cents per ton. With a 1 to 4 mivturr, 1 l>arrel cement will make 1,900 poiuid<» of solid concrete, or at ISO pounds per cubic foot, 14.6 cubic feet. The coat vi materials will then be: Cement, 380 pounds $1.56 Sand and gravel, 1,500 pounds ... 0. 19 Total $1-69 or 11.5 cents per cubic foot solid c««b- Crete. Now, blocks 9 inchea high aD«l 32 inches long make 2 sqoarr feet ««f face of wall, each. Blocks of Ibis brigbl Digitized by VjOOQ IC STONE 699 and length, 8 inches thick, make 1) cubic feet of wall; and blocks 12 inches thick make 2 cubic feet of wall. From these figures we may calculate the cost of material for these blocks, with cores or openings equal to i or ^ the total volume, as follows: Per cubic foot of block, i open- ing 7.7 cts. Per cubic foot of block, i open- ing 5.8 cts. Block 8 X 9 X 32 inches, } open- ing 10.3 cts. Block 8 X 9 X 32 inches, | open- ing 7.7 cts. Block 12x9x32 inches, i opening 15.4 cts. Block 12x9x32 inches, i opening 11.6 cts. If one-third of the cement is replaced by hydrate lime the quality of the blocks will be improved, and the cost of material reduced about 10 per cent. The cost of labor reauired in manufac- turing, handling, and delivering blocks will vary with the locality and the size and equipment of factory. With hand mixing, 3 men at an average of $1.75 each will easily make 75 8-incn or 50 12-inch blocks, with } opening, per day. The labor cost for these sizes of blocks will therefore be 7 cents and 10) cents respectively. At a factory equipped with power concrete mixer and cars for trans- porting blocks, in which a number of machines are kept busy, the labor cost will be consideraply less. An extensive industry located in a large city is, how- ever, subiect to many expenses which are avoided in a small country plant, such as high wages, management, office rent, advertising^, etc., so that the total cost of production is likely to be about the same in both cases. A fair estimate of total factory cost is as follows: Material Labor ToUl 8 X 32 inch, i space 10.3 7 17.3 cts. 8 X 32 inch, i space 7.7 6 13.7 cts. 12 X 32 inch, i space 15.4 10.5 25.9 cts. 12 X 32 inch, | space 11.6 9 20.6 cts. With fair allowance for outside ex- penses and profit, 8-inch blocks may be sold at 30 cents and 12-inch at 40 cents each. For laying 12-inch blocks in the wall, contractors generally figure about 10 cents each. Adding 5 cents for teamtog. the blocks will cost 55 cents each, erected, or 27J cents per cubic foot of wall. This is less than the cost of common brick, and the above figures show that this price could be shaded somewhat, if necessary, to meet com- petition.— S. B. Neioberry in a monograph uaued by the American Association of Port- land Cement Manufacturers. Artificial Marbles. — I. — The mass used by Beaumel consists of alum and heavy spar (barium sulphate) with' addition of water and the requisite pigments. The following proportions have been found to be serviceable: Alum, 1,000 parts; heavy spar, 10 to 100 parts; water, 100 parts; the amount of heavy spar being Soverned bv the de^p^e of translucence esired. The alum is dissolved in water with the use of heat. As soon as the solution boils the heavy spar is mixed in, stirred with water and the pigment; this is then boiled down until the mixture has lost about 3 per cent of its weight, at which moment the mass exhibits a density of 34'' Be. at a temperature of 212*' F. The mixture is allowed to cool with constant stirring untO the substance is semi-liquid. The resultant mass is poured into a mold covered on the inside with several layers of collodion and the cast permitted to cool completely in the mold, whereupon it is taken out and dried entirely in an airy room. Subsequently the object may be polished, patinized, or finished in some other way. II. — Imitation BUck Marble. — A black marble of similar character to that exported from Belgium — the lat- ter product being simply prepared slate — may be produced in the following manner: The slate suitable for the pur- pose is first smoothly polished with a sandstone, so that no visible impression is made on it with a chisel — this being rough — after which it is polished finely with artificial pumice stone, and lastly finished with extremely light natural pumice stone, the surface then present- ing a soft, velvet-like appearance. After drying and thorou^ly neating the finely polbhed surface is impregnated with a heated mixture of oil and nne lampblack. This is allowed to remain 12 hours; and, according to whether the slate used is more or less gray, the process is repeated until the gray appearance is lost. Pol- ishing thoroughly with emery on a linen rajg follows, and the finishing poh'sh is done with tin ashes, to which is added some lampblack. A finish being made thus, wax dissolved in turpentine, with some lampblack, is spread on the polished plate and warmed again, which after a while is rubbed off vigorously with a Digitized by VjOOQ IC 700 STOPPERS— STOVE POLISH dean linen rag. Treated thus, the slate has the appearance of black marble. STONE CElfElVTS: V See Adhesives. STONE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. STONES FOR SHARPENING: See Tool Setting and Whetstones. STONES (PRECIOUS), IMITATION OF: See Gems, Artificial. STONEWARE: See Ceramics. STONEWARE CElfENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes. STOPPERS. I. — To make an anti-leak and lubri- cating mixture for plug-cocks use 2 parts of tried suet and 1 part of beeswax melted together; stir thoroughljr, straiif, and cool. II. — A mixture for making glass stop- pers tight is made by melting together equal parts of glycerine and paraffine. To Loosen a GUm Stopper. — I. — Make a mixture of Alcohol 2 drachms Glycerine 1 drachm Sodium chloride 1 drachm Let a portion of this stand in the space above the stopper for a few hours, wnen a slight tap will loosen the stopper. n. — A circular adjustable damp, to which is attached a strip of asbestos in which coils of platinum wire are im- bedded, is obtained. By placing this on the neck of the bottle, and passing a cur- rent of electricity through the coils of wire, sufficient heat will be generated to expand the neck and liberate the stopper. Heat may also be generated by passing a yard of cord once around the bottle neck and, by taking one end of the cord in each hand, drawing it rapidly back and forth. Care should be taken that the contents of the bottle are not spilled on the hand or thrown into the face when the stopper does come out — or when the bottle breaks. STOPPER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. STOVE POLISH: See also Polishes. The following formula gives a liquid stove blacking: Graphite, in fine pow- der 1 pound Lampblack I ounce Rosin 4 ounce* Turpentine I gallon The mixture must be well shaken wfan used, and must not be applied wbrD there is a fire or light near on account of the inflammability of the vapor. This form may be esteemed a mn- venience bv some, but the rosin and tur- pentine will, of course, ffive rise to *omr disagreeable odor on nrst heating ihr stove, after the liquid is applied. Graphite is the foundation ingredirot in many stove polishes; Lampblark. which is sometimes added, as in tnc furv^ Soinff formula, deepens the color, but lie Fatter form of carbon is of courw> much more readily burned off than th*- former. Graphite may be applied t» merely mixing with water, and then de« a-> i cool. Add simple syrup to produce an t required consistency. Blue.— I. — Indigo carmine 1 put Water 40 parU Indigo carmine may usually be ^^t- tained commercially; n. — Tincture of indigo also make* a harmless blue. Digitized by VjOOQ IC SYRUPS— TABLES 708 Sap Blue. — Dark blue S parts Grape sugar 1 part Water 6 parts Green. — The addition of indigo-car- mine solution to any yellow solution will give various shades of green. Indigo carmine added to a mixture of tincture of crocus and glycerine will give a fine green color. A solution of commercial chlorophyll yields grass-green shades. Pink.— I. — Carmine 1 part Liquor potasse 6 parts Rose water to make. . 48 parts Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the required tint is obtained. II. — Soak red-apple parings in Cali- fornia brandy. The addition of rose leaves makes a fine flavoring as well as cx>loring agent. KCO. — Carmine, No. 40 ... . 1 part Strong ammonia water 4 parts Distilled water to make 24 parts Rub up the carmine and ammonia water and to the solution add the water under trituration. If, in standing, this shows a tendency to separate, a drop or two of water of ammonia will correct the trouble. This statement should be put on the label of the bottle as the volatile ammonia soon escapes even in glass-stoppered vials. Various shades of red mav be obtained by using fruit juices, sucn as black cherry, raspberry, etc., and also the tinctures of sudbear, alkanet, red saunders, erythroxylon, etc. Change. — Tincture of red sandal- wood 1 part Ethereal tincture of Orlean, q. s. Add the orlean tincture to the sandal- wood gradually until the desired tint is obtained. A red color added to a yellow one gives an orange color. Pnrple. — A mixture of tincture of indigo, or a solution of indigo carmine, added to cochineal red gives a fine purple. Yellow. — Various shades of yellow mav be obtained by the maceration of saffron or turmeric in alcohol until a strong tincture is obtained. Dilute with water until the desired tint is reached. STRUP. TABLE: See Tables. Tables ALCOHOL DILUTION. The following table gives the per- centage, by weight, of alcohol of 95 per cent and of distilled water to make 1 liter (about 1 quart), or 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds), of alcohol of various dilutions. TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF ALCOHOL. 1 Liter >k IKilogimm contains .? s> u E«2 i 1-3 H 1 i 1^ P £S 1 1^- » 1^ £i Cms. Cms. Gms. Cms. 5 42J87 060.13 0.993 43.17 956.83 3.99 10 85.89 900.11 0.986 87.11 912.89 8.06 15 128.87 852.13 0.981 131.37 868.63 12.14 20 171^ 804.17 0.976 176.06 823.94 16.27 25 214.77 766.23 0.971 221.18 778.82 20.44 ao 257.93 707.07 0.965 267.28 732.72 24.70 35 300.74 658.26 0.960 313.60 686.40 28.98 10 343.77 608.23 0.962 361.10 688.90 33.37 45 388.75 557.25 0.044 409.69 590.31 37.86 50 429.65 504.35 0.934 460.01 539.99 42.51 55 472.64 451.36 0.924 511.52 488.48 47.27 eo 515.60 398.40 0.914 564.11 435.89 52.13 65 558.61 343.39 0.902 619.30 380.70 57.23 70 601.55 288.45 0.890 075.90 324.10 62.46 75 644.58 232.42 0.877 734.96 265.02 07.92 80 687.57 176.43 0.864 795 JO 204.20 73.54 85 730.51 119.49 0.850 859.43 140.57 79.42 00 773.53 0.47 0.834 927.49 72J1 85.71 Capacities of Common Utensils. — For ordinary measuring purposes a wine- glass may be said to hold 2 ounces. A tablespoon, } ounce. A dessertspoon, } ounce. A teaspoon, ) ounce, or 1 drachm. A teacupful of sugar weighs, i pound. Three tablespoonnils weigh } pound. Cook's Table. — Two teacupfuls (well heaped) of coffee and of sugar weigh 1 pound. Two teacupfuls (level) of granulated sugar weigh 1 pound. Two teacupfuls soft butter (well packed) weigh 1 pound. One and one-third pints of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound. Two tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar or flour weigh 1 pound. Four teaspoomuls are equal to 1 table- spoon. Two and one-half teacupfuls (level) of the best brown sugar weigh 1 pound. Two and three-fourths teacupfuls (level) of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound. One tablespoonful (well heaped) of granulated or best brown sugar equals 1 ounce. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 704 TABLES One generous pint of liquid, or 1 pint finely chopped meat, packed solidly, weighs 1 pound. Table of Drops. — Used in estimating the amount of a flavoring extract neces- sary to flavor a ^llon of syrup. Based on the assumption of 450 drops being equal to 1 ounce. One drop of extract to an ounce of syrup is equal to 2 drachms to a gallon. Two drops of extract to an ounce of syrupare equal to 4) drachms to a gallon. Three drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 6} drachms to a gallon. Four drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 1 drachm to a gallon. Five drops of extract to an ounce of syrupare equal to 1 ounce and 3| drachms to a gallon. Six drops of extract to an ounce of syrupare equal to 1 ounce and 5) drachms to a gallon. Seven drops of extract to an ounce of syrupare equal to S ounces to the gallon. Eight drops of extract to an ounce of syrupare equal to 2 ounces and 2 1 drachms to a gallon. Nine drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 4} drachms to a gallon. Ten drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 6} drachms to a gallon. Twelve drops of extract to aa ounce of syrup are equal to 8 ounces and 3} drachms to a gallon. Fourteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces to a gallon. Sixteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces and 4| drachms to a gallon. Eighteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 5 ounces and 1 drachm to a gaflon. Note. — The estimate 450 drops to the ounce, while accurate and reliable enough in this particular relation, must not be relied upon for very exact purposes, in which, as has frec|uently been demon- strated, the drop varies within a very wide ran^e. accordinjp; to the nature of the liquid, its consistency, specific gravity, temperature; the size and shape of the aperture from which it is allowed to escape, etc. Fluid Measure. — U. S. Standard, or Wine Meastire. — Sixty minims are equal to 1 fluidrachm. Eight fluidrachms are equal to 1 fluid- ounce. Sixteen fluidouncea are equal to I pint. Two pints are equal to 1 quart. Four quarts are eoual to 1 gallon. One pint of distilled water weighs about 1 pound. Percentage Solutions.— To prrpArr the following approximately correct solu- tions, dissolve the amount of medicamrni indicated in sufficient water to make ooe imperial pint. For ^ per cent, or 1 in 5,000 solutioo. use If ffrains of the medicamenL For A per cent, or 1 in <,000 solution, use 4} grains of the medicament. For ta I>er cent, or 1 in 1.000 solutioo, use 8} grains of the medicamenL For i per cent, or 1 in 400 aolutiun, use dl{ grains of the medicamenL For i per cent, or 1 in SOO solutiitn, use 43} grains of the medicamenL For 1 per cent, or 1 in 100 solution, use 87) grains of the medicament. For S per cent, or 1 in 50 solution. use 175 grains of the medicamenL For 4 per cent, or 1 in 25 solution, use 350 grains of the medicamenL For 5 per cent, or 1 in 20 solution, use 437) grains of the medicamenL For 10 per cent, or 1 in 10 solution, use 875 grains of the medicamenL To make smaller quantities of any solution, use less water and reduce the medicament in proportion to the amount of water employed; thus ) imperial pint of a 1 per cent solution will require 43} grains of the medicamenL Pressure Table.— This UUe shows the amount of commercial sulphuric arid (HsS04) and sodium bicarbonate sary to produce a given pressure: 120 Pounds Pressure. Soda Biear.. Av. ounc 86 123 161 Water, gaUons 10 20 30 40 50 108 118 236 138 135 Pounds PreMuie. Water. Soda Bicar., gaUona Av. oum 10 96 20 134 30 171 40 209 50 246 ir marble dust be used, reckon at the rate of 18 ounces hot water for uve. Syrup Table.— TTie following table shmn the amount of s^rup obtaimd from 1. The addition of pounds of sonar to 1 gallon of water; and the Digitized by VjOOQ IC TABLES— TERRA COITA SUBSTITUTES 705 2. Amount of sugar in each gallon of syrup resulting therefrom: Pounds of sugar Added to Quantity of vynp actually Pounds of sugar one gallon ofoold water. Gallona. Pinta. Fluid- ounoea. gaUonof syrup. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 2 2 2 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 1 10 4 14 3 2 12 6 10 4 14 8 2 12 .93 1.73 2.43 3.05 3.6 4.09 4.52 4.92 5.28 5.62 5.92 6.18 6.38 6.7 6.91 TABLE-TOPS, ACIB-PROOF: See Acid- Proofing. TABLES FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS: See Photography. TAFFY: See Confectionery. TALCUM POWDER: See Cosmetics. TALLOW: See Fats. TALMI GOLD: See Alloys. TAMPRDfG: See Tampring, under Steel. TAN REICEDT: See Cosmetics. TAHK: To Estimate Contents of a Circular Tank. — The capacity of a circular tank may be determined b^ multiplying the diameter in inches by itself and b;^ .7854 and by the length (or depth) in inches, which gives the capacity of the tank in inches, and then dividing by 231, the number of cubic inches in a United States gallon. TANNING: See Leather. TAPS, TO REMOVE BROKEN. Pint dean the hole by means of a ^malJ squirt gun filled with kerosene. All broken pieces of the tap can be re- moved with a pair of tweezers, which should be as large as possible. Then insert the tweezers between the hole and flutes of the tap. By slowlv working back and forth and occasionally blowing out with kerosene, the broken piece is easily released. TAR PAINTS: See Wood. TAR-SPOTS ON WOODWORK: See Paint. TAR-SULPHUR SOAP: See Soap. TAR STRUP: See Essences and Extracts. TATTOO MARKS, REMOVAL OF. Apply a highly concentrated tannin solution on the tattooed places and treat them with the tattooing needle as the tattooer does. Next vigorously rub the places with a lunar caustic stick and allow the silver nitrate to act for some time, until the tattooed portions have turned entirely black. Then take off by dabbing. At first a silver tannate forms on the upper lasers of the skin, which dyes the tattooing black; with slight symptoms of inflammation a scurf ensues which comes off after 14 to 16 days, leaving behind a reddish scar. The latter assumes the natural color of the skin after some time. The process is said to have given good results. TAWING: See Leather. TEA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. TEETH, TO WHITEN DISCOLORED. Moisten the corner of a linen hand- kerchief with hydrogen peroxide, and with it rub the teeth, repeating the rub- bing occasionally. Use some exceed- ingly finely pulverized infusorial earth, or pumice ground to an impalpable powder, in connection with the hydrogen peroxide, and the job will be quicker than with the peroxide alone. TELESCOPE METAL: See Alloys. TEMPERING OF STEEL: See Steel. TERRA COTTA SUBSTITUTE. A substance, under this name, designed to take the place of terra cotta and plaster of Paris in the manufacture of smau orna- mental objects, consists of Digitized by VjOOQ IC 706 THERMOMETERS— TIN Albumen 10 parte Magnesium sulphate. 4 parts Alum 9 parte Calcium sulphate, cal- cined 45 parts Borax 2 parte Water SO parte The albumen and alum are dissolved in the water and with the solution so obtained the other ingredients are made into a paste. This paste is molded at once in the usual way and when set the articles are exposed in an oven to a heat of 140* F. TERRA COTTA CLEANINO: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. TEXTILE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods and Household Formulas. Thermometers Table Showing the Compariflon of t^e Readings of Thermometert. CEUiiutt, OR Ckntigradb (C). Rcaumuh (R). Fahrkniikit (F). -30 -24.0 -25 -20.0 -20 1-16.0 -16 -10 - 6 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 12.0 8.0 4.0 3.2 2.4 1.6 0.8 1 Fraesing point of water. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 10 U 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 20 21 22 0.0 t 0.8 I 1.6 . 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.2 8.0 8.8 0.6 10.4 11.2 12.0 12.8 13 6 I 14.4 15.2 16.0 : 16.8 I 17.6 ' F. C. R. 18.4 F. -22.0 73.4 -13.0 24 19.2 75.2 - 4.0 25 20.0 77.0 + 5.0 26 20.8 78.8 14.0 27 21.6 80.6 23.0 28 22.4 82.4 24.8 29 23.2 84.2 26.6 30 24 0 86.0 28.4 31 24.8 87.8 30.2 32 25 6 89.6 33 26.4 91.4 water. 34 27.2 93.2 35 28.0 95 0 32.0 36 28.8 90.8 33.8 37 29.6 98.6 35.6 38 30.4 100.4 37.4 39 31.2 102.2 39.2 40 32.0 104.0 41.0 41 32.8 ia->.8 42.8 42 33.6 107.6 44.6 43 34.4 100.4 46.4 44 35 2 111.2 48.2 i ^^ 36.0 113.0 50.0 50 40.0 122.0 61.8 55 44.0 131 0 53.6 60 48 0 140 0 55.4 65 52.0 149.0 57.2 . 70 56 0 15K 0 59.0 75 60.0 167 0 60.8 I 80 64.0 176.0 62.6 85 68.0 185.0 64 4 90 72.0 194.0 60 2 95 76 0 203.0 68.0 , 100 80.0 212.0 in which <® indicates degrees of temper- ature: 69.8 71.6 Boilins point of water Readings on one scale can be changed into another by the following formulas, Rdau. to Fahr. ?<«R+32«-«»F RtfautoCent. ^^•R-I^C Gent, to Fahr. |<»C + 32»-l»F Cent, to ^c-«*R Fahr. to Cent. gun bor |(«»F-32«)-rC Fahr. to R^au. |(«*F-32*)-/-R THREAD: See also Cordage. Dreadng for Sewing Thread. — For colored thread: Irish moss, 3 pouodj^; gum arabic, 2) pounds; Japan was, ) pound; stearine. 185 grains; borax. AS grams; boil together for } hour. For white thread: Irish moss, 2 pounds; tapioca, 1) pounds; spermaceti, } pound, stearine, 110 grams; borax, 95 gram«; boil together for iO minutes. For black thread: Irish moss, S ponixb; ;um Senegal, 2} pounds; ceresin. 1 puund; »rax, 95 grams ; logwood extract, 95 gmm; blue vitriol, SO grams; boil together fur 20 minutes. Soak the Irish moss in each case overnight in 45 liters of water, then boil for 1 hour, strain and add the other ingredients to the resulting solution. It is of advantage to add the borax to the Irish moss before the boiling. THROAT LOZERGES: See Confectionery. THYMOL: See Antiseptics. TICKS. CATTLE DIP FOR: See Insecticides. TIERCES: See Disinfectants. TILEMAKERS' ROTES: See Ceramics. Tin Etching Bath for Tim—The desiirn it either freely drawn upon the metal with a needle or a lead pencil, or pnckrd into the metal through tracing paper with a needle. The outlines are filled with a varnish (wax, colophoav. aaplialti The varnish is rendered fluid with tur- pentine and applied with a brash. The article after naving dried t« laid in a A s4>lution of nitric acid for 1 1 1«» f ho«r% It is then washed and dried with bio«tiiig Digitized by VjOOQ IC TIN— TINFOIL 707 paper. The protective coatins of as- phalt 18 removed by heating. ^ The zinc oxide in the deeper portions is cleaned away with a silver soap and brush. Recovery of Tin and Iron in Tinned- Plate ClippingB. — The process of utiliz- ing tinned-plate scrap consists essentially in the removal of the tin. This must be very completely carried out if the re- maining iron is to be available for cast- ing. The removal of the outer layer of pure tin from the tinned plate is an easy matter. Beneath this, however, is an- other crystalline layer consisting of an allov of tin and iron, which is more dif- 6cult of treatment. It renders the iron unavailable for casting, as even 0.2 per cent of tin causes brittleness. Its removal is best accomplished by elec- trolysis. If dilute sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte, the deposit is spongy at first, and afterwards, when the acid has been partly neutralized, crystalline. After 6 hours the clippings are taken out and the iron completely dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid; the residue of tin is then combined with the tin obtained by the electrolysis. Green vitriol is there- fore a by-product in this process. Gutensohn's process has two objects: To obtain tin and to render the iron fit for use. The tin is obtained by treating the tinned plate repeatedly with hydro- chloric acid. The tin is then removed from the solution by means of the electric current. The tinned plate as the positive pole is placed in a tank made of some in- sulating material impervious to the action of acids, such as slate. A copper plate forms the cathode. The bichioriae of tin solution, freed from acid, is put round the carbon cylinder in the Bunsen ele- ment. Another innovation in this proc- ess is that the tank with the tinned- plate clippings is itself turned into an electric battery with the aid of the tin. A still better source of electricity is, how- ever, obtained during the treatment of the untinned iron which will be de- scribed presently. The final elimination of the tin takes place in the clay cup of the Bunsen elements. Besides the chloride of tin solution (free from acid), another tin solution, preferably chromate of tin, nitrate of tin, or sulphate of tin, according to the strength or the current desired, may be used. To render the iron of the tinned plate serviceable the acid is drawn off as long as the iron is covered With a thin layer of an alloy of iron and tin. The latter makes the iron unfit for use in rolling mills or for the precipitation of copper. Fresh hydro- chloric acid or sulphuric acid is there- fore poured over the plate to remove the alloy, after the treatment with the bi- chloride of tin solution. This acid is also systematically used in different vats to the point of approximate saturation. This solution forms the most suitable source of electricity, a zinc-iron element being formed by means of a claj cell and a zinc cylinder. The electrical force developed serves to accelerate the solu- tion in the next tank, which contains tinned plate, either fresh or treated with hydrochloric acid. Ferrous oxide, or spongy metallic iron if the current is very strong, is liberated in the iron bat- tery. Botn substances are easily oxi- dized, and form red oxide of iron when heated.^ The remaining solution can be crystallized by evaporation, so that fer- rous sulphate (green vitriol) or ferric chloride can be obtained, or it can be treated to form red oxide of iron. Tin in Powder Form. — To obtain tin in powder form the metal is first melted; next pour it into a box whose sides, etc., are coated with powdered chalk. Agitate the box vigorously and without discon- tinuing, until the metal is entirely cold. Now pass this powder through a sieve and keep in a closed flask. This tin powder is eligible for various uses and makes a handsome effect, especially in bronzing. It can be browned. TINFOIL: . See also MeUl Foil. By pouring tin from a funnel with a very long and narrow mouth upon a linen surface, the latter being tightly stretched, covered with a mixture of chalk and white of egg, and placed in a sloping position, very thin sheets can be produced, and capable of beinjpf easily transformed into thin foil. Pure tin shoukl never be used in the preparation of foil intended for packing tobacco, chocolate, etc., but an alloy containing 5 to 40 per cent of lead. Lead has also been recently plated on both sides with tin by the fol- lowing method: A lead sheet from 0.64 to .80 inches thick is poured on a casting table as long as it is hot, a layer of tin from 0.16 to 0.20 inches in thickness add- ed, the sheet then turned over and coated on the other side with tin in the same manner. The sheet is then stretched between rollers. Very thin sheet tin can also be made in the same way as sheet lead, by cutting up a tin cylinder into spiral sections. Colored tinfoil is pre- Eared by making the foil thoroughly right by rubbing with purified chalk Digitized by VjOOQ IC 708 TINFOILr— TOOL SETTING and cotton, then adding a coat of gela- tin, colored as required, and covering the whole finally with a transparent spirit var- nish. In place of this somewhat trouble- some process, the following much simpler method has lately been introduced: Ani- line dyes dissolved in alcohol are applied on the purified foil, and the coat, when dry, covered with a very thin laver of a colorless varnish. This is done by pour- ing the varnish on the surface and then inclining the latter so that the varnish may reach every part and flow off. TIN, SILVER-PLATING: See Plating. TIN VARNISHES: See Varnishes. TINNING: See Plating. TIRE: Anti-Leak Rubber Tire. — Pneumatic tires can be made quite safe from punc- tures by using a liberal amount of the following cheap mixture: One pound of sheet glue dissolved in hot water in the usual manner, and 3 pints of molasses. This mixture injected into the tire through the valve stem, semi-hardens into an elastic jelly, being, in fact, about the same as the well-known ink roller com- position used for the rollers of printing presses. This treatment will usually be found to effectually stop leaks in punc- tured or porous tires. TIRE CEICENTS: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements. TISSIER'S METAL: See Alloys. TITANIUM STEEL: See Steel. TODDY, HOT SODA: See Beverages. TOILET CREAMS, MILKS, POWDERS, ETC.: See Cosmetics. TOLIDOL DEVELOPER: See Photography. TOMATO BOUILLON EXTRACT: See Condiments. TOMBACK: See Jewelers' Formulas. TONING BATHS: See Photography. TONKA EXTRACT: See EssencoM and Extracts. TONKA, ITS DETECTION IN VANILLA EXTRACTS: See Vanilla. TOOL SETTING. The term "setting" (grinding) is ap- plied to the operation of giving an edge to the tools designed for cutting, scrap- ing, or sawing. Cutting tools are rubbed eitner on flat sandstones or on rapidly turned grindstones. The wear on the faces of the tools diminishes their thick- ness and renders the cutting an|rfe sharper. Good edges cannot be ob- tained except with the aid of the grind- stone; it is therefore important to select this instrument with care. It should be soft, rather than hard, of fine, smooth ffrain, perfectly free from semms or flaws. The last condition ia essential* for it often happens that, under the in- fluence of the revolving motion, a de- fective stone suddenly yields to the centrifugal force, bursts and scatters its pieces with such violence as to wound the operator. This accident may also happen with perfectly formed stones. On this account artificial stones hare been substituted, more homogeneous and coherent than the natural ones. Whatever may be the stone selected, it ought to be kept constantly moist dttrin|r the operation. If not, the tools viu soon i^et heated and their temper will be impaired. When a tool has for a certain time undergone the erosive action of the stone, the cutting angle becomes too acute, too thin, and bends over on itsdf. constituting what is called '*the feather edge." This condition renders a new setting necessary, which is usually ef- fected by bending back the feather edge, if it is long, and whetting the blade on a stone called a "setter. There are several varieties of stones used for this purpose, though they are mostly com- posed of calcareous or argilaceous mat- ter, mixed with a certain proportion ai silica. The scythestone, of very fine grain* serves for grinding off the feather edge of scvthes, knives, and other large tools. The Lorraine stone, of chocolate color and fine grain, is employed with ofl for carpenters' tools. American carborun- dum is very erosive. It is used with water and with oil to obtain a fine edge. The lancet stone is not inferior to any cd the preceding. As its name indicates* it is used for shar|>enin^ surreal anstni- ments, and only with oil. The Levant stone (Turkish sandstone) is the best of all for whetting, ll is gray and seaii- transparent; wnen of inferior quality, it Digitized by VjOOQ IC TOOTHACHE— TRANSPARENCIES 709 is somewhat spotted with red. It is usually quite soft. To restore stones and efface the in- e(|uaJities and hollows caused by the friction of the tools, they are laid flat on a marble or level stone, spread over with fine, well-pulverized sandstone, and rubbed briskly. When tools have a curved edge, they are subjected to a composition formed of pulverized stone, molaed into a form convenient for the concavity or convexity. Tools are also whetted with slabs of walnut or aspen wood coated with emery of different numbers, which produces an excellent setting. TOOL LACQUER: See Lacquers. TOOL LUBRICAKT: See Lubricant. Toothache TOOTHACHE GUMS: See also Pain Killers. I. — Paraffine 94 grains Burgundy pitch. . .800 srains Oil of cloves i fluidrachm Creosote ) fluidrachm Melt the first two ingredients, and, when nearly cool, add the rest, stirring well. May be made into small pills or turned out in form of small cones or cylinders. II. — Melt white wax or spermaceti, 9 parts, and when melted add carbolic^ acid crystals, 1 part, and chloral-hydrate crystals, 2 parts; stir well until dissolved, ^hile still liouid, immerse thin layers of carbolized aosorbent cotton wool and allow them to dry. When required for use a small piece may be snipped off and slightly warmed, when it can be in- serted into the hollow tooth, where it will solidify. Toothache Remedy. — Camphor 4 drachms Chloral hydrate. . 4 drachms Oil of cloves 2 drachms Oil of cajeput.. . . 2 drachms Chloroform 12 drachms Tincture of capsi- cum 24 drachms TOOTH CEUEIVTS: See Cements. TOOTH PASTES, POWDERS, SOAPS, AND WASHES: See Dentifrices. TORTOISE-SHELL POLISHES: See Polishes. TOOTH STRAIGHTENING: See Watchmakers' Formulas. AQUAFORTIS FOR TOUCHSTONE, THE: See Aquafortis. TOY PAINT: See Paint. TRACING-CLOTH CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. TRAGACANTH, MUCILAGE OF: See Adhesives, under Mucilages. TRANSPARENCIES : See also Photography. A good method of preparing hand- some London transparencies is as fol- lows: White paper is coated with a liquid whose chief constituent is Iceland moss strongly boiled down in water to which a slight quantity of previously dissolved gelatin is added. In applving the mass, which should always oe kept in a hot condition, the paper should be covered unif ormlv throughout. After it has been dried well it is smoothed on the coated side and used for a proof. The trans parent colors to be used must be ground in stronger varnish than the opaque ones. In order to produce a handsome red, yellow lake and red sienna are used ; the tone of the latter is considerably warmer than that of the yellow lake. Where the cost is no consideration, aurosolin may also be employed. For pale red, madder lakes should be employed, but for darker shades, crimson lakes and scarlet cochi- neal lakes. The vivid geranium lake gives a magnificent shade, which, how- ever, is not at all fast in sunlight. The most translucent blue will always be Berlin blue. For purple, madder pur- ple is the most reliable color, but j>os- sesses little gloss. Luminous effects can be obtained with the assistance of aniline colors, but these are only of little permanence in transparencies. Light, transparent green is hardly avail- able. Recourse has to be taken to mix- ing Berlin blue with yellow lake, or red sienna. Green chromic oxide may be used if its sober, cool tone has no dis- turbing influence. Almost all brown coloring bodies give transparent colors, but the most useful are madder lakes and burnt umber. Gray is produced by mixing purple tone colors with suitable brown, but a gray color hardly ever oc- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 710 TRANSPARENCIES— TRANSFER PROCESSES curs in transparent prints. Liquid sic- cative must afwavs be added to the colors, otherwise the drying will occupy too much time. After the drying, the prints are varnished on both sides. For this purpose, a well-covering, quickly drying, colorless, not too thick varnish must be used, which is elastic enough not to crack nor*to break in bending. Frequently the varnishing of the pla- cards IS done with gelatin. This imparts to the picture an especially handsome, luminous luster. After an equal quantity of alcohol has been added to a readily flowing solution of gelatin, kept for use in a zinc vessel, the gelatin solution is poured on the ^lass plates destined for the transparencies. After a quarter of an hour, take the placard, moisten its back uniformly, ana lay it upon a gela- tin film which has meanwhile formed on the glass plate, where it remains 2 to 3 days. When it is to be removed from the plate, the edge of the gelatin film protruding over the edge of the placard IS lifted up with a dull knife, and it is thus drawn off. A fine, transparent gloss remains on the placard proper. In order to render the covering waterproof and pliable, it is given a coating of collodion, which does not detract from the trans- parence. The glass plates and their frames must be cleaned of adhering gela- tin particles before renewed use. TRAKSFER PROCESSES: To Transfer Designs. — Designs can be transferred on painted surfaces, cloth, leather, velvet, oil cloth, and linen sharply and in all the details with little trouble. Take the original design, lay it on a layer of paper, and trace the lines of design accurately with a packing needle, the eye of which is held by a piece of wood for a handle. It is necessary to press down well. The design be- comes visible on the back by an eleva- tion. When everything has been accu- rately pressed through, take, e. ^., for dark objects, whiting (formed in pieces), lay the design face downward on the knee and pass mildly with the whiting over the elevations; on everv elevation a chalk line will appear. Tnen dust off the superfluous whiting with the fingers, la^ the whiting side on the cloth to hold it so that it cannot slide, and pass over it with a soft brush. For light articles take Dowdered lead pencil, which is rubbed on with the finger, or limewood charcoal. For tracing use oil paint on cloth and India ink on linen. To Copy Engrayings. — To make a facsimile of an engraving expose it in a warm, closed box to the vapor of iodine, then place it, inkside downward, on a smooth, dry sheet of dean white paper, which has been brushed with starch water. After the two prepared surfaces have been in contact for a shiirt time a facsimile of the engraving w31 be reproduced more or less accurately, ac> cording to the skill of the operator. To Transfer Engimvings. — The best way to transfer engraving from one piece to another is to rub transfer wax into the engraved letters. This wax is made of beeswax, 8 parts; tallow, S parts; Canada balsam, I part; olive oil. 1 part. If the wax becomes too hard« add a few drops of olive oil, and if too soft, a little more beeswax. Care shooJd be taken that the wax does not remain on the surface about the engravinc* otherwise the impression would be bltirrv^ Then moisten a piece of paper by draw- ing it over the tongue and la^ it on the engraving. Upon this is laid another piece of dry paper, and securing both with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, so they will not Be moved, go over the entire surface with a bur- nisher made of steel or bone, with a pointed end. This will press the lowrr paper into the engraving and cause the wax to adhere to it. Then the top paper is removed and the corner of the lowrr one gently raised. The whole is then carefully peeled off. and underneath will be found a reversed, sharp imprr#- sion of the engraving. The edges of the paper are then cut so it can be fitted in a position on the other articles similar to that on the original one. W^hen this is done lay the paper in the proper pota- tion and rub the index finger licntly over it, which will transfer a clear lucenest* uf the original engraving. If due care it taken two doxen or more transfers cmn be made from a single impression. TRICKS WITH FIRE: See Pyrotechnics. TUBERS, THEIR PRESER VATI09 : See Roots. TUBS: TO RENDER SHRURKEV TUBS WATER-TIGHT: See Casks. TUNGSTEH STEEL: See Steel. TURMERIC IN FOOD: See Foods. TURPENTIKE STAINS: See Wood. Digitized by VjOOQ IC TYPEWRITER RIBBONS— VALVES 711 TLB (MOCK) EXTRACT: ' Condiments. ns: also Thread and Cordage. ugh twine may be greatlv strength- by dissolving plenty of alum in and laying tne twine in this solu- After drvmg, the twine will have increased tensile strength. T3rpewriter Ribbons (See also Inks.) (* constituents of an ink for type- ribbons may be broadly divided >ur elements: 1, the pigment; 2, the c; 8, the corrigent; 4, the solvent. Icments will differ with the kind of ^sired, whether permanent or copy- manent (Record) Ink. — Any finely d, non-fading color mav be used as gment; vasehne is the best vehicle ax the best corrigent. In order to the ribbon last a long time with king, as much pigment as feasible 1 be used. To make black record Pake some vaseline, melt it on a ire or water bath, and incorporate i.stant stirring as much lampblack will take up without becoming lar. Take from the fire and allow 'ool. The ink is now practically d, except, if not entirelv suitable il, it may be improved by adding >rrigent wax in small quantity, ibbon should be chargea with a lin, evenly divided amount of ink. the necessity of a solvent — in this ?e a mixture of equal parts of 'um benzine and rectified spirit of tine. In this mixture dissolve a •nt amount of the solid ink by lis agitation to make a thin paint, e ink on one extremity of the ; if too soft, add a little wax to harder: if too pale, add more color- Iter ; if too hard, add more vaseline, fullv applied to the ribbon, and ess brushed off, the result will be •tory. the same principle, other colors ? made into ink; but for delicate albolene and bleached wax be the vehicle and corrigent, ivcly. various printing inks may be used crly corrected. They require the n of vaseline to make them non- on the ribbon, and of some wax d too soft. Where printinf>f ink5» tilable, they will be round to give excellent results if thus modified, as the pigment is well milled and finely divided. Even black cosmetic may be made to answer, by the addition of some lamp- black to the solution in the mixture of benzine and turpentine. ^ After thus having explained the prin- ciples underlying the man uf lecture of permanent inks, we can pass more rapidlv over the subject of copying inks, wnicn is governed by the same i^eneral rules. For copying inks, aniline colors form the pigment; a mixture of about 3 parts of water and 1 part of glycerine, the vehicle; transparent soap (about i part), the corrigent; stronger alcohol (about 6 parts), the solvent. The desired aniline color will easilv dissolve in the hot vehicle, soap will give the ink the neces- sary body and counteract the hygro- scopic tendency of the glycerine, and in the stronger alcohol the ink will readily dissolve, so that it can be applied in a finely divided state to the ribbon, where the evaporation of the alcohol will leave it in a thin film. There is little more to add. After the ink is made and tried — if too soft, add a little more soap; if too hard, a little more glycerine; if too pale, a little more pif^ment. Printer's copy- ing ink can be utilized here likewise. Users of the typewriter should so set a fresh ribbon as to start at the edge near- est the operator, allowing it to run back and forth with the same adjustment until exhausted along that strip; then shift the ribbon forward the widtn of one letter, running until exhausted, and so on. Finally, when the whole ribbon is ex- hausted, the color will have been equablv ork will used up, and on reinking, the work appear even in color, while it will look patchy if some of the old ink has been left here and there and fresh ink applied patchy left hen over it. UDDER INFLAMMATION: See Veterinary Formulas. UNHAIRING: See Leather. VALVES. The manufacturers of valves test each valve under hydraulic pressure before it is sent out from the factory, yet they frequently leak when erected in the pipe lines. Tnis is due to the misuse of tne erector in most cases. The following are the most noteworthy bad practices to be avoided when fitting in valves: I. — Screwing a valve on a pipe very tightly, without first closing tne valve Closing the valve makes the body much Digitized by VjOOQ IC 712 VALVES more rigid and able to withstand greater strains and also keeps the iron chips from lodging under the seats, or in tne working parts of the valves. This, of course, does not apply to check valves. II. — Screwing a long mill thread into a valve. The threads on commercial pipes are very long and should never be screwed into a valve. An elbow or tee will stand the length of thread very well, but a suitable length thread should be cut in every case on the pipe, when used to screw into a valve. If not, the end of pipe will shoulder against the seat of valve and so distort it that the valve will leak very badly. III. — The application of a pipe wrench on the opposite end of the valve from the end which is being screwed on the pipe. This should never be done, as it m- variably springs or forces the valve seats from their true original bearing with the disks. IV.— ^Never place the body of a valve in the vise to remove the bonnet or center- piece from a valve, as it will squeeze together the soft brass body and throw all parts out of alignment. Properly to remove the bonnet or centerpiece from a valve, either screw into each end of the valve a short piece of pipe and place one piece of the pipe in the vise, using a wrench on the square of bonnet; or if the vise is properlv constructed, place the square of the Donnet in same and use the short piece of pipe screwed in each end as a fever. When using a wrench on square of bonnet or centerpiece, use a Stiflson or Trimo wrench with a piece of tin between the teeth of the jaws and the finished brass. ^ It may mark the brass slightly, but this is preferable to round- ing off all the corners with an old monkey wrench which is worn out and sprung. As the threads on all bonnets or center- pieces are doped with litharge or cement, a sharp jerk or jar on the wrench will start ttie bonnet much more quickly than a steady pull. Under no circum- stances try to replace or remove the bonnet or centerpiece of a valve without first opening it wide. This will prevent the bending of the stem, forcing tne disk down through the seat or stripping the threads on bonnet where it screws into body. If it is impossible to remove bon- net or centerpiece by ordinary methods, heat the body of the valve just outside the thread. Then tap lightly all around the thread with a soft hammer. This \ method never fails, as the heat expands the body ring and breaks the joint made by the litharge or cement. | V. — The application of a Urc^ monkey wrencn to the stuffing box of valve. Many valves are returned with the stuffing boxes split, or the threads ia same stripped. This is due lo the fad that the fitter or engineer has used a bnce- sized monkey wrench on this smaU part, VI. — The screwing into a valve of a long length of unsupported pipe. Fitr example, if the fitter is doinff some re- pair work and starts out witn a run of 2-inch horizontal pipe from a it-inrb valve connected to main steam header, the pipe being about 18 feet long, after he has screwed the pipe tightly into t^ valve, he leaves the helper to support the pipe at the other end, while he gets tlie nanger ready. The helper in the ne«B- time has become tired and drops his shoulder on which the pipe rests aboat 3 inches and in conseouence the fuU weight of this 18-foot length of pipe bears on the valve. The valve is bacOy sprung and when the engineer raised steam the next morninf^ the valve leaks. When a valve is placed in the oentrr uf a long run of pipe, the pipe on cmrh side, and dose to the valve, should be well supported. VII. — The use of pipe cement io valves. When it is necessary to use pipe cement in joints, this mixture »hooid alwavs be placed on the pipe thread whicn screws into the valve, and never ta the val ve itself. If the cement is placed in the valve, as the pipe is screwed into the valve it forces the cement betvern the seats and disks, where it will soon harden and thus prevent the valve from seating properly. VIII. — Thread chips and scale ta pipe. Before a pipe u screwed into a valve it should De stood in a vertical position and struck sharply with a nammer. This will release the chips from the thread cutting, and loosen ttr scale inside of pipe. When a pipe line containing valves is connected up, the valves should all be opened wide and the pipe well blown out before they are again closed. This will remove foreign sub- stances which are liable lo cut and scratch the seats and disks. IX. — Expansion and contrariiott. Ample allowance must be provided for expansion and contraction in all steaM lines, especially when brass vaUcs arr included. The pipe and fittings atr much more rigid and stiff than the brass valves and in conse<|uence the expan- sion strains will relieve themselves at the weakest point, unless otherwise pro* vided for. Digitized by VjOOQ IC VALVES— VANILLA 718 X. — The use of wrenches or bars on yalye wheels to close the valves tightly. This should never be done, as it springi the entire valve and throws all parts out of alignment, thus making the valve leak. The manufacturer furnishes a wheel sufficiently large properlv to close a^inst any pressure for wnich it is suitable. If the valves cannot be close4 tiffhUy by this means, there is something oetween the disks and seats or they have been cut or scratched by foreign substances. VANADIUM STEEL: See Steel. Vanilla (See also Essences and Extracts.) The best Mexican vanilla yields only in the neighborhood of 1.7 per cent of vanillin; that from Reunion and Gua- deloupe about 2.5 per cent; and that from Java ^.75 per cent. There seems to be but little connection between the quantity of vanillin contained in vanilla pods and their quality as a flavor pro- ducer. Mexican beans are esteemed the best and yet they contain far less than the Java. Those from Brazil and Peru contain much less than those from Mexico, and yet they are considered in- ferior in quality to most others. The vanillin of the market is chiefly, if not entireljr, artificial and is made from the coniferin of such pines and firs as abies excclsa, a. pectinata, pin us cembra, and p. fttrobus, as well as from the eugenol of cloves and allspice. Vanillin also ex- ists in asparagus, lupine seeds, the seeds of the common wild rose, asafetida, and gum benzoin. A good formula for a vaniUa extract is the following: Vanilla 1 ounce Tonka 2 ounces Alcohol, deodor- ized 32 fluidounces Syrup 8 fluidounces Cut and bruise the vanilla, afterwards adding and bruising the Tonka; macerate for 14 days in 16 fluidounces of the alco- h(>l, with occasional agitation; pour off the dear liquid and set aside; pour the remaining alcohol on the magma, and heat by means of a water bath to about 168* P., in a closely covered vessel. Keep it at that temperature for 2 or 3 hours, then strain through flannel with slight pressure; mix the two portions of liauid and filter through felt. Lastly, add the syrup. To render this tinc- ture perfectly clear it may be treated with using ?iulverized magnesium carbonate, rom i to 1 drachm to each pint. To Detect Artificial Vanillin in Vanilla Extracts (see also Foods) .--There is no well-defined test for vanillin, but one can get at it in a negative way. The artificial vanillin contains vanillin iden- tical with the vanillin contained in the vanilla bean; but the vanilla bean, as the vanilla extract, contains among its many "extractive matters*' which enter into the food and fragrant value of vanilla extract, certain rosins which can be identified with certainty in analysis by a number of de- termining reactions. Extract made with- out true vanflla can be detected by nega- tive results in all these reactions. Vanilla beans contain 4 to 1 1 per cent of this rosin. It is of a dark red to brown color and furnishes about one-half the color of the extract of vanilla. This rosin is soluble in 50 per cent alcohol, so that in extracts of high grade, where sufficient alcohol is used, all rosin is kept in solution. In cheap extracts, where as little as 20 per cent oi alcohol by volume is sometimes used, an alkali — usually potassium bicarbonate — is added to aid in ffetting rosin, gums, etc., in solution, ana to prevent subsequent turpidity. This treatment deepens the color very materially. Place some of the extract to be exam- ined in a glass evaporating dish and evaporate the alcohol on the water bath. When alcohol is removed, make up about the original volume with hot water. If alkali has not been used in the manu- facture of the extract, the rosin will ap- pear as a flocculent red to brown residue. Acidify with acetic acid to free rosin from bases, separating the whole of the rosin and leaving a partiv decolorized, clear supernatant liquid after standing a short time. Collect the rosin on a filter, wash with water, and reserve the filtrate for further tests. Place a portion of the filter with the attached rosin in a few cubic centimeters of dilute caustic potash. The rosin is dissolved to a deep-red solution. Acid- ify. The rosin is thereby precipitated. Dissolve a portion of the rosin in alcohol; to one fraction add a few drops of fer- ric chloride; no striking coloration is EToduced. To another portion add Tdrochloric acid; again tnere is little change in color. In alcoholic solution most rosins give color reactions with fer- ric chloride or hvdrochloric acid. To a portion of the filtrate obtained above add a few drops of basic lead acetate. The precipitate is so bulky as to almost Digitized by VjOOQ IC * K K \ ANILLA— VARNISHES V tVc t.tll.1 rnct r»*j t .y *^iiir»fii 1 c -^-^•♦s«$^»$^ > » K^ to i^Te a shining, transparent, lAc^x. ax-d nreserrative coyering to the TdAOK^L ««nace of woodwork, capable of f-HKiinr 3 a greater or less degree the Eitimirr ai the air and moisture. This V Wa applied to metal or mineral tekcs the name of lacquer, and x-j^ Kf pwpared from rosins at once Bi.rpo Aih.«f:MTe and tenacious than those -sir'TMC aito Tarnish. r^t«f :«MiBs, commonly called gams, -mourns sjr vmmish are of two kinds — t*r ittft aa^l the soft. The hard varie- ir^ AR ropaL amber, and the lac rosins. T'lif trv «]ft rosins are juniper gum joij caUed sandarac), mastic, and The dastic soft rosins are ei«flu, anime, and turpentine. r^ie "icamce ol preparing ramuh con- •«3ic» n •!t»inbtning these classes of rosins n & ittitabie solTent, so that each codtcts t» ^n»d qoaiities and counteracts the ma ione^ o(f the others, and in giving the uf*uy^t t^A^Mt to this solution wiuout i«f^-nnit the suspension of the rosins, or tefnkL-tini^ from the drying and harden- mc -iruperties ol the yarnish. Ln spirit varnish (that made with alco- UH 'he hard and the elastic gums must he nixe*! to insnre tenderness and solidity. i» *tie alcohol evaporates at once after &puiytnie^ leaving the varnish wholly ■iependent on the gums for the tenadoos .ui«i aiihesive properties; and if the soft r«R»uii» predominate, the varnish wfll remain "^acky** for a lone time. Spirit varnish, however good and convenient to work with« must id ways be inferior to oil vami2»h^ as the latter is at the same time more tender and more solid, for the oil in rown; darkens on exposure), madder (reddish brown), logwood (brown), red scammony rosin (liffht red), turmeric (orange yellow), ana many others ac- cording to the various shades desired. Manufacturing Hints. — Glass, coarse- ly powdered, is often added to varnish when mixed in large quantities for the purpose of cutting the rosins and pre- venting them from adhering to the bot- tom and sides of the container. When possible, varnish should always be com- pounded without the use of heat, as this carbonizes and otherwise changes the constituents, and, besides, danger always ensues from the highly inflammable nature of the material employed. How- ever, when heat is necessary, a water bath should always be used; the varnish should never fill the vessel over a half to three-fourths of its capacity. The Gums Used in Making Varnish. — Juniper gum or true sandarac comes in lon^, yellowish, dusty tears, and reauires a hign temperature for its manipulation in oil. The oil must be so hot as to scorch a feather dipped into it, before this gum is added; otherwise the gum is burned. Because of this, juniper gum is usually displaced in oil varnisn by gum dammar. Both of these sums, by their dryness, counteract the elasticity of oil as well as of other gums. The usual sandarac of commerce is a brittle, yellow, transparent rosin from Africa, more soluble in turpentine than in alcohol. Its excess renders varnish hard and brit- tle. Commercial sandarac is also often a mixture of the African rosin with dam- mar or hard Indian copal, the place of the African rosin being sometimes taken by true juniper gum. This mixture is the pounce of the shops, and is almost insoluble in alcohol or turpentine. Dammar also largely takes the place of tender copal, gum anime, white amber, white incense, and white rosin. The latter three names are also often applied to a mixture of oil and Grecian wax, sometimes used in varnish. When ^m dammar is used as the main rosin m a varnish, it should be first fused and brought to a boiling point, but not thawed. This eliminates the property that renders dammar varnish soft and "tacky" if not treated as above. Venetian turpentine has a tendency to render varnish "tacky" and must be skillfully counteracted if this effect is to be avoided. Benzoin in varnish exposed to any degree of dampness has a ten- Digitized by VjOOQ IC 716 VARNISHES dency to swell, and must in such cases be avoided. Elemi, a fragrant rosin from Egypt, in time grows hard and brittle, and is not so soluble in alcohol as anime. which is highly esteemed for its more tender C|ualities. Copal is a name given rather mdiscriminateiy to various gums and rosins. The East Indian or African is the tender copal, and is softer and more transparent than the other varieties; when pure it is freely soluble in oil of turpentme or rosemary. Hard copal comes in its best form from Mexico, and is not readily soluble in oil unless first fused. The brilliant, deep-red col- or of old varnish is said to be oased on dragon's blood, but not the kind that comes in sticks, cones, etc. (which is always adulterated), but the dear, pure tear, deeper in color than a carbuncle, and as crystal as a ruby. This is sel- dom seen in the market, as is also the tear of gamboge, which, mixed with the tear of dragon s blood, is said to be the basis of the brilliant orange and gold varnish of the ancients. Of all applications used to adorn and protect the surface of objects, oil var- nishes or lacquers contaiuin||[ hard ros- ins are the best, as they furnish a hard, flossy coating which does not crack and IS very durable even when exposed to wind and rain. To obtain a varnish of these desirable qualities the best old linseed oil, or varnish made from it, must be combined with the residue left by the dry distilla- tion of amber or very hard copal. This distillation removes a quantity of vola- tile oil amounting to one-fourth or one- fifth of the original weight. The residue is pulverized and dissolved in hot linseed- oil varnish, forming a thick, viscous, yellow-brown liquid, which, as a rule, must be thinned with oil of turpentine before bein^ applied. Hard rosin oil varnish of this sort may convenientlpr be mixed with the solution of asphalt in the oil of turpentine with the aid of the simple apparatus described below, as the stinness of the two liquids makes hand stirring slow and laborious. A cask is mounted on an axle which projects through ^ both heads, but is inclined to the axis of the cask, so that when the ends of the axle are set in bear- ings and the cask is revolved, each end of the cask will rise and fall alternately, and any liquid which onlv partly fills the cask will be thoroughly mixed and churned in a short time. The cask is two-thirds filled with the two thick var- nishes (hard rosin in linseed oil and asphalt in the oil of turpentine) in the desired proportion, and after these have been intimately mixed by turning tbr cask, a sufficient (quantity of rectified oil of turpentine to give proper consiMrarr is added and the rotation is continiard until the mixture is perfectly unifom. To obtain the best and most durable result with this mixed oil, rosin, and a«- phalt varnish it is advisable to dilute it ireely with oil of turpentine and to apply 2 or 3 coats^ allowing each coat to Arj before the next is put on. In this way a deep black and very glossy surface is obtained which cannot l>e distinguislied from genuine Japanese lacquer. Many formulas for making these mixed asphalt varnishes contain r«Min — usually American rosin. The result if the production of a cheaper but inferior varnish. The addition of such soft rosins as elemi and copaiba, however, is made for another reason, and it im- proves the quality of the vamiah for certain purposes. Though these rtwins soften the lacauer, they also make it morr elastic, and therefore more suitable for coating leather and textile fabrics, as it does not crack in conseouence of rvpeuted bending, rolling, and folding. In coloring spirit varnish the alcohol should alwavs be colored first to the desired shade before mixing with the rosin, except where ivory or Done black is used. If the color is taken from a gum, due allowance for the same must be made in the rosins of the varnish. For instance, in a varnish ha»rd oo mastic, 10 parts, and tender cti|NJ, S parts, in 100 parts, if this is to be rttlnrrd with, say, 8 parts of dragon's blotid t»r anv other color gum), the rosins must he reduced to mastic, 8 parts, and tender copal, 4 parts. Eight parts of ccdor gnm are here equivalent to 3 parts of vamisli rosin. This holds true with gambo|rr« aloes, myrrh, and the other gum riMins used for their color. This seeming dis- proportion is due t«) the inert matter aad gum insoluble in alcohol, always prnN-nt in these gum rosins. Shellac Varnish. — This is made in the general proportion of 3 pounds of ahrlUc to a gallon of alcohol, tlie halt, rosin, benzine, each 20 parts; inseed-oil varnish, oil of turpentine, coal- tar oil, each 10 parts: binoxide of man- ^nese. roasted lampblack, each 2 parts. The solid ing^redients are melted tcH getber and mixed with the linseed-oil varnish, into which the lampblack has been stirred, and, finally, the other liquids are added. The varnish is strained through tow. Bicycle Varnish. — This Is a spirit var- nish, preferably made by a cold proc- ess, and reouires less technical knowl- edge than the preparation of fatty var- nishes. The chief dependence is upon the choice of the raw materials. These raw materials, copal, shellac, etc., are first broken up small and placed in a barrel adapted for turning upon an axis, with a hand crank, or with a belt and pulley from a power shaft. The barrel IS of course simply mounted in a frame of wood or iron, whichever is the most con- venient. After the barrel has received its raw material, it may be started and kept revolving for 24 hours. Long in- terruptions in the turning must be care- fully avoided, particularly in summer, for the material in the barrel, when at rest, will, at this season, soon form a large lump, to dissolve which will con- sume mucn time and labor. To prevent the formation of a semi-solid mass, as well as to facilitate the dissolving of the gum, it would be well to put some hard, smooth stones into the barrel with the varnish ingredients. Bicycle Dipping Varnish (Baking Var- nish).— Take 50 parts, bv weight, of Syrian asphalt; 50 parts, by weight, of copal oil; 50 parts, oy weight, of thick varnish oil, and 105 parts, by weight, turpentine oil, to which add 7 parts, by weight, of drier. When the asphalt is melted through and through, add the copal oil and heat it until the water is driven off, as copal oil is seldom free from water. Now take it off the fire and allow it to cool; add first the sicca- tive, then the turpentine and linseed oil, which have been previously thoroughlv mixed together. This bicycle varnish does not get completely black until it is baked. Black Varnishes. — Black spirit Ucquers are employed in the wood and metal in- dustries. Different kinds are produced according to their use. They are called black Japanese varnishes, or black brill- iant varnishes. Black Japanese Varnish.— I. — Sculpture varnish, 5 parts; red acaroid varnish, 2 parts; aniline black, 1 part; Lyons blue, .0015 parts. If a sculpture varnish pre- pared with heated copal is employed, a black lacquer of especially good Quality is obtained. Usually 1 per cent of oil of lavender is added. II.— Shellac 4 parts Borax 2 parts Glycerine 2 parts Aniline black 5 parts Water 50 parts Dissolve the borax in the water, add Digitized by VjOOQ IC 720 VARNISHES the shellac, and heat until solution is effected; then add the other ingredients. This is a mat-black varnish. For Blackboards. — For blackening these boards mix ) liter (1.05 pints) food alcohol, 70 grams (1,080 grains) shellac, 6 grams (92 grains) fine lampblack, S grams (46 grains) fine chalk free from sand. If red lines are to be drawn, mix the necessary Quantity of red lead in alcohol and shellac. Bookbinden' Varnishes. — I II III IV V Per Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Shellac 14.5 6.5 13.5 6.S 8.3 Mastic 6.0 «.0 .. 11 Sandarac... 6.0 13.0 .. 1.3 1.1 Camphor... 1.0 .. 0.5 1.5 Benzoin 13.7 Alcohol 7«.5 78.5 86.0 79. « 75.8 Scent w»th oil of benzoin, of lavender, or of rosemary. Other authors give the following recipes: VI VII VIII IX Per Per Per Per Cent Ont Cent Cent Blond .shellac .11.5 13.0 9.0 White shellac. 11. 5 Camphor 0.7 Powdered sugar 0.7 Sanciarac 18.0 6.6 Ma.stic 13.0 Venice turpen- tine 2.0 6.6 Alcohol 77.0 85.6 71.0 73.8 All solutions may be prepared in the cold, but the fact that mastic does not di.ssolve entirely, must not be lost sight of. Bottle Varnish. — Bottles may be made to exclude light pretty well by coating them with asphalt um lacauer or varnish. A formula recommended for this purpose is as follows: Dissolve asphaltum, 1 part, in light coal-tar oil, 2 parts, and add to the solution about 1 per cent of castor oil. This lacquer dries somewhat slowly, but adheres very firmly to the glass. As- f>haltura lacquer may also be rendered e.ss brittle by the addition of elemi. Melt together asphaltum, 10 parts, and elemi, 1 part, ana di.ssolve the cold fused ma.Hs in light coal-tar oil, 12 parts. Amber-colored bottles for substances acted upon by the actinic rays of light may be obtained from almost any manu- facturer of bottles. Can Varnish. — Dissolve shellac, 15 parts, by weight: Venice turpentine, 2 parts, by weight; and sandarac. 8 P«rta» by weight, in spirit, 75 parts, by wei^t Copal Varnish. — Very fine copal var- nish for those parts of carriages which reouire the highest polish, is prepared ms follows: I. — Melt 8 pounds best copal and mix with 20 pounds very clear matured oil. Then boir4 to 5 hours at moderate beat antil it draws threads; now mix with 35 poundx oil of turpentine, strain and keep for Ufir. This varnish dries rather slowly, thrrr- fore varnishers generally mix it one-half with another varnish, which is preparrd by boiling for 4 hours, 20 pounds dear linseed oil and 8 pounds very Dure, white anime rosin, to which is subseqaently added 35 pounds oil of turpentine. II. — ^Mix the following two vamtshes: (a) Eiffht pounds copal, 10 pounds lin- seed oil, ^ pound dried sugar of lead, 55 pounds od of turpentine. (6) Ei^ht pounds good anime rosin, 10 pounds linseed oil, \ pound sine vitritJ, 35 pounds oil of turpentine. Each of these two sets is boiled separately intt* varnish and strained, and tnen both are mixed. This varnish dries in 6 hours in winter, and in 4 hours in summer. Fur old articles which are to be re-vamiahcfl black, it is very suitable. Elastic Limpid Gnm VainishM. — I. — In order to obtain a limpid rubber varnish, it is essential to have the rubber entirely free from water. This can be obtained bv cutting the rubber into Ihin strips, or better, into shreds as fine as possible, and drying them, at a temper- ature of from 104* to 122* F., for srvtYmJ days or until they arc water frre, Ihm proceed as follows: II. — Dissolve 1 part of the deaicratcd rubber in 8 parts of petroleum ether (benzine) and add 2 parts of fat copal varnish and stir in. Or, cover 2 part* of dried rubber with 1 part of ether; let stand for several days, or until the mbhrr has taken up as much of the ether as it will, then liouefy by sUnding in a veasrl of moderately warm water. While itill warm, stir in 2 parts of linseed oSL cml with 2 parts of turpentine oil« ENAMEL VARNISHES: Antiseptic Enamel. — This consisls ef a solution of spirituous gum lac, ro«itt, and copal, with addition of salicylic arid, etc. Its purpose is mainlv the nrevm- tion or removal of mold or luni^at formation. The salicylic acid contained in the mass acts as an antiseptic duria|( the painting, and destroys all fv^gi present. Digitized by VjOOQ IC VARNISHES 781 BaOi-Tub Exuun«l UiuifFected by Hot Water. — I. — In order to make paint hold on the sine or tinned copper lining of a bath tub, a wash must be uaed to produce a film to which oil paint will adhere. ^ First remove all grease, etc., with a solution of soda or ammonia and dry the surface thoroughly; then apply with a wide, soft brush equal |^rts, oy weight, of chloride ol copper, nitrate of copper, and sal ammoniac dissolved in 04 parts, by weight, of water. When dissolved add 1 part, by weight, of commercial muri- atic acid. This solution must be kept in glass or earthenware. It will drv m about 12 hours, giving a ffrayish-black coating to which paint will nrmly adhere. The priming coat should be white lead thinnea with turpentine, with only just sufficient linseed oil to bind it. After this is thoroughly dry, apply one or more coats of special bath-tub enamel, or a gloss paint made by mixing coach colors ground in Japan with hard-dryins varnish of the best quality. Most first-class manufacturers have special grades that will stand hot water. II. — The following preparation pro- duces a brilliant sunace on metals and is very durable, resisting the effect of blows without scalinff or chipping off, and beina therefore nighlv suitable for cycles ana any other articles exposed to snock: For the manufacture of 44 gallons, 1 1 pounds of red copper, 8.8 pounds of yel- low copper, 4.4 pounds of hard steel, and 4.4 pounds of soft steel, all in a com- minuted condition, are well washed in petroleum or mineral spirit, and are then treated with concentrated sulphuric acid in a lead-lined vessel, with continued stirring for 2 hours. After 12 hours* rest the sulphuric acid is neutralized with Javel extract, and the fine powder left in the vessel is passed througn a silk sieve to remove any fragments of metal, then ground along with linseed oil, ivory black, and petroleum, the finely divided mass being afterwards filtered through flannel ana incorporated with a mixture of Bombay gum, 22 pounds; Damascus gum, 11 pounds; Judea bitumen, 22 pounds; Norwegian tar rosin, 11 pounds: and 11 pounds of ivory black ground very fine in refined petroleum. ^ When perfectly homogeneous the mass is again nitered, and is then ready for use. It is laid on with a brush, and then fixed by exposure to a temperature of between 400^ and 800<* F. The ivory black may be reolaced by other colonng matters, accoroing to requirements. A Color Enamel. — On the piece to be enameled apply oil varnish or white lead, and add a powder giving brilliant re- flections, such as diamantine, brilliantine, or argentine. Dry in a stove. Apply a new coat of vamisn. Apply the powder again, and finally heat in the oven. Afterwards, apply several layers of varnish; dry each layer in the oven. Apply pumice stone in powder or tripoli, and finally apply a layer of Swedish varnish, drying in the oven. This enamel does not crack. It adheres per- fectly, and is advantageous for the pieces of cycles and other mobiles. Cold Enameling. — This stvle of enam- eling is generally employed for repairing purposes. The various colors are either prepared with copal varnish and a little oil of turpentine, or else they are melted together with mastic and a trifle of oil of spike. In using the former, the surface usually settles down on drying, and ordinarily the latter is preferred, which is run on the cracked-off spot by warming the article. After the cooling, file the cold enamel off uniformly, and restore the eloss by quickly drawing it through the flame. For black cold enamel melt mastic together with lampblack, which is easily obtained by causine the flame of a wick dipped into linseed oil to touch a piece of tin. White.— White lead or flake white. Red. — Carmine or cinnabar (vermil- ion). Blue. — Ultramarine or Prussian blue. Green. — Scheele's green or Schwein- furt green. Brown. — Umber. Yellow. — Ocher or chrome yellow. The different shades are produced by mixing the colors. Enamel for Vats, etc. — Two different enamels are usually employed, viz., one for the ground and one for the top, the latter being somewhat harder than the former. Ground enamel is prepared by melting in an enameled iron kettle 625 parts brown shellac, 125 parts French oil of turpentine, with 80 parts colophony, and warming in another vessel 4,500 parts of spirit (90 per cent). As soon as the rosins are melted, remove the pot from the fire and add the spirit in portions of 250 parts at a time, seeing to it that the spirit added is completely combined with the rosins by stirring before adding any more. When all the spirit is added, warm the whole again for several min- utes on the water bath (free fire should Digitized by VjOOQ IC 722 VARNISHES be avoided, on account of danger of fire), and allow to settle. If a yellow color is desired, add yellow ocher, in which case the mixture may also be used as floor varnish. The top enamel (hard) consists of 500 parts shellac, 125 parts French oil of tur- pentine, and 3,500 parts spirit ^90 per cent). Boiling in the water batn until the solution appears clear can only be of advantaffe. According to the thick- taess desirea, one may stul dilute in the cold with high-strength spirit. ^ Tinting may be done, as desired, with earth colors, viz., coffee brown with umber, red with English red, yellow with ocher, silver gray with eartny cerussite, and some lampblack. Before painting, drv out the vats and puttv up tne joints with a strip of dough which is prepared from ground enamel and finely sifted charcoal or brown coal ashes, and apply the enamel after the puttjr is dry. The varnish dries quickly, is odorless and tasteless, and extraordinarilv durable. If a little annealed soot black is added to this vat enamel, a fine iron varnish is obtained which adheres very firmly. Leather •(spattering leather on ^ car- riages) can also be nicely varnished with it. Finishing Enamel for White Furni- ture.— Various methods are practiced in finishing furniture in white enamel, and while numerous preparations in- tended for the purpose named are gen- erally purchasaole of local dealers in paint supplies, it is often really difficult, and frequently impossible, to obtain a first-class ready-made enamel. To prepare such an article take^ } pint of white lead and add to it J pint of pure turpentine, I gill of pale coach Japan, ana ) gill of white dammar varnish. Mix alt the ingredients together thor- oughly. Apply with a camel Vhair brush, and for large surfaces use a 2-inch double thick brush. There should be at least three coats for good work, applied after an interval of 24 hours between coats; and for strictly high-class work four coats will be necessary. Each coat should be put on thin and entirely free from brush marks, sandpapering being caref ullv done upon each coat of pif|[ment. Work that has been already painted or varnished needs to be cut down with, say. No. ) sandpaper, and then smoothed fine with No. \ paper. Then thin white lead to a free working consistenc}^ with turpentine, retaining onlv a weak binder of oil in the pigment, ancl apply two coats of it to the surface. Give each coat plenty of time to harden fS6 hours should suffice), after which sanapapering with No. 1) pap*^ had best be done. Ordinarily, upon t«<> coats of white lead, the enamel finish, a^ above detailed, may be succeasfully pnn duced. For the fine, rich enamel fiot«h adapted to rare specimens of fursiturr and developed in the mansions of tb« multimillionaires, a more elaborate aod complex process becomes necessary. Quick-Drying Enamel Colon. — £o- amel colors which dry quickly, but r^ main elastic so that applied on tin xhtr will stand stamping without cracking off. can be produced as follows: In a closed stirrer or rolling cask pUof 21.5 parts, by weight, of finely poworrrd pale French rosin, 24) JP*>^« ^J wei^rkt. of Manila copal, as wen aa S5 parl«. U% weight, of denaturized spirit (95 prr cent), causing the cask or the stirrer to rotate until all the gum has complelrU dissolved, which, according to the trio- perature of the room in which the stinrr 18 and the hardness of the gums, rt- quires 24 to 48 hours. When the gum* are entirely dissolved add to the mn- ture a solution of 21) parts, by wrijrkt. of Venice oil turpentine in 0.025 part*, by weight, of denaturised spirit of 9S prr cent, aUo wing the stirrer to run another i to 3 hours. For the purpose off remortot any impurities present or anjr nndi* solved rosin from the vamiah, it is p>vur^ iot» suitable tin vessels or sinc-lined barrr^* for further clarification. After 10 to U dajs the varnish is readjr for use. B} grinding this varnish with the cwr^ sponding dry pigments the de«irrd snades of color may be obtained: hot ' is well to remark that chemicmlly puff zinc white cannot be used with advsB- tage because it thickens and Iom» it* covering power. The grinding is bnt carried out twice on an ordinary foBAr mill. Following are some red pea: I. — Ennmel White. — Lithopoae. 1 parts, by weight; white lead. pam4. * part, by weight; varnish, 20 parti. k« weight. II. — ^Ennmel Blnck. — Ivory black, i parts, bv weight; Paris blue, 0.01 pt't by weight; varnish, 23 parta, by wri^t III.— Palft Gny.— Graphite, t par*.* by weight; ultramarine, 0.0 1 pari .• weight; lithopone. 40 parts, by wriest. varnish, 100 parts, by weight. IV.—Dnrk Gnj.— Giaphite. 3 parK by weight; ivory black, 2 parta, by vrir^' lithopone, 40 parts, by weicht; vanish 110 parts, by weight. Digitized by VjOOQ IC VARNISHES 728 V. — Chrome Tellow) Pale. — Chrome yellow» 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 2 parts, hr weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1} parts, by weight. VI. — Chrome Yellow, Dark. — Chrome yellow, dark, 2 parts, by weight; chrome orange, ) part, oy wei|;ht; Rthopone, 1 part, by weight; varnish, 85 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 part, by weight VII. — ^Pinky Pale. — Carmine, i part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1} parts, by weight VIII.— Pink. Dark.— Carmine, ) part by weight; Turkey red, 1 part by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight. IX. — Turktj Red. — Turkey red, pale, 2 parts, bj; weight; lithopone, 1 part, by weif^ht: Turkey red, dark, 1 part by weight; white lead, pure, } part, by weight; var- nish, 18 parts, by weight; benzine, } part by weight. X. — ^Flesh Tint — Chrome yellow, pale, li parts, bv weight; graphite, | part, by weight; litnopone, 15 parts, by w^ht; Turkev red, pale, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 42 parts, by weight; benzine, i part by weight. XI.— Carmine Red. — Lead sulphate, 5 parts, by weight; Turkey red, pale, 0 parts, by weight; carmine, 1} parts, by weight; orange minium, 8 parts, by weight; vermuion, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 50 parts, by weight; benzine, 1} parts, by weight. XII. — Sky Blue. — Ultramarine, 5 parts, bv weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by weight; ultramarine green, 0.05 parts, by weight; varnish, 80 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 part by weight. XIII.— Ultramarine.— Ultra blue, 5 parts, bv weight; varnish, 12 parts, by weight; benzine, } part by weight. ^ XIV.— Violet— Ultramarine, with red tinge, 10 parts, by weight; carmine, O.d parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight XV. — ^Aznre* — Paris blue, 10 parts, by weight; lithopone, 100 parts, by weight; varnish, 300 parts, by weight. XVI. — Leaf Green. — Chrome green, pale, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, oy weight; benzine, } part, by weight. XVII.— Silk Green.— Silk green, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, pale, } part by weignt; lead sulphate, 5 parts, by weight: varnish, 80 parts, by weight; benzine, i part, by weight. XVin. — Brown. — English red, 10 parts, by weight; ocher, light, 3 parts, by weight; varnish, 80 parts, by weight; benzine, } part by weight XIX. — Ocher. — French ocher, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, dark, } part, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine. } part by weight. XX. — Chocolate. — Umber, 10 parts, by weight; Florentine lake, i part, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; benzine, } part by weight XXL — ^Tenrn Cotta. — Chrome yellow, pale, 10 parts, by weight; Turkey red, dark, 8 parts, by weight; varnish, 85 parts, by weight. XXII. — Olive, Greenish. — French ocher, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue, i part, by weight; graphite, } part, by weight; varnish, €s parts, by weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by weight. XXIIL— OUve, Brownish.- Chrome orange, 5 parts, bv weight; Paris blue, 2 parts, by weight; lead sulphate, 10 parts, by weignt; English red, 1 part by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, 1) parts, by weight. XXI V.—0Uve,Reddi8h.— Turkey red, dark, 75 parts, by weight; sap green, 75 parts, by weight; ocher, pale. 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 300 parts, by weight; benzine, 1} parts, by weight. ENGRAVERS' VARHISHES. In copper-plate enffravinff the plate must be covered witn a dark-colored coating which, though entirely unaffected by the etching fluid, must be soft enough to allow the finest lines to be drawn with the needle and must also be susceptible of complete and easy removal when the etching is finished. Varnishes which possess these properties are called "etch- ing grounds. They are made accord- ing to various formulas, but in all cases the principal ingredient is asphalt, of whicn only the best natural varieties are suitable for this purpose. Another com- mon ingredient is beeswax, or tallow. Etching grounds are usually made in small quantities, at a single op«ration, by melting and 8tirrin£[ the solid ingredients together and allowing the mass to cool in thin sheets, which are then dissolved in oil of turpentine. The plate is coated uniformly with this varnish through which the engraver's tool readily pene- trates, laying bare the metal beneath. After the lines thus drawn have been etched by immersing the plate in acid, the varnish is washed off with oil of turpentine. The following formulas for etching grounds have been extensively used by engravers: Digitized by VjOOQ IC 724 VARNISHES I II III IV Yellow wax 50 SO 110 40 parta Syrian asphalt. . . 20 80 25 40 parts Rosin 20 parts Amber 20 ..parts Mastic 25 25 25 ..parts Tallow 2 parts Bergundy pitch 10 parts FLOOR VARNISHES. I. — Manila copal, spirit- soluble 12 parts Ruby shellac, pow- dered 62 parts Venice, turpentine 12 parts Spirit, 06 per cent .... 250 parts The materials are dissolved cold in a covered vat with constant stirring, or better still, in a stirrins machine, and filtered. For the pale shades take light ocher; for dark ones, Amberg earth, which are well ground with the varnish in a paint mill. II.— Shellac, A C leaf, 1.2 parts; san- darac, 8 parts; Manila copal, 2 parts; rosin, 5 parts; castor or linoleic acid or wood oil acid, 1.50 parts; spirit (90 per cent), 65 parts. French Varnish. — So-called French varnish is made by dissolving 1 part of bleached or orange shellac in 5 parts of alcohol, the solution beinff allowed to stand and the clear portion tnen being de- canted. The varnish mav be colored by materials which are soluble in alcohol. For red, use 1 part of eosin to 40 parts of the bleached shellac solution. For blue, use 1 part of aniline blue to 24 parts of the bleached shellac solution, as the orange shellac solution would impart a f^reenisn cast. For green, use 1 part of aniline green (brilliant green) to 40 parts of the orange shellac solution. For yel- low, use eitner 2 parts of extract of tur- meric or 1 part of gamboge to 24 parts of the solution, or 1 part of aniline yellow to 40 parts of the solution. For golden yellow, use 2 parts of gamboge and 1 part of dragon's blood to 47 parts of the orange shellac solution. The gamboge and dragon's blood should be dissolved first in a little alcohol. Golden Varnishes. — 1. — Powdered benzoin. . 1 part Alcohol enough to make 10 parts. Pure saffron, roughly broken up, about 6 threads to the ounce. Macerate S davs and filter. Vary the quantity of saffron according to the snade desired. Mastic and juniper gum mav be added to this varnish if a heavier body is desired. II. — Benzoin, juniper gnm. gum tic, equal parts. Dissolve the gams in 9 times thc4r weight of alcohol (varied more or lew according to the consistency wanted i. and color to the desired shade with threads of pure saffron. This varnish is very brilliant and dries at once. India-Rttbber VaniiBhM.— I.— DisKilTr 10 pounds of India rubber in a mix- ture ^of 10 pounds of turpentine and ath. When the solution » completed add 45 pounds of drying «>d and 5 pounds of lampblack and mil thorougnly. II. — Dissolve 7 pounds of India rub- ber in 25 pounds of oil of turpentine. By continued heating dissolve 14 pound* at rosin in the mixture. Color while kol with 3 pounds of lampblack. Inlay Vamiali. — Ozokerite 17 parts Camauba wax S parts Turpentine oil 15 parts Melt the ozokerite and Camauba va«. then stir in the turpentine ofl. Thi* varnish is applied like a polish and im- parts to the wood a dark natural color and a dull luster. Japanning Tin. — The first thing Iq he done when a vessel is to be iapanned, t* to free it from all grease and oil. bv rub- bing it with turpentine. Should the ad. however, be linseed, it may be ailo««^ tn remain on the vessel, which must io that case be put in an oven and healed tJI the oil becomes quite hard. After these preliminaries, a paint o( the shade desired, ground in Unseed «><. is applied. For brown, umber may i^ used. When the paint has been satisfactory t applied it should be hardened by best in^, and then smoothed down b^ robbing with ground pumice stone applied geati* b^ means ot a piece of felt motstmrJ with water. To be done well, this n^ quires care and patience, and. it aigb* be added, some experience. The vessel is next coated with a r%r- nish, made by the following formula: Turpentine spirit .... 8 oonees Oil of lavender 6 onnrrs Canaphor 1 dmch» Bruised copal 2 oancvs Perhaps some other good vannh would give equally satisfachiry results. .\fter thu the vessel is put in aa «vm and heated tq|^ high a trmperature as it will bear without causing tne varnish u Digitized by VjOOQ IC VARNISHES 725 bluter or run. When the varnish has become hard, the vessel is taken out and another coat is put on, which is submitted to heat as before. This process may be repeated til) the judgment of the opera- tor tells him that it is no longer advisable. Some operators mix the coloring mat- ter directly with the varnish; when this is done» care should be taken that the pig- ment is first reduced to an impalpable powder, and then thoroughly mixed with the liquid. LABEL VARKISHES. I. — Sandarac 8 ounces av. Mastic I ounce av. Venice turpentine 150 ffrains Alcohol 16 nuidounoes Macerate with repeated stirring until solution is effected, and then filter. The paper labels are first sized with diluted mucilage, then dried, and then coated with this varnish. If the labels have been written with water-soluble inks or color, they are first coated with ft coats of collodion, and then varnished. II. — The varnished labels of stock ves- sels often suffer damage from the spilling of the contents and the dripping after much pouring. Formalin gelatin is capable of with- standing the baneful influence of ether, benzine, water, spirit of wine, oil, and most substances. The following method of applying the preservative is recom- mended: Having thoroughly cleaned the surface of the vessel, paste the label on and allow it to dry well. Give it a coat of thin collodion to protect the letters from being dissolved out or caused to run, then after a few minutes paint over it a coat of gelatin warmed to fluidity — 5 to 25— bemg careful to cover in all the edges. Just before it solidifies ^ over it with a tuft of cotton dipped mto a 40 per cent formalin solution. It soon dries and becomes as glossy as varnish, and may be coated a^in and again without danger of impairing the clear white of the label or decreasing its transparency. LMtber Varnishes. — I. — ^An excellent varnish for leather can be made from the following recipe: Heat 400 pounds of boiled oil to SIS'" F., and add little by little 2 pounds of bichromate of potash, keeping the same temperature. The addition of the bichromate should take about 15 minutes. Raise to 310<* F., and add gradually during 1 hour at that temperature, 40 pounds Prussian blue. Heat for 3 hours more, gradually raising to 482^ to 572^ F., with constant stirring. In the meantime, heat together at 802^ F., for i an hour, 25 pounds linseed oil, 35 pounds copal, 75 pounds turpentine, ana 7 pounos ceresine. Mix the two varnishes, and dilute, if necessarv, when cold with turpentine. The vanusn shoidd require to be warmed for easy application with the brush. II. — Caoutchouc, 1 part; petroleum, 1 part; carbon bisulphide, 1 part; shellac, 4 parts; bone black, 2 parts; alcohol, 20 parts. First the caoutchouc is brought together with carbon bisul- phide in a wdl-closed bottle and stood aside for a few days. As soon as the caoutchouc is soaked add the petroleum and the alcohol, then the finely powdered shellac, and heat to about 125'' F. When the liquid appears pretty clear, which indicates the solution of all substances, the bone black is added b^ shaking thoroughly and the varnish is at once filled in bottles which are well closed. This pouch composition excels in drying quickiv and proauces upon the leather a smootn, deep black coating, which pos- sesses a certain elasticity. METAL VARKISHES. The purpose of these varnishes is to protect the metals from oxidation and to render them glossy. Aluminum Vamish. — The following is a process giving a special varnish Tor kluminum, out it ma^ also be employed for other metals, giving a coating unal- terable and indestructible by water or atmospheric influences: Dissolve, prefer- ably in an enameled^ vessel, 10 parts, by weight, of gum lac in 30 parts of liquid ammonia. Heat on the water bath for about 1 hour and cool. The aluminum to be covered with this varnish is care- fully cleaned in potash, and, having applied the varnish, the article is placed in a stove, where it is heated, during a certain time, at a suitable temperature (about 1002** F.). Bimss Varnishes Imitatiiig Gold. — I. — An excellent gold varnish tor brass ob- jects, surgical or optical instruments, etc., is prepared as follows: Gum lac, in ffrains, pulverized, 30 parts; dragon's blood, 1 part; red sanders wood, 1 part: pounded glass, 10 parts; strong alcohol, 600 parts; after sufficient maceration, filter. The fmwdered jrlass simply serves for accelerating the dissolving, by inter- posing between the particles of gum lac and opal. II. — Reduce to powder. 160 parts, by weight, of turmeric of best quality, and pour over it 2 parts, by weight, of saffron. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 726 VARNISHES and 1,700 parts, by weight, of spirit; digest in a warm place 24 hours, and filter. Next dissolve 80 parts, by weight, of dragon's blood; 80 parts, by weight, of sandarac; 80 parts, by weight, of elemi gum; 50 parts, oy weight, of gamboge; 70 parts, by weight, of seedlac. Mix these substances with 250 parts, by weight, of crushed glass, place tnem in a flaw, and pour over this mixture the alcohol colored as above described. Assist the scJution by means of a sand or water bath, and filter at the close of the operation. This is a fine varnish for brass scientific instru- ments. Bronze Varnishes. — I. — The follow- ing process yields a top varnish for bronze goods and other metallic ware in the most varying shades, the varnish ex- celling, besides, in high gloss and dur- ability. Fill in a bottle, pale shellac, best quality, 40 parts, by weight; pow- dered Florentine lake, 12 parts, by weight; gamboge, 30 parts, bV weight; dragon's blood, also powdered, 6 parts, by weif|[ht; and add 400 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine. This mixture is al- lowed to dissolve, the best way being to heat the bottle on the water batn until the boiling point of water is almost reached, shaking from time to time until all is dissolved. ^ Upon cooling, decant the liquid, which constitutes a varnish of dark-red color, from any sediment that may be present. In a second bottle dis- solve in the same manner 24 parts, by weight, of gamboge in 400 parts, bv weight, of spirit of wine, from which will result a varnish of golden-yellow tint. According to the hue desired, mix the red varnish with the yellow variety, pro- ducing in this way any shade from the deepest red to the color of gold. If re- quired, dilute with spirit of wine. The application of the varnish should be con- ducted as usual, that is, the article should be slightly warm, it being necessary to adhere strictly to a certain temperature, which can be easily determined by trials and maintained by experience. In order to give this varnish a pale-yellow to greenish-yellow tone, mix 10 drops of picric acid with about 3 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine, and add to a small quantity of the varnish some of this mix- ture until the desired shade has been reached. Picric acid is poisonous, and the keeping of varnish mixed with this acid in a closed bottle is not advisable, b<-cau«ie there is danger of an explosion. Therefore, it is best to prepare only so muf'h varnish at one time as is necessary for the immediate purpose. Brown Vamiali. — An excellent and <]uickly drying brown varnish for metals is^ macle by dissolving 20 ounces of gua kino and 5 ounces of gum beniamin in 60 ounces of the best cold alcohol ; 20 ounces of common shellac and 2 ounces of thick turpentine in 36 ounces of alcohol also ^ve a very good varnish. If the brown IS to have a reddish tint, dissolve 50 ounces of ruby shellac, 5 ounces balsa a of copaiba, and 2 to 5 ounces of anilinr brown, with or without } to 1 ounce of aniline violet, in 150 ounces of alcohol. Copper Vamiahes. — These two are for polished objects: I. — One hundred and ten parU of sandarac and 30 parts of rosin, Jiasolved in sufficient quantity of alcohol; 5 parti of glycerine are to be added. II. — Sandarac 10 parts Rosin 3 parts Glycerine ) part Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the two rosins in salEcsent alcohol and add the glycerine. Decorative Metal Varnishes. — I II III IT Per Per Per Frr Cent Cent Cent Cent Seedlac 11.5 Amber.. .... 7.6 .. 13.5 Gamboge. ...7.6 Dragon's blood 0.18 Saffron 0,16 Sandarac 11.2 15.9 16 6 Mastic 6.5 14. 0 3 4 Elemi 3.3 Venice tur- pentine 10 Si Camphor 1.5 Aloe 7 0 Alcohol 72.06 77.5 66.1 63 i As will be seen, only natural color* arr used. The so-called *^*gold lacqurr** t« composed as follows: Sandarac, 6 tS parts; mastic 3 parts; shellac, 12.5 parl> Venice turpenbne, 2.5 parts; aloe, 0.75 parts; gamboge, 3 parts; alcohol, 7t parts, xhe solution is filtered. A^ plied in a thin coatinff this varaish sIm«» a handsome golden shade. Other neta'* varnishes have the following composi- tion: V VI VU Per Pet Per Cent Ceat C«at Shellac 17.5 . 16 ti Yellow acaroid gum. . 13 . 1 C5 . 0 Manila 8.6 6 • Alcohol 69.4 67.0 69 6 Digitized by VjOOQ IC VARNISHES 727 Gold Vamisli. — I. — A good gold var- nish for coating moldings which pro- duces great bruliancy is prepared as follows: Dissolve S pounds of shellac in SO quarts of alcohol, 5 pounds of mas- tic in 5 quarts of alcohol, S pounds of sandarac m 5 quarts of alcohol, 5 pounds of gamboge in 5 quarts of alcohol, 1 pound of dragon s blood in 1 quart of alcohol, 3 pounds of Saunders in 5 quarts of alco- hol, 3 pounds of turpentine in 3 quarts of alcohol. After all the ingredients have been dissolved separately in the given Quantity of absolute alcohol and filtered, tiie solutions are mixed at a moderate heat. II.— ^A varnish which will give a splendid luster, and any gold color from d<*ep red to golden yellow, is prepared by taking 50 ounces pale shellac, 15 poun uid paraffine, the whole beinc warmcil until completely dissolved, and any lu«s in weight made up by addition of spirit. The semi-solid preparation im made of the same ingredients, except the paraffine salve is substituted for the liquid. The product is used as a basis for ointments in place of vasogene, and can be in- corporated with a number of medica- ments, such as 10 per cent of napht^ol, 20 per cent of guaiacol, 25 per cent of juniper tar, 5 per cent of tniol, 6 per cent of iodine, 5 per cent of creosote* 10 per cent of ichthyol, 5 per cent of creoba. 2 per cent of menthol, etc VAT ENAMELS AND VARNISHES: See Varnishes. VEGETABLES, TESTS FOR CANNED; See Foods. VEGETABLE PARCHMENT: See Parchment* VICHY: See Waters. VICHT SALT: See SalU (Effervescent). Veterinary Formiilas FOR BIRDS: Asthma in Cuiariet. — Tincture capsicum. . . 5 drachsns Spirits chloroform ... 90 mininw Iron citrate, soluble. . 45 grains Fennel water S} o«n€v« Give a few drops on lump of sugar in the cage once daily. Colas. — Tincture ferri per* chloride 1 dfschm Add hydrochloric, diL 4 tftrarha Glycerine l| drachm» Aqua camphor, q. s . . 1 oimcv Use 8 to 0 drops in drinking water. Ointment for Healing. — Peru balsam 60 grmins Cola cream 1 Apply. Digitized by VjOOQ IC VETERINARY FORMULAS 729 Constipation in Birds. — F. £. senna ft drachms S^rup manna 1 ounce Fennel water, q. s. . . . 4 ounces Give a few drops on sugar in cage once daily. BiarrfacBA.— Tincture iron chloride 2 drachms Paregoric 2 drachms Caraway water 3} ounces Give few drops on lump of sugar once daily. Mocking-Bird Food.— Crackers 8 ounces Com 9 ounces Rice 2 ounces Hemp seed 1 ounce Capsicum 10 grains Mix and reduce to a coarse powder. Foods for Red Birds. — Sunflower seed 8 ounces Hemp seed 10 ounces Canary seed 10 ounces Cracked wheat 8 ounces Unshelled rice 6 ounces Mix and grind to a coarse powder. Csnary-Bird Food. — Yolk of egg (dry) .... 2 ounces Poppy heads (pow- dered) 1 ounce Cuttlefish bone (pow- dered) 1 ounce Sugar 2 ounces Powdered crackers. . . 8 ounces Bird Tonic. — Powdered capsicum.. 20 grains Powdered gentian 1 drachm Ferri peroxide } ounce Powdered sugar | ounce Syrup, q. s. Put a piece sise of pea in cage daily. Tonic. — I. — Tincture cinchona. . . ) drachm Tincture iron 2 drops Glycerine 1 drachm Cajmway water 1 ounce Put a few drops on lump of sugar in cage daily. II. — Compound t i n c t ure cinchona 2 drachms Compound tincture gentian 2 drachms SyruD orange 1 ounce Simple elixir 2} ounces Put a few drops on lump of sugar in the cage daily. Antiseptic Wash for Cage Birds. — Chinosol, F 2 drachms Sugar (burnt) 20 minims Aqua cinnamon 4 ounces Aqua 20 ounces Add 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls to the bath water and allow the birds to use it, when it will quickly destroy all parasites or germs in the feathers. To wash out the cages, use a mixture of 1 tablespoonf ul in a pint of hot water. Wzed Bird Seed.— Sicily canary 10 ounces German rape 2 ounces Russian hemp 1 ounce German millet 3 ounces FOR HORSES AlID CATTLE: Blistering. — Tincture cantharides, 1 ounce; camphorated oil, ) ounce. Apply a portion with friction 3 times a day un- til a blister shows. As it subsides apply again. Hoxse-Colic Remedy. — I'-^In making a horse-colic remedy containing tincture of opium, ether and chloroform, to be given in tablespoonful doses, apportion the ingredients about equally, and mix the dose with a pint of water. Other formulas are: II. — Chloroform anodyne 1 ounce Spirit of nitrous ether. 2 ounces Linseed oil IS ounces Give in one dose and repeat in an hour if necessary. Condition Powders. — I. — Sulnhur, 2 pounds; Glauber salts, 1 pouna; black antimony, } pound; powdered blood- root, 4 ounces; copperas, } pound; rosin, i pound; asafetida, 2 ounces; saltpeter, } pound. Powder and mix well. II. — Gentian, 4 ounces; potassium ni- trate, 1 ounce; sulphur, 4 ounces; ginger (African), 4 ounces; antimony, 4 ounces; rosin, 2 ounces; Fcenugreek, 2 ounces; capsicum, 2 ounces; serpentaria, 2 ounces; sodium sulphate, 9 ounces; flaxseed meal, 16 ounces. All ingredients in fine pow- der. Dose: 1 tablespoonful in feed twice a day. Veteiinaxy Dose Table. — For a colt 1 month old give Vr of the full dose; S months old, -^i 0 months old, }; 1 vear old. \; 2 years old, I; 3 years old, }. Fluids for cattle usuallv the same dose as for the horse. Solids for cattle usu- ally 1 ) times the dose for the horse. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 730 VEl'ERINARY FORMULAS Dniff. Aloes Alum Aqua ammonia Ammonia bromide . . Anmionia carbonate. Ammonia iodide. . . . Antimony black .... Areca nut Arsenic Asafetida Belladonna leaves. . . Buchu leaves Calaber bean Camphor Cantnarides Capsicum Catechu Chalk preparation. . . Chloral hydrate Chloroform Cinchona Copper sulphate Creolin Creosote Digitalis leaves Dover powder Ergot Ether Ex. belladonna fluid . Extract buchu fluid . Extract cannabis in- dica. Foenugreek GallnutB Gentian Ginger Ipecac Iron carbonate Iron sulphate Juniper Denies Limewater Magnesia sulphate. . . Mustard Nux vomica Oil castor Oil Croton Oil Juniper Oil linseed Oil olive Oil savin Oil turpentine Opium Potassium iodide. . . . Potassium nitrate. . . Pota.<»ium sulphide. . Quinine Rhubarb Pantonine Sodium hyposulphite So- called psittacosis (from the Greek. psitia, a parrot), of which there hare oeen a number of epidemics in Prmoce. It is determined by the bacillus of No> card. Human tuberculosis is certainly trans- mitted to dogs, cats, and birds. CmdioC Gibert, Roger, Benjamin, Petit, and Basset, as well as other observers* cite cases where dogs, cats, and parrots, presenting all the lesions of tuberculo«s« were shown to have contracted it frum contact with human beings; while there are no recorded cases, there can scarrely be a natural doubt that man mar, in a similar manner, become attainted through them, and that their tuberculosis con- stitutes an actual danger to man. Need we recall here the extraordtoary facility with which hydrophobia is com- municated to man througn the doig. cat, etc.? We may, therefore, conclude that wr should not permit these animals to take up so mucn space in our apartments, nor should they be petted and caressed either by adults or cnildren in the rrri- less manner common in many hotur* holds. The disgusting habit of trachinc animals to take bits of food, lumfw i>f sugar, etc., from between the lips uf members of the family is also to he shunned. Finallv, any or all of them should br banished from the house the moiDeot thai they display certain morbid syvp* toms. Besides, in certain cases, tkrrr should be a rigid prophylaxis aipitaa certain diseases — as echiaococcaa, for instance. Womu. — In cats and dogs, ro«»d worms, of which ascaris mystax b the Digitized by VjOOQ IC VETERINARY FORMULAS 733 most common in cats, are found chiefly in young animals. This worm has hir- sute appendages somewhat resembling a mustache. To treat an animal in- fected with such "guests," the patient should be made to fast for 24 hours. For a small kitten } grain of santonin, up to a grain or two for large cats, fol- lowed in an hour by a dose of castor oil, is recommended. To avoid spilling the oil on the animal's coat the "doctor" should have it heated and whipped with warm^ milk. Another way to get cats to take it is to smear it on the bottoms of their front feet, when they will lick it off. ^ Areca nut, freshlv ground bv the drug- Sist himself and administered in liberal oses, say SO to 60 grains, will usually drive out any worms in the alimentary canal. It is important that animals success- fully treated for worms once should undergo the treatment a second or third time, as all the parasites may not have been killed or removed the first time, or their progeny may have developed in the field vacated by the parents. The following is an effective formula: German wormseed, powdered 1 drachm Fluid extract of spi- gelia S drachms Fluid extract of senna. 1 drachm Fluid extract of vale- rian 1 drachm Syrup of buckthorn . . 2 ounces Dose: From } to 1 teaspoonful night and morning. Foot Itch.— The itch that affects the feet of poultry is contagious in a most insidious wav. The various birds of a poultry yard in which the disease is prevalent, rarelv contract it until after a comparatively long period of exposure, but sooner or later ever;^ bird will con- tract it. One infected bird is enough to infect a whole yard full, and. once in- fected, it is exceedingly difficult to get rid of. The disease, however, affects birds only. The treatment is simple. Having softened the feet by keeping them for some minutes in tepid water, the scabs that cover them are carefully detached, avoiding, as far as possible, causing them to bleed, and taking the precaution of throwing every scab into tne fire. The feet are then carefully dried, with a bit of soft cotton material, which should after- wards be burned; then the entire surface is covered with ointment (UnguerUum stU- phuris kalinum). An alcoholic solution of Canada balsam is preferred by some. Protect the ointment by a proper ap- pliance, and allow it to remain in contact 2 or 3 days. At the end of this time re- move the applications and wash off with tepid suds. The bird will generally be found cured, but if not, repeat the treat- ment— removing the remaining scabs, which will be found soft enough without resorting to soaking in tepid water, and applv the ointment directly. Tnere is another method of treatment that has been found successful, which not only cures the infected birds but prevents the infection of others. It is simply providing a sand bath for the birds, under a little shed, where they can indulffe themselves in rolling and scratch- ing, tne bath being composed of equal parts fine sand, charcoal m fine powder, ashes, and flowers of sulphur, sifted together. The bath should oe renewed every week. In the course of a few weeks the cure is complete. Foods. — I. — Powdered egg shell or phosphate of lime. 4 ounces Iron sulphate 4 ounces Powdered capsicum.. 4 ounces Powdered Foenugreek 2 ounces Powdered black pep- per 1 ounce Silver sand 2 ounces Powdered lentils 6 ounces A tablespoonful to be mixed with sufficient feed for 20 hens. II. — Oyster shell, ground . 5 ounces Magnesia 1 ounce Calcium carbonate . . 3 ounces Bone, ground 1} ounces Mustard bran 1 ) ounces Capsicum 1 ounce Powders. — I. — Cayenne pepper 2 parts Allspice 4 parts Ginger 0 parts Powder and mix well together. A teaspoonful to be mixed with every pound of food, and' fed 2 or 3 times a week. Also feed fresh meat, finely chopped. II. — Powdered egg shells. . 4 parts Powdered capsicum.. 4 parts Sulphate of iron 4 parts Powdered Fern ugreek 2 parts Powdered black pep- per 1 part Sand 2 parts Powdered dog biscuit 6 parts A tablespoonful to be mixed with sufficient meal or porridge to feed 20 hens. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 734 VETERINARY FORMULAS— VINEGAR Lice Powders. — I. — Sulphur 4 ounces Tobacco dust 0 ounces Cedar oil \ ounce White hellebore 4 ounces Crude naphthol 1 ounce Powdered chalk, q. s. 2 pounds II. — Sulphur 1 ounce Carbolic acid } ounce Crude naphthol 1 ounce Powdered chalk 1 pound Roup or Gapes. — Roup in poultrjr is caused by the presence of parasites or entozoa in the windpipe. Young birds are most commonly affected. The best method of treatment is to expose the affected bird to the fumes ot heated carbolic acid until on the point of suffo- cation. The bird may be placed in a box with a hot brick, and carbolic acid placed thereon. The fowls soon re- cover from the incipient suffocation, and are almost always freed from the disease. Care must be taken to burn the parasites coughed out, and the bodies of any birds which may die of the disease. The following powders for the treatment of "roup" in poultry have b^en recom- mended: I. — Potassium chlorate . . 1 ounce Powdered cubebs. ... 1 ounce Powdered anise i ounce Powdered licorice 1 J ounces Mix a teaspoonf ul with the food for 20 hens. II. — Ammonium chloride. 1 ounce Black antimony 4 ounce Powdered anise 4 ounce Powdered squill | ounce Powdered licorice 2 ounces Mix and use in the foregoing. FOR SHEEP: Dips. — For the prevention of "scab" in sheep, which results from the burrow- ing of an acarus or the destruction of the parasite when present, various prepara- tions of a somewhat similar character are used. The following formulas for sheep dips are recommended ^ by the United States Department of Agriculture: I. — Soap 1 pound Crude carbolic acid. . 1 pint Water 50 gallons Dissolve the soap in a gallon or more of boilins water, add the acid, and stir thoroughly. II. — Fresh skimmed milk . . 1 gallon Kerosene 2 gallons Churn together until emulsified, or mix and put into the mixture a force pump and direct the stream from the pump back into the mixture. The emulsification will take place more rapidly if the milk be added while boil- ins hot. Use 1 gallon of this emulsion to each 10 gallons of water required. Constipatioii. — I. — Green soap 150 grains Linseed oil 1} ounces Water 15 ounces Give i every } hour till action takes place. II. — Calomel 1) grains Sugar 15 grains One dose. Loss of Appetite. — Sodium sulphate, dried 90 grains Sodium bicarbonate. . SO grains Rhubarb SO grains Calamus 00 grains Form the mass into 6 pills. Give one twice daily. InflAmmmtion of the Eyes. — Zinc sulphate 20 grain* Mucilage quince seed. 4 ounces Distilled water 4 ounces Bathe eyes twice daily. VINE BLACK: See Pigments. Vinegar I. — Into a hogshead with a Urge bang- hole put 1,500 parts, by weight, of honey. 185 parts of carob-pods, cut into pieers 50 parts of powdered red or white potassium bitartrate, H5 parts of pow- dered tartaric acid, 2,000 oarts of rmt^in stems, 400 parts of the best breven* yeast, or 500 of leaven rubbed up in water; add 16,000 parts of triple Tinr«nr and S4,000 parts of 40 per cent spirit, containing no fusel oil. Stir all vicvm*- ously together; fill up the hogshead with hot water (100^ F.), close the bunghute with gauze to keep out insects* and let the contents of the cask stand for fn^n 4 to 6 weeks or until they have tumetl to vinegar. The temperature of the rooa should be from 77* to 88« F. Draw off half the vinegar, and fiO tbr hogshead up again with 15 parts uf •ail water and 1 part of spirit (40 per rmt •. Do this 4 times, then draw off all tke vinegar and begin the first prorras %»rTt again. This method of making vineipar is suitable for households and small dealers, but would not suffice fur « bttle> Digitized by VjOOQ IC VINEGAR 735 sale manufacturers, since it would take too long to produce any large amount. II. — Put into an upright wine cask open at the top, 14,000 parts, by weight, 01 lukewarm water, 2,333 parts of 60 per cent alcohol, 500 parts of brown sugar, \i5 parts of powdered red or wnite potassium bitartrate, 250 parts of good brewers* yeast, or 125 parts of leaven, 1,125 parts of triple vinegar, and stir until the substances are dissolved. Lay a cloth and a perforated cover over the cask and let it stand in a temperature of 72" to 77" F. from 4 to 6 weeks; then draw off the vinegar. The thick deposit at the bottom, the "mother of vinegar," so called, can be used in making more vinegar. Four over it the same quan- tities of water and alcohol used at first; but after the vinegar has been drawn off twice, half the first quantity of sugar and potassium bitartrate, and the whole quantity of veast, must be added. This makes excellent vinegar. III. — A good strong vinegar for house- hold use may be made from^ apple or pear peelings. Fut Che peelings in a stone jar (not glazed with lead) or in a cask, and pour over them water and a little vinegar, fermented beer, soured wine, or beet juice. Stir well, cover with a linen cloth and leave in a warm room. The vinegar will be ready in 2 or 3 weeks. IV. — Two wooden casks of any desired siKe, with light covers, are provided. They may be called A and B. A is filled with vinej^ar, a tenth part of this is poured off into B, and^ an equal amount of fermented beer, wine, or any other sweet or vinous liquid, or a mixture of 1,125 parts, by weight, of alcohol, 11,500 to 14,000 parts of water, and 1,125 parts of beet juice, put into A. When vinegar is needed, it is drawn out of B, an equal quantity is poured from A into B and the same quantity of vinegar-making liquids put into A. In this way vinegar is constantly being made and the process may go on for years, provided that the casks are large enough so that not more than a tenth of the contents of A is used in a week. If too much is used, so that the vinegar in the first cask becomes weak, the course of the vinegar making is disturbed for a long time, and this fact, whose import- ance has not been understood, prevents this method — in its essential principles the best — from being employed on a large scale. The surplus in A acts as a fermentative. Aromatic Vinerar.— I.— Sixteen f)un«vs VINEGAR, TOILET : glacial acetic acid, 40 drops oil of dovi-s. Sec Cosmetics. 40 drops oil of rosemarjr* 40 drops oil of bergamot, 16 drops oil of neruli, 30 drops oil of lavender, 1 drachm benzoic acio, } ounce camphor, 30 to 40 drops compound tincture of lavender, 3 ounces spirit of wine. Dissolve the oils,- the ben- zoic acid, and the camphor in the spirit of wine, mix with acetic acid and snake until bright, lastly adding the tincture of lavender to color. II. — Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage, mint, and lavender flowers, each } ounce; bruised nutmegs, cloves, angelica root, and camphor, each J of an ounce; rectified alcohol, 4 ounces; concentrated acetic acid, 16 ounces. Macerate the materials for a da^ in the alcohol; then add the acid and digest for 1 week longer at a temperature of 490" F. Finally press out the now aromatised acid and filter it. Cider Vinegar. — By "artificial vine- gar ** is meant vinegar made by the c^uick method with beechwood shavings. This cannot be carried out with any economy on a small scale, and requires a plant. A modification of the regular plan is as follows: Remove the head from a good tight whisky barrel, andput in a wooden faucet near the bottom. Fill the barrel with corn cobs and la^r an empty coffee sack over them. Moisten the cobs by sprinkling them with some good, strong, natural vinegar, and let them soak for a few hours. After the lapse of 2 or 8 hours draw off the vinegar and again moisten the cobs, repeating this until they are rendered sour throughout, adding each time 1 quart of high wines to the vinegar before throwing it back on the cobs. This prevents the vinegar from becoming flat, by the absorption of its acetic acid by the cobs. Mix a gallon of molasses with a gallon of hi<;h wine and 14 gallons of water and pour it on the cobs. Soak for 8 hours, then draw off and pour on the cobs again. Repeat this twice daily, until the vinegar becomes sour enough to suit. By hav- ing a battery of barrels, sav 4 barrels prepared as above, the manufacture may DC made remunerative, especially if the residue of sugar casks in place of mo- lasses, and the remnants of ale, etc., from the bar-rooms around town are used. All sugar-containing fruit may be utilized for vinegar making. VniEGAR, TESTS FOR: See Foods. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 786 WARTS— WATCHMAKERS* FORMULAS VIOLET AMMOmA: See Cosmetics. VIOLET WATER: See Perfumes. VIOLIN Rosnr: See Rosin. VIOLIN VARNISH: See Varnishes. VISCOSE: See Celluloid. VOICE LOZENGES: See Confectionery. VULCANIZATION OF RUBBER: See Rubber. WAGON GREASE: See Lubricants. WALLS. DAMP: See Household Formulas. WALL AND WALL-PAPER CLEAN- ERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, also Household Formulas. WALL-PAPER DYES: See Dyes. WALL-PAPER PASTE: See Adhesives. WALL PAPER, REMOVAL OF: See Household Formulas. WALL WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing and Household For- mulas. WALL PRIMING: See Paints. WALNUT: See Wood. WARMING BOTTLE: See Bottles. WARPING, PREVENTION OF: See Wood. Warts Wart Cure. — The following is espe- cially useful in cases where the warts are very numerous: I. — Chloral hydrate 1 part Acetic acid 1 part SalicTlic acid 4 parts Sulphuric ether 4 parts Collodion 15 parts Mix. Directions: Every morning ap- ply the foregoing to the warts, painting one coat on another. Should tne mass fall off without taking the warts with it« repeat the operation. Take, interaally 10 grains of ournt magnesia daily. II. — Sulphur 10 parts Acetic acid 5 parts Glycerine 85 parts Keep the warts coTcred with this mixture. WASHING FLUIDS AND POWDERS: See Laundry Preparations. WASTE. PHOTOGRAPHIC, ITS DIS- POSITION: See Photography. WATCH-DIAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers* Ce- ments. WATCH GILDING: See Plating. Watchmakers' Formulaa WATCH MANUFACTURERS* ALLOTS. Some very tenacious and hard allocs, for making the parts of watches which are not sensitive to magnetism* are as follows: I II III IV V VI VII Platinum. 62.76 02.75 02.76 64A2 0.6 0.5 ^ Copper. . . 18 10.20 lOJO tO 10.6 18^ SS Niok£...I8 18 10.60 24.70 — 2 1 Cadmium. 1J6 IJU 1.25 1.26 — CobiJt.... — — IJO 1.00 — Tungstm. — 1-80 1.80 1.77 ~ Palladium — — — — 72 72 70 SUtbt.... — — — — OJ 7 4 Rhodium. — — — — 1 — — Gold ^ _ _ — ij— _ A non-magnetic alloy for watch* sprines, wheels, etc. : Gold, SO to 40 parts; pallaaium, 80 to 40 parts; copper, 10 to 20 parts: silver, 0.1 to 6 per cent; cobalt^ 0.1 to 2.5 per cent; tungsten, 0.1 to 5 per cent; rhoaium, 0.1 to 5 per cent: plaCi* num, 0.1 to 6 per cent. An Alloy for Watch Pinion SockatL— Gold, 81 parts; silver. 10 parts; copper, SO parts; palladium, 1 part Replacing Rubies whose ScttincB hnw Detenorated. — Enlarge, with the aouarer (steel brooch for enlarging boles), tbe hole of the old setting, and adjust it, with hard rubbing, to Uie extremity of a stem of pierced brass wire. Take the stem in an American nippers, and set the ruby at the extremity (tne setting o>av be driven back by using a flat bumiahiag tool, very gently). Tnen take off with a cleaving me the part of the stem whrrr the ruby is set, and diminish it to the thickness desired, by filing on the finger, or on cork. These operations finiahr^ Digitized by VjOOQ IC WATCHMAKERS' FORMULAS 787 a set stopper is obtained which now needs only to be solidly fixed at the suitable height, in the hole prepared. To Straighten Bent Teeth.— Bent teeth are straightened by means of the screw- driver used as a lever against the root of the adjacent teeth, and bent pivots may be held in the jaws of the pliers and the pinion bent with the fingers in the direc- tion and to the extent required. For such a purpose, pliers having the jaws lined with brass are used so that the pivot is not bruised, and the bending has to be done with great care. To Renew a Broken Barrel Tooth. — Frequently » in consequence of the break- ing of a spring, a tooth of a barrel is broken. Sometimes it may only be bent, in which case the blade of a penknife may be used with care. If 2 or 8 suc- cessive teeth are lacking, the best way is to change the barrel, but a single tooth may be easily renewed in this wav: Drfll a hole through the thickness of the tooth« taking care not to penetrate the drum; then fit in a piece of metal tightly and give it, as well as possible, the cor- rect form of the tooth. To assure solidity, solder it; then clean and round the edges. Properly executed the repair will scarcely be noticed. Heated Sawdust — Sawdust is known to have been employed from time im- memorial by watchmakers and gold- smiths for the purpose of dr^ng rinsed artides. The process of drying can be accelerated four-fold if the sawdust is heated before use. This must, however, be done with great caution and constant stirring. To Rmir a Dial, etc., with Enamel Applied Cold. — There are two kinds of false enamel for application, when cold, to damaged dials. The first, a mixture of white rosin and white lead, melts like sealing wax, which it closely resembles. It is advisable when about to apply it to rently heat the dial and the blade of a nife. and with the knife cut the piece of enamel of the requisite size and lay it on the dial. The new enamel must project somewhat above the old. When cold the surface is leveled by scraping, and a shining surface is at once produced by holding at a^ little distance from the | flame of a spirit lamp. It is necessary to be very careful m conducting this operation, as the least excess of heat will bum the enamel and turn it yellow. It is, however, preferable to the following although more difficult to apply, as it is harder and does not become dirty so soon. The second false enamel con- tains white lead mixed with melted white wax. It is applied like cement, neatly filling up the space and afterwards rubbing with tissue paper to produce a shining surface. If rubbed with a knife blade or other steel implement its surface will be discolored. Lettering a Clock DiaL — Painting Roman characters on a dock dial is not such a difficult task as might at first be imagined. If one has a set of drawing instruments and properly proportions the letters, it is really^ simple. The letters should be proportionea as follows: The breadth of an "I" and a space should equal h the breadth of an ' X," that is, if the;*X" is ) inch broad, the "I" wiU be A uich broad and the space between letters iV inch, thus making the "I** plus one space equal to } inch or half the breadth of an "X." The "V's" should be the same breadth as the "X's." After the letters have been laid off in pencil, outiine them with a rulinjg; pen and fill in with a small camel's-hair brush, using gloss black paint thinned to the proper consistency to work well in the ruling pen. Using the ruling pen to outline the letters gives sharp straight edges, which it would be impossible to obtain with a brush in the hands of an inexperienced person. Verification of the Depthings. — In the verge watches, the English watches, and those of analogous caliber,^ it is often difficult to verify the depthings, except by the touch. For this reason we often find the upper plate pierced over each depth. In tne jeweled places, instead of perforating the upper plate, it suffices to deposit a drop of^ very limpid oil on the ruDV, taking care that it does not scatter. In Uiis manner a lens is formed and one may readily distinguish the depthing. To Make or Enlarge a Dial Hole. — By wetting the graver or the file with spirit of turpentine, cracks may be avoided and the work will be accomplished much quicker. To Repair a Repeating Clock-Bell. — When the bell is broken, whether short off or at a distance, file it away and pierce it, and after hayii\g sharpened a little the stem of the spring which remains, push hj force, in tne hole just made, a thin piece of solder (pewter). The sound will not have changed in any appreciable manner. A seconds pendulum of a regulator, which has no compensation for temper- ature will cause the clock to lose about Digitized by VjOOQ IC 738 WATCHMAKERS' FORMULAS 1 second per day for each 3 degrees of increase in heat. A watch without a compensation balance will lose 6.11 seconds in 24 hours for each increase of r F. in heat. To RemedT Worn Pinions. — Turn the leaves or rollers so that the worn places upon them will be toward the arbor or shaft and fasten them in that position. If they arc "rolling pinions," and thev cannot be secured otherwise, a little soft solder should be used. Watchznakers' Oil. — I. — Put some lead shavings into neat's foot oil, and allow to stand for some time, the longer the better. The lead neutralizes tne acid, and the result is an oil that never corrodes or thickens. ^ 11.^ — Stir up for some time best olive oil with water kept at the boiling point; then after the two fluids have separated, decant the oil and shake up witn a little freshly burned lime. Let the mixture stand for some weeks in a bottle ex- posed to the sunlight and air, but pro- tected from wet ana dirt. When Altered, the oil will be nearly colorless, perfectly limpid, and will never thicken or be- come rancid. To Weaken a Balance Spring. — A bal- ance spring may need weakening; this is effected bv grinding the spring thinner. Remove the spring from the collet and place it upon a piece of pegwood cut to fit the center coil. A piece of soft iron wire, flattened so as to pass freely be- tween the coils and charged with a little powdered oilstone, will serve as a grinder, and with it the strength of the spring may 3oon be reduced. Operations will be con- fined to the center coil, for no other part of the spring will rest suflicicntly against the wood to enable it to be ground, but this will generally sufiice. The effect will be rather rapid; therefore care should be taken or the spring may be made too weak. To ICake a Clock Strike Correctljr.— Pry the plates apart on the striking side, slip the pivots of the upper wheels out, and having disconnected them from the train, turn them partly around and put them back. If still incorrect, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most will jfct them to work properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused by a wire act- ing on a small bellows which is connected with two small pipes like organ pipes. To Reblack Clock Hands. — One coat of asphaltum varnish will make old rusty lianus look as good as new, and wiU dry in a few minutes. To Tighten a Rul»y Pin. — Set the ruliy pin in asphaltum varnish. It wiU \m> come hard in a few minutes and be mork firmer and better than the gum abellic. generally used. en a Rusty I Movement. — Put a little oil around thr screw ; heat the head lightly by mean* of a red-hot iron rod, applying the same f<#r 2 or 3 minutes. Tne rusty screw out then be removed as easily as thoogb it had just been put in. Gilding Watch Movements. (See aUo Gilding.) — In gilding watch moTemeoK the greatest care must be obserrrd with reffard to cleanliness. The work b fir»t to DC placed into a weak solution of caustic potasn for a few minutes, and then hnned in cold water. ^ The movements aie now to be dipped into pickling acid this class of work doc^ not require to hr very strongly gilt When gilt, the moir- ments are to oe rinsed in warm w«tf^. and scratch-brushed; they may then br returned to the bath, for an insstant, to give them a good color. Lastly, nii«e in hot water and place the muvemcot« in clean box sawdust. An economical mode of gilding watch movement* i^ to emplov a copper anode — working fn>n the solution, add 10 parts of creain M tartar and a corresponding quantity <*f elutriated chalk to obtain a pulp that can be put on with the brush. Th^ gilding or silvering obtained in tlu« manner is pretty, but of slight duralNlitv At the present time this method u oni« seldom employed, since the electropUt- ing kffords a means of producing gilthnc and silverinff in a handsome ana mm' paratively cneap manner, the metatiK* coating having to be but very thin. i*l«l or potassium cyanide of silver s<4uti«inj^ it bein|^ a custom to copper the sine artifSf^ previously by the aio of a hatterv. «ancv the appearance wiQ then be murh haatl- somer than on sine alone. itilding or silvering with leaf metal is done by |«i- ishing the surface of the sine hngbl sml coating it with a very tough lins«««S-»il varnish diluted with 10 times iJbe qa*r^ tit^ of bensol. The metallic leaf b thrs laid on and polished with an agale- Digitized by VjOOQ IC WATER 739 WATCHMAKERS' CLEAHING PREP- ARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. WATCH MOVEMEHTS, PALLADHTM PLATING OF: See Plating. Water, Natural and Artifi- cial In making an artificial mineral water it must be remembered that it is sel- dom possible to reproduce the water by merely combining its chemical com- ponents. In other words, the analysis of the water cannot serve as a basis from which to prepare it, because even though all of the components were put together, many would be found insoluble, and others would form new chemical com- binations, so that the result would differ widely from the mineral water imitated. For example, carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of lime, which are im- portant ingredients in most mineral waters, will not make a clear solution unless freshly precipitated. Hence, when these are to be reproduced in a mineral water it is customary to employ other substances which will dissolve at once, and which will, upon combining, produce these salts. The order in which the salts are added is also a very im- portant matter, for by dissolving the salts separately and then carefully com- bining them, solutions may be effected which would be impossible were all the salts added together to the water in the portable fountain. In this connection the following table will be found useful: Group 1 Ammonium carbon- Sodium ate. ^ Sodium Ammonium chloride. Sodi um Sodium borate (bo- Sodium rax). Sodium Potassium carbon- Sodium ate. ^ Sodium Potassium chl ever, are added to a soap solution and a small quantity — about 1.5 per crnl — <«f a clay emulsion poured in, the liquiit clarifies at once, with formati<»n ■•( a plentiful sediment. Exactly the aamr process takes place when the wa«*r waters from the combing proces« in spinning are treated with nay. Tbr waters which remain turbid for severml davs contain 500 to 800 grains ctf fattv substances per cubic meter. If to 1 liter of this liquid 1 gram of Hay *• added, with 15 to 20 per cent of water the liquid clarifies witli scparatittii ^4 m sediment and assumes a gold«fi*bn»wn Digitized by VjOOQ IC WATER— WATERPROOFING 741 color. Besides the fatty substances, this deposit also contains a certain quantity of nitrogenous bodies. Dried at ( 100® C. ) Sl^"* P., it weighs about 1.6 grams and contains SO per cent of fat. The grease obtained from it is clear, of good quality, and deliquesces at 95° F. After removal of this fat, the mass still contains 1.19 per cent of nitrogen. Sterilization of Water with Lime Chloride. — In order to disinfect and sterilize 1,000 parts of drinking water, 0.15 parts of dry chloride of fime are sufficient. The lime is stirred with a little water into a thin paste and intro- duced, with stirring, into the water to be disinfected and a lew drops of officinal hydrochloric acid are added. After ) hour the clarification and disinfection is accomplished, whereupon 0.3 parts of calcium sulphite are added, in order to kill the unpleasant smell and taste of the chlorine. Clarifying Muddy Water. — The water supply from rivers is so muddy at times that it will not go through the filter. When this happens agitate each barrel of water with 2 pounds of phosphate of lime and allow it to settle. This will take but a few minutes, and it will be found that mcst of the impurities have been carried down to the bottom. The water can then be drawn off carefully and filtered. Removal of Iron from Drinking Water. — The simplest method for re- moving the taste of iron in spring water is to pass the water through a filter con- taining a layer of tricalcic phosphate either in connection with other filtering materials or alone. The phosphate is first recovered in a gelatinous form, then dried and powdered. For Hardness. — A solution perfectlv adapted to this purpose, and one whicn may be kept a long time, is prepared as follows: Thirty-five parts of almond oil arc mixed with 50 parts of glycerine of 1.26 specific gravity and 8.5 parts of 50 per cent soda l^^e, and boiled to saponifi- cation. To this mixture, when it has cooled to from 85*» to 90** C. (185*» to 194*' P.), are added 100 to 125 parts of boiling water. After cooling again, 500 parts of water are added, and the solution is poured into a quart flask, with 94 per cent alcohol to make up a quart. Alter standing 2 months it is filtered. Twenty hydroli meter degrees of this solution make, with 40 parts of a solution of 0.55 grams of barium chloride in 1 quart of water, a dense lather 1 centimeter high. WATER (COPPER): See Copper. WATER ICES: See Ice Creams. WATERy TO FREEZE: See Refrigeration. WATER JACKETS, AlfTI-FREEZING SOLXrriONS FOR: See Freezing Preventives. WATER SPOTS, PRIMING FOR: See Faint. WATER STAINS: See Wood. WATER-LILY ROOTS: See Pyrotechnics. WATER, STIRRED YELLOW, SCAR- LET AND COLORLESS: See Pyrotechnics. WATERS (TOILET): See Cosmetics. WATER-GLASS CEMENTS: See Adhesives. WATER GLASS IN STEREOCHRO- MATIC PAINTING: See Stereochromy. Waterproofing (See also Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Preservatives, Varnishes.) Waterproofing Brick Arches. — Water- proofing of brick arches is done in the following manner: The masonry is first smoothed over with cement mortar. This is then covered with a special compound on which a laver of Hydrex felt IS laid so as to lap at least 12 inches on the transverse seams. Five layers of compound and 5 of felt are used, and special attention is paid to securing tightness around the arain pipes and at the spandrel walls. In fact the belt is carried up the back of the latter and turned into the joint under the coping about 2 inches, where it is held with cement mortar. The waterproofing on the arches is protected with 1 in en of cement mortar and that on the walls with a single course of brickwork. Waterproofing Blue Prints. — Use re- fined paraffine, and apply by immersing the print in the melted wax, or more conveniently as follows: Immerse in melted paraffine until saturated, a number of pieces of an absorbent cloth a foot or more square. When withdrawn and cooled they are ready for use at any time. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 742 WATERPROOFING To apply to a blue print, spread one of the saturated cloths on a smooth surface, place the dry print on it with a second waxed cloth on top, and iron with a moderately hot flatiron. The paper immediately absorbs paraffine untu sat- urated, and becomes translucent and highly waterproofed. The lines of the print are intensified by the process, and there is no shrinking or distortion. As the wax is withdrawn from the cloths, more can be added by melting small pieces directljr under the iron. By immersing the print in a bath of melted parafBne the process is hastened, but the ironing is necessary to remove the surplus wax from the surface, unless the paper is to be directly exposed to the weather and not to be handled. The irons can be heated in most offices by gas or over a lamp, and a supply of saturated cloths obviates the necessity of the bath. This process, which was originallv applied to blue prints to be carried by tne engineer corps in wet mines, is equally applicable to any kind of paper, and is convenient for water- C roofing typewritten or other notices to e posted up and exposed to the weather. Waterproof Coatixigs. — I. — Rosin oil. 50 parts; rosin, 30 parts; white soap, 9 parts. Apply hot on the surfaces to be protected. II. — It has been observed that when ffluten dried at an ordinary temperature, hence capable of absorbing water, is mixed with glycerine and heated, it becomes water-repelling and suitable for a waterproof paint. One part of gluten is mixea with 1 ) i>arts of glycerine, where- by a slimy mass is obtained which is ap- plied on fabrics subsequently subjected to a heat of 248'' F. The heating should not last until all gl^^cerine has evaporated, otherwise the coating becomes brittle and peels off. Waterproofing Canvas. — I. — The can- vas is coated with a mixture of the three solutions named below: 1. Gelatin, 50 parts, by weight, boiled in 3,000 parts of water free from lime. 2. Alum, 100 parts, dissolved in 3,000 parts of water. 3. Soda soap dissolved in 2.000 parts of water. II. — Prepare a sine soap by entirely dissolving 56 parts of soft soap in 125 to 150 parts of water. To tne boiling liquia add, with constant stirring, 28 to 33 parts of sine vitriol (white vitriol). The zinc soap floats on top and forms, after cooling, a hard white mass, which is taken out. In order to clean it of admixed^ carbonic alkali, it must be re- melted in boiling fresh water. Next place 232.5 parts of raw linseed ofl (frw from mucus) in a kettle with 2.5 parts of best potash, and 5 parts of water. This mass is boiled until it has become white and opaque and forms a liquid, soap-likr compound. Now, add sugar of leaa, 1 .25 parts; litharge, 1 part; red lead, 2 pvti; and brown rosin, 10.5 parts. The wkoit is boiled together about 1 hour, the temperature not being allowed to escrrd 212^ F., and stirring well from time to ti me. After this add 1 5 parts of ainc wtp and stir the whole until the metal toap has combined with the oil, the tempen- ture not exceeding 212^ F. When the mixture is complete, add a solution of caoutchouc, 1.2 parts, and oil of turpen- tine, 8.56 parts, which must be wdl in- corporated by stirring. The matemi i« first coated on one side by means of a brush with this composition, which mut have a temperature of 158*" P. IVrt- upon hang it up to dry, then applv a second layer of composition poMexunf the same temperature, which is like«t«^ allowed to dry. The fiber is now fitted out, so that the canvas is waterproof. Waterproofing Gorki. — For the pur- pose of making corks as impervious a« possible, while at the same time keepinx them elastic, saturate them with caoat> chouc solution. Dissolve cmootch and a tap for condensed water at £. F is the cock by which the solution im drawn off. After the rubber is dissolved, about \t to 24 per cent of sulphur b added, and thorouffhly incorporated with the solu- tion. The sulphur may be in the form of chloride of sulphur, or as sulphur pure and simple. A y^tj small quantity tif sulphur IS required to give the necesaaiy result, 2 to S per cent being sufficient to effect vulcanisation: but a large quantity is always added to hasten the operatiiiii. Even after prolonged tfratmeBt with the two solvents, a solution of imiforai consistency is never obtained: riots q# a thicker nature will be found floatinc in the solution, and the next operatioa is to knead it up so as to obtain equal Digitized by VjOOQ IC WATERPROOFING 746 density throuffhout. Fig. 5 will give an idea of how this mixing is done. Fxo. 5. At the top of a closed wooden chamber is a coverea reservoir, A^ containing the solution of rubber. A long slit at the base of this reservoir allows the solution to fall between sets of metal rollers, BBB below. Neighboring rollers are revolv- ing in opposite directions, and at differ- ent speeas, so that, after passing all three sets of rollers, and emerging at the bottom, the solution should be of uni- form consistencv. CCC are the guiding funnels, and EE are scrapers to oear the solution from the rollers. D is a wedge- shaped plug worked by a rack and pinion, and regulates the flow of the solution. It now remains to appl^ the rubber to the fabric and vulcanize it. Up to this stafe the sulphur has only been mechan- ically mixed with the rubber; the aid of heat is now required to bring about chemical combination between the two. This process, which is known as ''burn- ing,*' consists in subjecting the rubber- covered fabric to a temperature of about 248*" F. Sulphur itself melU at ^SQ"" F., Fio. & and the temperature at which combina- tion takes place must be above this. Fig. 6 shows one of the methods of spreading the rubber on the cloth. A is the tank containing the solution with an outlet at the bottom arranged so as to regulate the flow of solution. The fabric passes slowly underneath this, re- ceiving as it travels a thin coating of the waterproofing. The two rollers at B press the solution into the fabric and distrib- ute the proofing evenly over the entire surface. After leaving the two squeezing rollers, the doth travels slowly through a covered chamber, C, having a series of steam pipes, EE^ underneath, to evaporate the solvent; this condenses on the upper por- tion of the chamber, which is kept cooled, and flows down the sides into suitable receptacles. After this the proofed doth is vulcanized by {Missing round metal cylinders heated to the necessary temper- ature, or by passing through a heated chamber. Fig. 7 shows the spreading of G3 Pio. 7. rubber between two fabrics. The two cloths are wound evenlv on the rollers, BB\ from this they are drawn conjointly through the rollers, />, the stream of proofing solution flowing down between the rollers, which then press the two fabrics together with the rubber inside. The lower rollers marked CC are heated to the necessary degree, and cause the rubber and sulphur to combine in chem- ical union. So far the operation of proofing has been described as though pure rubber only was used; in practice the rubber forms only a small percentage of the proofing material, its place being taken by cheaper bodies. One of the common ingredients of proofing mixtures is boiled linseed oil, together with a small quantity of litharge; this dries verv quickly, and forms a glassy flexible film. Coal tar, shellac, colophony, etc., are all used, to- gether with india-rubber varnish, to make Digitized by VjOOQ IC 746 WATERPROOFING different waterproof compositions. Oil of turpentine and benzol form good solvents for rubber, but it is absolutely essential that both rubber and solvent be perfectly anhydrous before mixing. Oil of turpen- tine, alcohol, etc., can be best depnved of water bv mixing with either sulphuric acid or denydrated copper sulphate, and allowing to stand. The acid or the copper salt will absorb the water and sink to the bottom, leaving a supernatant layer of dehydrated turpentine or what- ever solvent is used. All the sulphur in a rubber-proofed cloth is not in com- bination with the rubber; it is frequently found that, after a lapse of time, rubber- proofed material shows an efflorescence of sulphur on the surface, due to excess of sulphur, and occasionally the fabric becomes stiff and the proofing scales off. Whenever a large proportion of sulphur is present, there is always the danger of the rubbers forming slowly into the hard vulcanite state, as the substance com- monly called vulcanite consists only of ordinary vulcanized rubber carried a stage further by more sulphur being used and extra heat applied. If after vulcanizing, rubber is treated with caus- tic soda, all this superfluous sulphur can be extracted; if it is then well washed the rubber will retain its elasticity for a long period. With the old methods of proofing, a sheet of vulcanized rubber v/as cemented to a fabric with rubber varnish, and frequently this desulphuriz- ing was performed before cementing to- § ether. The result was a flexible and urable cloth, but of great weight and thickness, and expensive to produce. The chemistry of rubber is very little understood; as mentioned previouslv, rubber is a highly complex body, liable to go through many changes. These changes are likely to be greater in rub- ber varnish, consisting of half a dozen or more ingredients, than in the case of rubber alone. The action of sunlight has a powerful effect on rubber, much to its detriment, and appears to increase its tendency to oxidize. Vulcanized rubber keeps its properties better under water than when exposed to the air, and changes more slowly if kept away from the light. It appears as though a slight decomposition always takes place even with pure rubber; but the presence of so many differently constituted substances as sometimes occur in rubber solutions no doubt makes things worse. When- ever a number of different bodies with varving properties are consolidated to- gether py heat, as in the case of rubber compositions, it is only reasonable to expect there wiU be some molecular re> arrangement going on in the mass; and this can be assigned as the reason vhj some proofings last as lone again a* others. Some metallic salts nave a very injurious action on rubber, one of the worst being copper sulphate. > Dyer% are frequently warned that goods for rubber- proofing must be free from this mrtal. as its action on rubber is very powerful, though but little underslooa. A* u generally known, grease in any form is exceedingly destructive to rublier. and it should never be allowed in contact in the smallest proportion. Some composi- tions are made up by dissolving rublirr in turpentine ana coal tar; but in tbi* case some of the rubber's most valuablr properties are destroyed, and it is duuht- tul if it can be properly vulcanurd Owing to rubber being a bad condurl»»r of heat, it requires considerable care tu vulcanize it in any thickness. A hi^fa degree of heat applied during a «bort period would tend to form a laver of nard vulcanite on the surface, while that immediately below would be softer and would gradually merge into raw rubber in the center. The different brands of rubber vary so much, especially with regard to s«ila- bility, that it is always advisable to Irrat each brand by itself, and not to make a solution of two or more kinds. OiUkios and tarpaulins, etc., are mostly proofr. P«» 3 to 4 dosen hats into this solution^ lesvr them in it for half an hour, then take c»«t and put them as they are into aaolkrr bath prepared with 40 to 50 parts, bv weight, of water and } part, by weights ««f alum and heated to 86^ to 104* F. AArr Digitized by VjOOQ IC WATERPROOFING 749 hftTing been left in the second bath for ^ or i hour, take out as before, put into the third bath of 40 to 60 parts, by weight, of water, } part, by weight, of alum, and about 13 parts, by weight, of fish glue. In this cold bath the hats are left for another i hour or more until they are completely saturated with the liquia, then dried and the other operations con- tinued. X. — Woolen cloth may be soaked in a vat filled with aluminum acetate, of 6^ B^., for 12 hours, then removed, dried, and dried again at a temperature of 140» P. XI. — Wagon covers, awnings, and sails are saturated with a 7 per cent gelatin solution, at a temperature of 104^ P., dried in the air, put through a 4 per cent solution of alum, dried aeain in the air, carried through water, ana dried a third time. XII. — Cotton, linen, jute, and hemp fabrics are first thoroughly saturated in a bath of ammonio-cupric sulphate, of 10*" B^.. at a temperature of 77^ P., then But into a solution of caustic soda, 2^ le., and dried. They may be made still more impervious to water bv substituting a solution of aluminum sulphate for the caustic soda. XIII. — White and light-colored fabrics are first put into a bath of aluminum acetate, 4^ to 5^ Be., at a temperature of 102^ P., the superfluous liquid being re- moved from the fabric by press rollers. The fabric is put into a soap solution (5 parts of good Marseilles soap in 100 parts of soU water). Finally it is put through a 2 per cent alum solution, and left to dry for 2 or 3 days on racks. The adhering particles of soap are removed by brushing with machinery. XIV. — Dissolve 1.5 parts of gelatin in 50 part.s of boiling water, add 1 .5 parts of shavings of tallow grain soap, and gradually, 2.5 parts of alum. Let this co€>l to 122" P., draw the fabric through it, dry and calender. XV. — Cellular tissues are made water- proof by impregnating tbem with a warm solution of 1 part, bv weight, of gelatin, 1 part, by weignt, of glycerine, and 1 part, by weight, of tannin, in 12 parts, by weight, of wo- plying a soap solution to the leather, about as follows: The leather is fir^t treated to a solution of 62 parts of soap. 124 parts of glue, and 2,000 parts of water. When it has become saturated with the solution, it is treated to mbbtajc with a mixture of 460 parts of com moo salt and 400 parts of ajum, in sufEcirnt water to dissolve the same. After this ic is washed with tepid water and dritrd. This process is much the quickest. Tke application of the soap requires about 2 nours, and the subsequent treat- ment about as much more, or 4 or 3 botua inaU. Oilskins.— The art of painting ovrr textile fabrics with oily preparatioas Id make them waterproof is proliably nearly as old as textile manufacture itsetf, an industry of prehistoric, nay, ^eoloffi<« origin. It is certainly more ancient thaa the craft of the artistic painter in oils. who*e canvases are nothing more nor less than art oilskins, and when out of their ffaiiic«« have served the usual purpose of tho^e things in protecting g^oropor- tions varying according to circum- stances from 95 per cent of paraffine and 5 of oil to 70 per cent of the former and SO of the latter. The most usual per- centages^ are 80 and 20. The mixture is made with the aid of heat, and is then cast into blocks for storage. It is ap- plied to the cloth stretched on a hot plate by rubbing the fabric thoroughly all over with a block of the composition, which may be a|>piied on one or both sides as may be wished. The saturation is then made complete, and excess of composition is removed by passing the cloth between hot rollers. When the doth is quite cold the process is com- plete. Tne paraffine and the drying oil <»>mbine their waterproofing powers, and the paraffine prevents the od from ex- erting any injurious action upon the material. Drying oil, partly on account of the metallic compounds in it, and partly on account of its absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere, has a decided slow weakening effect upon textile fibers. Dr. Stennouse points out that the in- Bammability of oilskins may be much lessened b'y the use of the ordinary fire- proofing salts, such as tungstate of soda, or alum, either before or after the water- proofing process is carried out. The following are some of the best recommended recipes for making oil- skins: I. — Dissolve 1 ounce of yellow soap in 1) pints of boiling water. Then stir in 1 quart of boiled oil. When cold, add i pint of gold size. n.— Take fine twilled calico. Soak it in bullock's blood and dry it. Then give it 2 or 3 coats of boiled oil, mixed with a little litharge, or with an ounce of gold size to every pint of the oil. III.— Make ordinary paint ready to. be applied thin with a strong solution of soap. IV. — Make 96 pounds of ocher to a thin paste with boiled oil, and then add 16 pounds of ordinary black paint mixed ready for use. Apply the first coat of this with soap, tne subsequent coats without soap. y. — Dissolve rosin in hot boiled oil till it begins to thicken. VI. — Mix chalk or pipe clay in the finest powder, and in the purest state obtainable to a thin paste with boiled oil. VII.— Melt together boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and rosin, each, 2 ounces. VIII. — Dissolve soft soap in hot water and add solution of protosulphate of iron till no further precipitate is produced. Filter off, wash, and ary, and form the mass into a thin paste with boiled oil. All these compositions are painted on with an ordinary painter's brush. The fabric should be slightly stretched, both to avoid folds and to facilitate the pene- tration of the waterproofing mixture. To aid the penetration still further, the mixture should be applied hot. It is of the G^reatest importance that the fabric shomd not be damp when the composi- tion is applied to it. It is best to have it warm as well as the composition. If more than one coat is applied, which is practically always the case, three being the usual number, it is essential that the last coat should be perfectly dry before the next is applied. Neglect of this precaution is the chief cause of sticki- ness, which frequently results in serious damage to the oilskins when they have to be unfolded. In fact, it is advisable to avoid folding an oilskin when it can be avoided. They should be hung up when not in use, whenever practicable, and be allowed plenty of room. It goes without saying that no attempt should be made to sell or use the oilskin, whether garment or tarpaulin, until the final coat of composition is perfectly dry and set. It is unadvisable to use artificial heat in the drying at any stage in the manu- facture. Waterproofing Paper. — Any conven- ient and appropriate machinery or ap- paratus may be employed; but the^ best method for waterproofing paper is as follows: The treatment may be applied Digitized by VjOOQ IC 762 WATERPROOFING while the pulp is being formed into paper, or the finished paper may be treated. If the material is to be treated while being formed into paper, then the better method is to begin tne treatment when the web of pulpy material leaves the Foudrinier wire or the cylinders, it then being in a damp condition, but with the larger per- centage of moisture removed. From this point the treatment of the paper is the same whether it be pulp in a sheet, as above stated, or finisned paper. The treatment consists, nrst, in satu- rating the paper with glutinous material, preferably animal glue, and by preference the bath of glutinous material should be hot, to effect the more rapid absorption and more perfect permeation, impregna- tion, and deposit of the glutinous ma- terial within all the microscopic inter- stices throughout the body of the paper being treated. By preference a suitable tank is provided in which the glutin- ous material is deposited, and in which it may be kept neated to a constant temperature, the paper being passed through the tank and saturated durinff its passage. ^ The material being treated should pass in a continuous sheet — that is, be fed from a roll and the finished product be wound in a roll after final treatment. This saves time and the patentee^ finds that the requisite permea- tion or incorporation of glutinous mat- ter in the fiber will with some papers — for instance, lightly sized manila hemp — require but a few seconds. As the paper passes from the glutin tank the surplus of the glutinous matter is removed from the surface by mechani- cal means, as contradistinguished from simpjy allowing it to pass off by gravity, and in most instances it is preferred to pass the paper between suitable pres- sure rolls to remove such surplus. The strength and consistency of the glutinous bath may be varied, depending upon the material being treated and the uses for which such material is desi^^ncd. It ma^, however, be stated that, m a ma- jority of cases, a hot solution of about 1 part of animal glue to about 10 parts of water, by weight, gives the best results. After leaving the bath of glutinous ma- terial and having the surplus adhering to the surfaces removed, the paper be- fore drying is passed into or tnrough a solution of formaldehyde and water to "set" the glutinous material. The strength of this solution may also be varialble, depending, as heretofore stated, upon the paper and uses for which it is designed. In the majority of cases, however, a solution of 1 part of formalde- hyde (35 per cent solutioii) to 5 parts of water, by weight, gives good results, and the best result is attained if this bath is cold instead of hot, though mnw paitim* lar temperature Is not essentiaJlv nem- sary. The effect of the formajdehyd^ solution upon the glutin-saturated paper is to precipitate the glutinous matter and render it insoluble. As the material comes from the formal- dehyde bath, the surplus adhering to the surfaces is removed hj mechanxsl means, pressure /oils bein^ probably most convenient. The paper is toen dtiti in any convenient manner. The best result in drying is attained bjr the air- blast, i. e., projecting blasts of air againfl both surfaces of the paper. This arying removes all the watery constituents and leaves the paper in a toughened or (p^atly strengtnened condition, but not m practical condition for comnrrcial uses, as it is^ brittle, homy, and stiff, and has an objectionable odor and taste on account of the presence of the alde- hydes, paraldehydes, formic acid, and other products, the result of oxidatioa. Hence it needs to be ^'tempered.'* Nov while the glutinous material is rendeied insoluble — that is, it is so acted upon by formaldehyde and the chemical actiun which takes place while the united solu- tions are giving off their watery constit- uents that it will not fully dissolve — it is, however, in a condition to be acted on by moisture, as it will swell and ab- sorb, or take up permanently by either chemical or mecnanical action a per- centage of ^ water, and will also become improved in many respects, so that to temper and render the paper soft and pliable and adapt it for most com- mercial uses it is subjected to moisture, which penetrates the paper, causing a welling in all directions, fiUinif the interstices perfectly and resulting in "hydration throughout^ the entire crU lular structure. Two actions^ mechaairmi and chemical, appear to take place, tW mechanical action beins the temporary absorption of water analogous to tne tth- sorption of water by a dry sponge, the chemical action beinc the permanent union of water with Ae treated paper, analogous to the union of water and tapioca, causing swelling, or like the chemical combination of water with linir or cement. For this purpose it is pre- ferred to pass the paper into a bath of hot water, saturated steam or equiva- lent heat-and-moisture medium, thns causing the fibers and the non-soltiKle glutinous material filling the intrrstirrs to expand in all directions and fatrtag Digitized by VjOOQ IC WATERPROOFING— WAX 758 the glutinous material into all the mi- croscopic pores or openings and into the masses of fiber, causing a commingling or thorough incorporation of the noers and the glutinous compound.^ At the same time, as heretofore indicated, a change (hydration) takes place, whereby the hardened mass of nber, glutinous material, and formaldehyde become tempered and softened and the stren^[th imparted by the previous treatment in- creased. To heighten the tempering and softening effect, glycerine may, in some instances, be introduced in the temper- ing bath, and in most cases one two- fa undredths in volume of ^ycerine gives the best results. The paper may be dried in any con- venient manner and is in condition for most commercial uses, it being greatly strengthened, more flexible, more im- pervious to moisture, acids, grease, or alkalies, and is suitable for the manufac- ture of binding-twine, carpets, and many novelties, for dry wrappings and lining packing cases, etc., but is Rable to have a disagreeable taste and may carrpr traces of acids, renderinjf it impracti- cable for some uses — for mstance, wrap- ping butter, meats, cheese, etc., after receiving the alkali treatment. The paper is also valuable as a packing for joints in steam, water, and other pipes or connections. For the purpose, there- fore, of rendering the material absolutelv free from all traces of acidity and all taste and odors and, in fact, to render it absolutely hygienic, it is passed through a bath of water and a volatile alkali (am- monium hydrate), the proportion by pref- erence in a majority of cases being one- hundredth of ammonium hydrate to ninety-nine one-hundredths of water by volume. A small percentage of wood alcohol may be added. This bath is preferably cool, but a variation in its temperature will not interfere to a seri- ous extent with the results. The effect of Uus bath followed by drying is to com- plete the chemical reaction and destroy all taste or odor, removing all traces of adds and rendering the paper hy- E'enic in all respects. The material may i calendered or cut and used for any of the purposes desired. If the material is to be subjected to the volatile alkali l>ath, it is not necessary to drv it be- tween the tempering and volatile alkali baths. The paper made in accordance with the foregomff will, it is claimed, be found to be greaUjT strengthened, some ma- terials being increased in strength from 100 to 700 per cent. It will be non- absorbent to acids, greases, and alkalies, and substantially waterproof, and owinff to its coniponent integrate structure wifl be practically non-conductive to elec- tricity, adapting it as a superior insu- lating material. It may with perfect safety be employed for wrapping butter, meats, spices, grcxxries, and all materials, whether unctuous or otherwise. The term "hydration" means the sub- jecting of the material (after treatment with glutinous material and formalde- hyde and drying) to moisture, whereby the action described takes place. A sheet or web of paper can be treated by the process as rapidly as it is manu- factureo, as the time for exposure to the action of the glutinous material need not be longer than the time required for it to become saturated, this, of course, vary- ing with different thicknesses and densities, and the length of time of ex- posure mav be fixed without checking the speed by making the tank of such lenfftn that the re<|uisite time will elapse while the sheet is passing through it and the guides so arranged as to maintain the sheet in position to be acted on by such solution the requisite length of time. Four seconds' exposure to the action of formaldehyde is found sufficient in most cases. Waterproof Ropes. — For making ropes and lines impervious to weather, the process of tarring is recommended, which can be done either in the separate strands or after the rope is twistea. An addi- tion of tallow gives greater pliability. Waterproof Wood. — I. — Soak in a mixture of boracic acid, 6 parts; ammo- nium chloride, 5 parts; sodium borate, 8 parts, and water, 100 parts. II. — Saturate in a solution of dnc chloride. Wax Adulteration of Wax. — Wax is adulter- ated with the following among other substances: Rosins, pitch, flowers of sul- phur, starch, fecula, stearine, paraffine, tallow, palm oil, calcined bones, yellow ocher, water, and wood sawdust. Rosins are detected by cold alcohol, which dissolves all rosinous substances and exercises no action on the wax. The rosins having been extracted from the alcoholic solution by the evaporation of the alcohol, the various kinds may be distinguished by the odors disengaged bv burning the mass several times on a plate of heated iron. All earthy substances may be readily Digitized by VjOOQ IC 764 WAX separated from wax bv means of ofl of turpentine, which dissolYes the wax, while the earthy matters form a residue. Oil of turpentine also completely sepa- rates wax from starchy substances, which, like earthy matters, do not dissolve, but forni a residue. A simpler method consists in heating the wax with boilins water; the gelatinous consistency assumed by the water, and the blue coloration in presence of iodine, indicate that the wax contains starchy substances. Adultera- tion by means of starch and fecula is quite frequent. These substances are sometimes added to the wax in a pro- portion of nearly 60 per cent. To sepa- rate either, the suspected product is treated hot with very dilute sulphuric acid (2 parts of acid per 100 parts of water). All amylaceous substances, con- verted into dextrin, remain dissolved in the liquid, while the wax, in coolinff, fonns a crust on the surface. It is taken off and weighed; the difference between its weight and that of the product analyzed will give the quantity of the amylaceous substances. Flowers of sulphur are recognised readily from the odor of sulphurous acid durinff combustion on red-hot iron. Taflow may be detected by the taste and odor. Pure wax has an aromatic, agreeable taste, while that mixed with tallow is repulsive both in taste and smell. Pure wax, worked between the fingers, grows soft, preserving a certain cohesion in all parts. It divides into lumps, which adhere to the fingers, if it is mixed with tallow. The adulteration may also be detected by the thick and nauseating fumes produced when it is burned on heated iron. Stearic acid may be recognised by means of boiling alcohol, which dissolves it in nearly all proportions and causes it to deposit crystals on cooling, while it is without action on the wax. Blue litmus paper, immersed in alcohol solution, reddens on drving in air, and thus serves for detecting the presence of stearic acid. Ocher is found by treating the wax with boiling water. A lemon-yellow deposit resiuts, which, taken up with chlorhydric acid, jrields with ammonia a lemon-yellow precipitate of ferric oxide. The powder of burnt bones separates and forms a residue, when the wax is heated with oil of turpentine. Artificial Be«twaz. — This is obtained by mixing the following substances, in ap- proximately the proportions stated: Paru- fine, 45 parts, by weight: white Japan vegetable wax, SO parts, by weight; rosins. or colophonies, 10 parts, by weight; while pitch, 10 parts, by weight; tallow, 5 parts Dy weight; ceresine, colorant* OjOSO parts, hj wei^t; wax perfume, 0.100 parte, by weight. If desired, the paraffine nay be replaced with osokerite, or by a mixtorr of vaseline and ozokerite, for the purpose of var^g the fusing temperature, or rendering it more advantageous for the various applications designed. The fol- lowing is the method of preparation: Melt on the boiling water bath, aha king constantly, the paraffine, the Japan w&t. the rosins, the pitch, and the tallow. When the* fusion is complete, add the colorant and the perfume.^ When these products are pertectly mingled, rcmuw rrom the fire, allow the mixture to cool, and run it into suitable molds. The wax thus obtained may be employed specially for encaustics for furniture and floors, or for purposes where varnish is employed. Waxes for Flooiii Fiiniitiire« etc — I.-> White beeswax 16 parla Colophony .... 4 parts Venice turpentine . . 1 part Melt the artides together over a geatle fire, and when completeljr melted and homogeneous, pour into a siaable earthen- ware vessel, and stir in, while still warm, 6 parts of the best French turpentiaa Co(4 for i4 hours, by which time thr mass has ac face ia hard« then with a stiff brush go over it, mudi after the way of polashinc a boot. For the comers and anglca smaller brushes are used; when necrsaaiy, stiff, pencils may be emplo^d. Finally, the whole is polished with plnah* or velvet rags, in order not to injuiv the orig- inal polish. Give the article a good coat of linseed oil or a washing wnh pttiti- leum before beginning work. n. — Artides that are always enoaed to the water, floora, doors, especially of oak, shottM, from time to tine, ba Digitized by VjOOQ IC WAX 766 rated with oil or wax. A hovse door, plentifully decorated with wood carving, will not shrink or warp, even where the sun shines hottest on it, when it is fre- quently treated to saturation with wax and oil. ^ Here a plain dosage with lin- seed oil is sufficient. Varnish, without the addition of turi>entine, should never be used, or if used it should be followed by a coat of wax. III. — A good floor wax is composed of 2 parts of wax and 3 parts of Venice turpentine, melted on the water bath, and the mixture applied while still hot, using a pencil, or brush, for the application, and when it has become solid and dry, diligently rubbed, or polished down with a woolen cloth, or with a floor brush, especially made for the purpose. IV. — An emulsion of 5 parts of yellow wax, 2 parts of crude potassium carbon- ate, and 12 parts of water, boiled to- gether until tney assume a milky color and the solids are dissolved, used cold, makes an excellent composition for floors. Any desired color ^mav be given this dressing by stirrinff in tne powdered col- oring matter. Use it exactly as de- scribed for the first mass. Grilden* Wax. — For the production of various colorings of gold in fire gilding, the respective places are frequently covered with so-called gilders wax. These consist of mixtures of various chemicals which have an etching action in the red heat upon the bronze mass, thus causing roughness of unequal depth, aa well as througn the fact that the com- position of the bronze is changed some- what on the surface, a relief of the gold color being effected in consequence of these two circumstances. The gilding wax is prepared by melting together the finely powdered chemicals with wax ac- cordmg to the following recipes: I II III IV V Yellow wax 82 82 82 96 86 Red chalk 8 24 18 48 18 Verdigris 2 4 18 82 18 Burnt alum 2 4 — — — Burnt borax — — 2 18 Copperash — 4 6 20 8 Zinc vitriol — — — 82 18 Green vitriol — — — 1 6 Gimftiiig Wax. — I. — Beeswax 7 parts Purified rosin 12 parts Turpentine 8 parts Rape oil 1 part Venice turpentine 2.5 parts Zinc white 2.5 parts Color yellow with turmeaic. II. — Japan wax 1 part Yellow wax 8 parts Rosin 8 parts Turpentine 4 parts Hardparaffine 1 part Suet 8 parts Venice turpentine 6 parts Harness Wax. — Oil of turpentine 90 parts Wax, jellow 9 parts Prussian blue 1 part Indigo 0,5 parts Bone black 5 parts Dissolve the wax in the oil by aid of a low heat, on a water bath. Mix the re- maining ingredients, which must be well powdered, and work up with a portion of the solution of wax. Finally, add the mixture to the solution, and mix thor- oughly on the bath. When a homogene- ous liquid is obtained, pour into earthen boxes. Modeling Wax. — I. — Yellow wax, 1,000 parU; Venice turpentine, 130 parts; lard, 65 parts; bole, 725 parts. The mixture when still liquid is poured into tepid water and kneaded until a plastic mass is obtained. Il.^Summer Modeling Wax. — White wax, 20 parts; ordinary turpentine, 4 parts; sesame oil, 1 part; vermilion, 2 parts. III.— Winter Modeling Wax.— White wax, 20 parts; ordinary turpentine, 6 parts; sesame oil, 2 parts; vermilion, 2 parts. Preparation same as for Formula I. Sealing Waxes. — The following for. mulas may be followed for making seal- ing wax: Take 4 pounds of sheUac, 1 pound of Venice turpentine, and 8 pounds of vermilion. Melt the lac in a copper pan suspended over a clear charcoal nre, then add the turpentine slowly to it, and soon afterwards add the vermilion, stir- ring briskly all the time with a rod in either hand. In forming the round sticks of sealing wax, a certain portion of the mass should be weighed while it is duc- tile, divided into the desired number of pieces, and then rolled out upon a warm marble slab by means of a smooth wooden block like that used by apothecaries for rolling a mass of pills. The oval and square sticks of sealing wax are ca^t in molds, with the above compound, in a state of fusion. The marks of the lines of junction of the mold box may be afterwards removed by holding the sticks over a clear fire, or issing them over a blue gas flame. [arbled sealing wax is made oy mixing Digitized by VjOOQ IC 766 WAX— WEATHER FORECASTERS two, three, or more colored kinds to- gether while they are in a semi-fluid state. From the viscidity of the several portions their incorporation is left in- complete, so as to produce the appearance of marbling. Gold sealing wax is made simply by adding gold chrome instead of vermuion into tne melted rosins. Wax may be scented by introducing a little essential oil, essence of musk, or other perfume. If 1 part of balsam of Peru be melted along with 99 parts of the seal- ing-wax composition, an agreeable fra- grance will be exhaled in the act of sealing with it. Either lampblack or ivonr black serves for the coloring matter of black wax. Sealing wax is often adulterated with rosin, in which case it runs into thin drops at the flame of a candle. The following mistakes are some- times made in the manufacture of sealing wax: I. — Use of filling agents which are too coarsely ground. II. — Excessive use of filling agents. III. — Insuflicient binding of the pis- ments and fillings with a suitable ad- hesive agent, which causes these bodies to absorb the adhesive power of the gums. IV. — Excessive heating of the mass, caused by improper meltinff or faulty admixture of tne gummv boaies. Tur- pentine and rosin must be heated before entering the shellac. If this rule is in- verted, as is often the case, the shellac sticks to the bottom and burns partly. Great care must be taken to mix the coloring matter to a paste with spirit or oil of turpentine before adding to the other ingredients. Unless this is done the wax will not be of a regular tint. Dark Blue Wax. — Three ounces Vene- tian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1 ounce rosin, 1 ounce Prussian blue, } ounce magnesia. Green Wax. — Two ounces Venetian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1} ounces rosm, i ounce chrome yellow, J ounce Prussian blue, 1 ounce magnesia. Carmine Red Wax. — One ounce Vene- tian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1 ounce rosin, colophony, 1 i ounces Chinese red, 1 drachm magnesia, with oil of turpen- tine. Gold Wax. — Four ounces Venetian turpentine, 8 ounces shellac, 14 sheets of genuine leaf gold, I ounce bronse, } ounce magnesia, with oil of turpentine. White Wax.-— I.--The wax is bleached by exposing to moist air and to the sun. but it must first be prepared in fbin sheets or ribbons or in grains. For thi« purpose it is first washed, to free it from the honey which may adhere, melted, and poured into a tin vessel, whose bot- tom is perforated with narrow tUty. The melted wax falls in a thin stfea.sn on a wooden cylinder arranged bclo« and half immersed in cold water. Tbi« cylinder is turned, and the wax, roUinc round in thin leaves, afterwards falls in- to the water. To melt it in grain*, a vessel is made use of, perforated with small openings, which can be rotatetl The wax is projected in grains into the cold water. ^ It is spread on frames of muslin, moistened with water ae^irrat times a day, and exposed to the son qdIiI the^ wax assumes a fine white. Tbi» whiteness, however, is not perfect. Xk« operation of melting and separating into rH)bons or grains must be renewed. Finally, it is melted and flowed into molds. The duration of the bleachiuK may be abridged by adding to the wax. treated as above, from 1.^5 to 1.75 nrr cent of rectified oil of turpentine, free from rosin. In 6 or 8 days a result «-ill be secured which would otherwise re- quire 5 or 6 weeks. II.— Bleached shellac S8 parts Venetian turpentine.. IS parts Plaster of Paris 30 parts WAX FOR BOTTLES: See Photography. WAX, BURHIHG, TRICK: See Pyrotechnics. WAXES, DECOMPOSITIOH OF: See on. WAX FOR IROHniG: See Laundry Preparations. WAX FOR LnrOLEUM: See Linoleum. Weather Forecasters (See also Hygrometers and Higimuupes *i I.— It is known that a leaf of blotting paper or a strip of fabric made to chance color according to the hygrometric ftUte of the atmosphere has been emploved for weather indications in place of a barometer. The following compound i« recommended for this purpose: One part of cobalt chloride, 73 parts of nic ki-l oxide, 80 parts of gelatin, and 400 part* of water. A strip of calico, soaked la this solution, will appear green in 6im» weather, but when moisture inter fen* • the color disappears. Digitized by VjOOQ IC WEATHER FORECASTERS 767 II. — Copper chloride. . .. 1 part Gelatin 10 parts Water 100 parte m. — This is a method of making old- fashioned weather glasses containing a liquid that clouds or solidifies under certain atmospheric conditions: Camphor 2} drachms Alcohol 11 drachms Water 9 drachms Saltpeter.. 38 grains Sal ammoniac. . . . S8 grains Dissolve the camphor in the alcohol and the salts in the water and mix the solutions together. Pour in test tubes, cover with wax after corking and make a hole through the cork wiUi a red-hot needle, or draw out the tube until only a pin hole remains. When the camphor, etc., appear soft and powdery, and almost nllin^ the tube, rain with south or southwest winds may be expected; when crystalline, north, northeast, or north- west winds, with fine weather, may be expected; when a portion crystaUises on one side of the tube, wind may be expected from that direction. Fine weather: The substance remains entirely at bottom of tube and the liquid per- fectly clear. Comin^f rain: Substance will rise gradually, liquid will be verv dear, witn a small star in motion. * A coming storm or very high wind: Sub- stance partly at top of tube, and of a leaflike form, liquid verv heavy and in a fermenting state. These effecto are noticeable 24 hours before the change sets in. In winter: Generally the substance lies higher in the tube. Snow or white frost :^ Substance very white and small stars in motion. Summer weather: The substance will lie quite low. The sub- stance will lie closer to the tube on the opposite side to the quarter from which the storm is coming. The instrument is nothing more than a scientific toy. WEATHERPROOFING : See Painti. WEED KILLERS: See Disinfectante. Weights and Measures mTERVATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS. The International Committee on Atomic Weights have presented this table as corrected: Aluminum Al Antimony Sb Argon A 0-16 H-1 27.1 26.0 120.2 119.8 39.0 39.6 Arsenic As Barium Ba Bismuth Bi Boron B Bromine Br Cadmium Cd Cnsium Cs Calcium Ca Carbon C Cerium Ce Chlorine CI Chromium Cr Cobalt Co Columbium. . . . Cb Copper Cu Erbium £r Fluorine F Gadolinium. . . . Gd Gallium Ga Germanium.. . . Ge Glucinum Gl Gold Au Helium He Hydrogen H Indium In Iodine I Iridium Ir Iron Fe Krypton Kr Lanthanum La Lead Pb Lithium Li Magnesium. . . . Mg Manganese .... Mn Mercurv Hg Molybdenum . . Mo Neodymium Nd Neon Ne Nickel Ni Nitrogen ^. . N Osmium Os Oxygen O Palladium Pd Phosphorus P Platinum Pt Potassium K Praseodymium. Pr Radium Ra Rhodium Rh Rubidium Rb Ruthenium .... Ru Samarium Sm Scandium Sc Selenium Se Silicon Si Silver Ag Sodium Na Strontium Sr Sulphur S TanUlum Ta Tellurium Te Terbium Tb Thallium Tl 0-16 H-1 75 74.4 137.4 136.4 208.5 206.9 11 10.9 79.96 79.36 112.4 111.6 132.9 131.9 40.1 39.7 12 11.91 140.25 139.2 35.45 35.18 52.1 51.7 59 58.55 94 93.3 63.6 63.1 166 164.8 19 18.9 156 154.8 70 69.5 72.5 72 9.1 9. .03 197.2 195.7 4 4 1.008 1 115 114.1 126.97 126.01 193 191.5 55.9 55.5 81.8 81.2 138.9 137.9 206.9 205.35 7.03 6.98 24.36 24.18 55 54.6 200 198.5 96 95.3 143.6 142.5 20 19.9 58.7 58.3 14.04 13.93 191 189.6 16 15.88 106.5 105.7 31 30.77 194.8 193.3 39.15 38.85 140.5 139.4 225 223.3 103 102.2 85.5 84.9 101.7 100.9 150.3 149.2 44.1 43.8 79.2 78.6 28.4 28.2 107.93 107.11 23.05 22.88 87.6 86.94 32.06 31.82 183 181.6 127.6 126.6 160 158.8 204.1 202.6 Digitized by VjOOQ IC 768 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES nrTERHATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS-<>)ntinaed. Thorium Th Thulium Tm Tin Sn TiUnium Ti Tungsten W Uranium U 0-16 H-l 232.5 230.8 171 169.7 119 118.1 48.1 47.7 184 182.6 238.5 236.7 0-16 Vanadium V 51.2 Xenop Xe 128 Ytterbium Yb 173 Yttrium Yt 89 Zinc Zn 65.4 Zirconium Zr 90.6 50 8 127 171. 7 88.3 64.9 89.9 UNITED STATES WEIGHTS AlVD MEASURES (Aooording to existioc Btandards) 12 inches -1 foot. 3 feet - 1 yard. 6.5 yartb— 1 rod. 40 rods— 1 furlong. 8 furlongs— 1 mue. Yards. Rods. Fur's. Mile. LINEAL Icohes. Feet. 13- 1 36-8-1 108- 16.5- 5.5- 1 7.020- 660-220-40-1 63.360- 5,280 - 1.760 -320 - 8 - 1 SURFACE— LAND 144 sq. inches — 1 square foot. 9 BQuare feet— 1 square yard. 30.25 square vards— 1 square rod. 40 square rods — 1 square rood. 4 square roods— 1 acre. 640 acres— 1 square mile. Rods. Roods. Acres. Feet. Yards. 0 - 1 272.25- 30.25- I 10.890- 1.210- 40- 1 43.560- 4.840- 160- 4- I 27.878.400-8.007.600- 102.400-2«560-6«0 VOLUME— LIQUID 4 gills - 1 pint. I Gills. Pints. Oallon. Cub. In. 2 pinto - 1 quart. 32-8-1-231 4 quarto— 1 gallon. | FLUID MEASURE Gallon. Pinto. Ounces. Drachma. Minims. Cubic C 1 - 8 - 128 - 1.024 - 61.440 - 3.765.435 1 - 16 - 128 - 7.680 - 473.179 1 - 8 - 480 - 20.574 1 - 60 - 3.697 16 ounces, or a pint, is sometimes called a fluidpoond. TROY WEIGHT Pound. Ounces. Pennyweights. Qnuns. Oramsi 1 - 12 - 240 - 5.760 - 373.24 1 - 20 - 480 - 31.10 1 - 24-1.56 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT lb. ! 3 9 gr. Pound. Ounces. Drachms. Scruples. Grains. Grams. 1 - U - 96 - 288 - 5.760 - 373.24 1-8-24- 480- 31.10 1 - 3 - 60 - 3.80 1 - 20 - IJO 1 - .06 The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in IVoy wwgbt. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT Pound. Ounces. Drachms. Grains (Troy) Grams. 1 - 16 - 256 - 7,000 - 453.60 1 - 16 - 437.6 - 28.35 1 - 27.34 - l.n ENGLISH WEIGHTS AlVD MEASURES APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 20 grains - 1 scruple - SO grains 3 scruples - 1 dracnm -- 60 grains 8 dracnms - 1 ounce - 480 grains li ounces - 1 pound -5,760 grains FLUID MEASURE 60 minims - 1 fluidracbm 8 drachms - 1 fluidounce 20 ounces - 1 pint 8 pints - 1 gallon The above weights are usually adopted in formulas. All chemicals are usually sold by AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 2711 mina - 1 dnusfam— S7U 16 draohms— 1 ounc* •• 437( 16 ounoM — Ipoond —7X100 Precious metals are usually sold by TROY WEIGHT 24snuns -1 pemiyweicfat- a4graiai 20penaywetghU-I ounce - 480vBhw 1 2 ouDOM — 1 pound — 5.7SD cmiiu NoTB. — An ottnee ol metalUe mhror 480 gnun«. but sn ouoos of aitrato of «lv«r Uins ooJy 437^ trauu. Digitized by VjOOQ IC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 759 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES MEASURES OF LENGTH Dbnominationb AND Va£uGS. Equitalents in Use. MynAHM^*^- 10.000 metert 1.000 meters 100 meters 10 meters 1 meter l-lOthofameter 1-1 00th of a meter 1-l.OOOthofameter ft2137 milee Kilometer .82137 miles, or 3.280 feet. 10 inches Hectometer 328 feet and 1 ioeh Dekameter. 383.7 inches Meter 3037 inches Decimeter 3.037 inches Centilneter ^937 inifh^ D394 inches MEASURES OF SURFACE Dknominatiomi and Values. Equiyalcntb in Use. Hectare 10.000 square meters 1 square meter 2.471 acres Are : Centan^. . . ... 1 1 0.6 square yards 1 .550 square mches MEASURES OF VOLUME Denoicinatigns and Values. Equivalents in Use. Names. ^'^ Cubic Measures. Dry Measure. Wine Measure. KUoUterorstere. Hectoliter Dekaliter Liter 1.000 leubie meter 100 1-lOtheubie meter 10 10 cubic decimeters 1 1 cubic decimeter 1-1.000 1 1 cubic centimeter 1.308 cubic yards 2 bushels and 3.35 pecks 9.08 quarts .006 quarts 6.1023 cubic inches .6102 cubic inches .061 cubic inches 264.17 saUons 26.417 gallons 2.6417 gallons 1.0567 quarts .845 nils .338 luidounces .27 fluidrachms Deciliter Centiliter MiUiUter WEIGHTS Denominations and Values. Equivalents IN Use. Names. Number Weight or Volume or Water or Grams. at m Maximum Densitt. AvoiRDuron Weight. Millier erIy done, a pretty scene. Take care in pouring in the water to let the point of tne tube be so arranged as not to disturb the crop of silicates. WINDOW PERFUME. In Parts an apparatus has been intro- duced consisting of a small tube which is attached lengthwise on the exterior of the shop windows. Through numerous little holes a warm, lightly perfumed current of air is passed, which pleasantly tickles the olfactory nerves of tne looker- on and at the same time keeps the panes clear and clean, so that the goods exhib- ited present the best possible appearance. WINDOW POLISHES: See Polishes. WINDOWS, FROSTED: See Glass. WINDOWS. TO PREVENT DDDmiG OF: See Glass. Wines and Liqnore BITTERS. Bitters, as the name indicates, are merely tinctures of bitter roots a ad barks, with the addition of spices to flavor, and depend for their effect un«ftn their tonic action on the stomach. Taken too frequently, however, they may do harm, by overstimulating the digestive organs. The recipes for some of these prepara- tions run to great len^hs, one for An- gostura bitters containing no fewer tkaa 28 ingredients. A verv good article, la>« • ever, maybe made without all this elabu- ration. The following, for instance, make a very good preparation : Gentian root (sliced).. 12 ounces Cinnamon bark 10 ounces Caraway seeds 10 ounces Juniper berries S ounces Cloves 1 ounce Alcohol, 00 per cent . . 7 pint* Macerate for a week; strain, preas out, and filter, then add Capillaire 1 1 pints Water to make up. ... 2} gallons Strength about 45 u. p. Still another formula calls for Angostura bark, 2) ounces; gentian root, 1 ouacr; cardamom seeds, } ounce; Turkey rhufaarti, i ounce; orange peel. 4 ounces; oafrnway*, i ounce; cinnamon bark, ) ounce; clo%«a, I ounce. Brandy Bitten. — Sliced gentian root. . . S pounds Dried orange peel 2 pounds Cardamom seed 1 pound Bruised cinnamon ) pound Cochineal 2 ounces Brandy 10 pint* Macerate for 14 days and strain. Hottetter*t Bitter*.— Calamus root 1 pound Orani^peel 1 pound Peruvutn bark 1 pound Gentian root 1 pound Digitized by VjOOQ IC WINES AND LIQUORS 763 Calomba root 1 pound Rhubarb root 4 ounces Cinnamon bark 2 ounces Cloves 1 ounce Diluted alcohol 2 gallons Water 1 gallon Sugar I pound Macerate together for 2 weeks. CORDIALS. Cordials, according to the Spahda, are flavored liquors containing from 40 to 50 per cent of alcohol (from 52 to 64 fluidounces to each gallon) and from 20 to 25 per cent of sugar (from 25 to 32 ounces avoirdupois to each gallon). Cordials, while used in this country to some degree, have their greatest con- sumption in foreign lands, especially in Prance and Germany. Usually such mixtures as these are clarified or "fined*' only with consider- able difficulty, as the finally divided particles of oil pass easilv through the pores of the filter paper. Purified talcum will be found to be an excellent clarifying medium; it should be agitated with the liquid and the liquid then passed through a thoroughly wetted filter. The filtrate should be returned again and again to the filter until it filters perfectly bright. Purified talcum being chemically inert is superior to magnesium carbonate and other substances which are recom- mended for this purpose. When the filtering process is com- pleted the liquids should at once be put into suitable bottles which should be filled and tightly corked and sealed. Wrap the bottles in paper and store away, laying the bottles on their sides in a moderately warm place. A shelf near the ceiling is a good place. Warmth and age improve the beverages, as it appears to more perfectiv blend the flavors, so that the older tne licjuor becomes the better it is. These liquids must never be kept in a cold place, as the cold might cause the volatile oils to separate. The following formulas are for the production of cordials of the best quality, and therefore only the very best of materials should be used; the essential oils should be of unquestionable quality and strictly fresh, while the alcohol must be free from fusel oil, the water distilled, and the sugar white, free from bluing, and if liquors of any kind should be called for in any formula only the very best should be used. The oils and other flavoring substances should be dissolved in the alcohol and the sugar in the water. Then mix the two solutions and filter clear. Alkermes Cordial. — Mace . . .^ 1} avoirdupois ounces Ceylon cinnamon 1| avoirdupois ounces Cloves I avoirdupois ounce Rose water (best) 6 fluidounces Sugar 28 avoirdupois ounces Deodorized al- cohol 52 fluidounces Distilled water, q. s 1 gallon Reduce the mace, cinnamon, and cloves to a coarse powder, macerate with the alcohol for several days, agitating occasionally, then add the remaining ingredients, and filter clear. Anise Cordial. — Anethol 7 fluidrachms Oil of fennel seed. . 80 minims Oil of bitter almonds 16 drops Deodorized alcohol 8 pints Simple syrup 5 pints Distdled water, q. s. 16 pints Mix the oils and anethol with the alcohol and the svrup with the water; mix the two and filter clear, as directed. Blackberry Cordial. — This beverage is usuallv misnamed "blackberry brandy** or "blackberry wine," This latter be- longs only to wines obtained by the fermentation of the blackberry juice. When this is distilled then a true black- berry brandy is obtained, just as ordinary brandy is obtained by distilling ordinary wines. The name is frec^uentlv applied to a preparation containing blackberry root often combined with other astringents, but the true blackberry cordial is made according to the formulas ^iven here- with. ^ Most of these mention brandy, and this article should be good and fusel free, or it may be replaced bv good whisky, or even by diluted alcohol, de- pending on whether a high-priced or cheap cordialis desired. I. — Fresh blackberry juice, 8 pints; sugar, 7} ounces; water, 30 fluidounces; brandy, 7} pints; oil of cloves, 3 drops; oil of cinnamon, 3 drops; alcohol, 6 fluidrachms. Dissolve the sugar in the water and juice, then add the liquor. Dissolve the oils in^ the alcohol and add i^ to the first solution, and if not suffi- ciently flavored add more of the second solution. Then filter. II. — Fresh blackberry juice, 4 pints; powdered nutmeg (fresh). 1 ounce; pow- dered cinnamon (fresh), 1 ounc^; powdered pimento (fresh), Jounce; powdered doves Digitized by VjOOQ IC 764 WINES AND LIQUORS (fresh), ) ounce; brandy, 2) pints; sugar, ii pounds. Macerate the spices in the brandy for several days. Dissolve the sugar in the juice and mix and filter clear. Cherry Cordials. — I. — Oil of bitter almonds 8 drops Oil of cinnamon 1 drop Oil of cloves 1 drop Acetic ether 112 drops Ceuanthic ether 1 drop Vanilla extract 1 drachm Alcohol 8 pints Sugar 8 pounds Cherrv juice 20 ounces Distilled water, q. s. . 1 gallon The oils, ethers, and extracts must be dissolved in the alcohol, the suffar in part of the water, then mix, add the juice and filter clear. When the juice is not suflBciently sour, add a small amount of solution of citric acid. To color, use caramel. II. — Vanilla extract 10 drops Oil of cinnamon 10 drops Oil of bitter almonds. 10 drops Oil of cloves 8 drops Oil of nutmeg 8 drops Alcohol 2i pints Cherry juice 2} pints Simple syrup 8 pints Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, then add the other ingredients and filter clear. It is better to make this cordial during the cherry season so as to obtain the fresh expressed juice of the cherry. Curacoa Cordials. — I. — Curacoa orange peel.. 6 ounces Cinnamon | ounce Mace 2} drachms Alcohol 8} pints Water 41 pints Sugar 12 ounces Mix the first three ingredients and re- duce them to a coarse powder, then mix with the alcohol and 4 pints of water and macerate for 8 days with an occasional agitation, express, add the sugar and enough water to make a gallon of finished product. Filter clear. II. — Curacoa or bitter orange peel 2 ounces Cloves 80 grains Cinnamon 80 grains Cochineal 60 grains Oil of orange (best) . . 1 drachm Orange- flower water. } pint Holland gin 1 pint Alcohol 2 pints Sugar 8 pints Water, q. s 1 gallon Reduce the solids to a coarse powder, add the alcohol and macerate S days Then add the oil, gin, and 8 pints of water and continue the maceration for 8 days more, agitating once a dar, strmia and add susar dissolved in balance of the water. Then add the orange-flower water and filter. Kola Cordial. — Kola nuts, roasted and powdered 7 ounces Cochineal powder. ... 80 grains Extract of vanilla 8 dmcbnis Arrac 8 ounces Sugar 7 poundb Alcohol 6 pints Water, distilled 6 pinU Macerate kola and cochineal with alcohol for 10 days, agitate daily. Jtdd arrac, vanilla, and sugar dissolved in water. Filter. Ktimmel Cordials. — I. — Oil of caraway.^ 80 drops Oil of peppermint. ... 8 drops Oil of lemon 8 drops Acetic ether 80 drops Spirit of nitrous ether 80 drops Sugar 72 ounces Alcohol 06 ounces Water 06 ounces Dissolve the oils and ethers in the al- cohol, and the sugar in the water. Mtx and filter. II. — Oil of caraway 20 drops Oil of sweet fennel ... 2 drops Oil of cinnamon I drop Sugar 14 ounces Alcohol 2 pints Water 4 pints Prepare as in Formula I. Orange Cordials. — Many of the prepa- rations sold under this name are not really orange cordiab, but are varying mixtures of uncertain composition, pu*- sibly flavored with orange. The follov- ing are made by the use of oranges: I. — Sugar 8 avoirdupois pounds Water 2] gallons Oranges.. . .15 Dissolve the sugar in the water by the aid of a gentle heat, express the orange«, add the juice and rinds to the syrup, pot the mixture into a cask, keep the wboU in a warm place for 8 or 4 days, stirriac frequently, then dose the cask, set n»dr in a cool cellar and draw off tlie tirmr liquid. II. — Express the juice from sweet oranges, add water equal to the wiv Digitized by VjOOQ IC WINES AND UQUORS 766 of juice obtained, and macerate the ex- {pressed oranges with the juice and water or about 12 nours. For each gallon of juice, add 1 pound of granulated sugar, pape su^r, or glucose, i>ut the whole into a suitable vessel, covering to exclude the dust, place in a warm location until fermentation is completed, draw off the clear liquid, and preserve in well-stop- pered stout bottles in a cool place. III. — Orange wine suitable for "soda" Surooses may be prepared by mixing S uiaounces of orange essence with IS fluidounces of sweet Catawba or other mild wine. Some syrup may be added to this if desired. Rose Cordial. — Oil of rose, very best. . S drops Palmarosa oil 3 drops Sugar 28 ounces Alcohol 52 ounces Distilled water, q. s . . 8 pints Dissolve the sugar in the water and the oils in the alcohol; mix the solutions, color a rose tint, and filter clear. Spearmint Cordial. — Oil of spearmint SO drops Sugar 28 Ounces Alcohol 52 ounces Distilled water, q. s . . 8 pints ^ Dissolve the sugar in the water and the oil in the alcohol; mix the two solutions, color green, and filter clear. Absinthe.— I. — Oil of wormwood... 96 drops Oil of star anise ... 72 drops Oil of aniseed 48 drops Oil of coriander. . . 48 drops Oil of fennel, pure . 48 drops Oil of angelica root 24 drops Oil of thyme 24 drops Alcohol (pure) . . . .162 fluidounces Distilled water. ... SO fluidounces Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, add the water, color green, and filter clear. II. — Oil of wormwood. . 36 drops Oil of orange peel . 30 drops Oil of star anise. . . 12 drops Oil of neroli petate. 5 drops Fresh oil of lemon. 9 drops Acetic ether 24 drops Sugar SO avoirdupois ounces Alcohol, deodorised 90 fluidounces Distilled water 78 fluidounces Dissolve the oils and ether in the alcohol and the sugar in the water; then mix thoroughly, color green, and filter dear. DETAHIIATQIG WINE. According to Caspari, the presence of appreciable a uan titles of tannin in wine is decidedly oojectionable if the wine is to be used in connection with iron and other metallic salts; moreover, tannin is incompatible with alkaloids, and hence wine not deprived of its tannin should never be used as a menstruum for alka- loidal drugs. The process of freeing wines from tannin is termed detannation, and is a very simple operation. The easiest plan is to add } ounce of gelatin in number 40 or number 60 powder to 1 gallon of the wine, to agitate oc- casionally during 24 or 48 hours, and then to mter. The operation is prefer- ably carried out during cold weather or in a cold apartment, as heat will cause the gelatin to dissolve, and the macera- tion must be continued until a small Sortion of the wine mixed with a few rops of ferric chloride solution shows no aarkening of color. Gelatin in large pieces is not suitable, especially with wines containing much tannin, since the newly formed tannate of gelatin will be deposited on the surface ' and prevent further intimate contact of the gelatin with the wine. Formerly freshhr pre- pared ferric hydroxide was mucn em- ployed for detannating wine, but the chief objection to its use was due to the fact that some iron invariably was taken up by the acid present in the wine; moreover, the process was more tedious than in the case of gelatin. As the removal of tannin from wine in no way interferes with its qualit]^ — alcoholic strength and aroma remaining the same, and only coloring matter oeing lost — a supply of detannated wine should be kept on hand, for it requires very little more labor to detannate a gallon than a pint. If ferric hvdroxide is to be used, it must be freshly prepared, and a con- venient quantity then be added to the wine — about 8 ounces of the expressed, but moist, precipitate to a gallon. PREVEirnON OF FERMENTATION. Fermentation may be prevented in either of two ways: (1) Bv chemical methods, which con- sist in tne addition of germ poisons or antiseptics, which either kill the germs or prevent their growth. Of these the principal ones used are salicjrlic, sul- phurous, boracic, and benzoic acids, formalin, fluorides, and saccharine. As these substances are generally regarded as adulterants and injurious, their use is not recommended. (2) The germs are either removed by Digitized by VjOOQ IC 766 WINES AND UQUORS some mechanical means such as a filter- ing or a centrifugal apparatus, or they are destroyed by heat or electricity. Heat has so far been found the most practical. ^ When a liquid is heated to a sufficiently high temperature all organisms in it are killed. The degree of heat required, however, differs not only with the par- ticular kind^ of organism, but also with the liquid in which it is held. Time is also a factor. An organism may not be killed if heated to a nigh temperature and quickly cooled. I^ however, the temperature is kept at the same high degree for some time, it will be killed. It must also be borne in mind that fungi, including yeasts, exist in the growing and the restinj^ states, the latter being much more resistant than the former. One characteristic of the fungi and their spores is their great resistance to heat when dry. In this state they can be heated to ^IS"" F. without being killed. The spores of the common mold are even more resistant. This should be well con- sidered in sterilizing bottles and corks, which should be steamed to 240^ F. for at least 15 minutes. Practical tests so far made indicate that grape juice can be safely sterilized at from 1^5"* to 176f F. At this tem- perature the flavor is hardly changed, while at a temperature much am>ve 200'' F. it is. This is an important point, as the flavor and quality of the product depend on it. Use only clean, sound, well-ripened, but not over-ripe grapes. If an ordinary cider mill is at hand, it may be used for crushing and pressing, or the grapes may be crushed and pressed witn the hands. If a light-colored juice is desired, put the crusned grapes in a cleanly washed cloth sack and tie up.^ Then either hang up securely and twist it or let two persons take hold, one on each end of the sack and twist until the great- er part of the juice is expressed. Next gradually heat the juice in a double boiler or a large stone jar in a pan of hot water, so that the juice does not come in direct contact with the fire at a tempera- ture of 180*» to 200® F., never above 200® F. It is best to use a thermometer, but if there be none at hand heat the juice until it steams, but do not allow it to boil. Put it in a glass or enameled vessel to settle for 24 hours; carefully drain the juice from the sediment, and run it through several thicknesses of clean flannel, or a conic filter made from woolen cloth or felt may be used. This filter is fixed to a hoop of iron, which can be suspended wherever After this fill into clean bottles. Do n<>l fill entirely, but leave room for the liquid to expand when again heated. Fit a thin board over the bottom of an ordinal^ wash boiler, set the filled bottles (ord>- nanr ^lass fruit jars are just as gooid) in it, fill in with water around the bottles In within about an inch of the tops, and graduallv heat until it is about to simmer. Then take the bottles out and cork or seal immediately. It is a good idem to take the further precaution of sealing the corks over with sealing wax or paralfioe to prevent mold germs from entering through the corks. ^ Should it be d«^ sired to make red iuioe, heat the crashed grapes to not aoove 200® F., strmtn through a clean doth or drip bag (oe pressure should be used), ael away to cool and settle, and proceed the same a.s with light-colored juice. Many people do not even go to the trouble of lettinc the juice settle after straining it, biit re- heat and seal it up immediAtelv, samiilT setting the vessel away in a cool place lo an upright position where they win hr undisturbed. The juice is thus allowed to settle, and when wanted for use the clear juice is simply taken off the aedi- ment. Any person familiar with the process of canning fruit can also preserve gra(>e juice, for the principles involved are identical. One of the leading defects so far found in unfermented juice is that much of it is not clear, a condition which very mat It detracts from its otherwise attradive ao* pearance, and due to two causes almauy alluded to. Either the final sterilicatacia in bottles has been at a higher tempera- ture than the preceding one, or the juiee has not been properly filtered or haa n«4 been filtered at all. ^ In other cases the juice has been sterilized at such a high temperature that it has a disagreeable scorched taste. It should be rrmembeml that attempts to sterilize at a tempera- ture above 195® F. are dangerous so far as the flavor of the finidicn produci b concerned. Another serious mistake is sometimrs made by puttins the juice into boCtlra so larae that mucn of it become* apoi)ed before it is used after the botllea are opened. Unfermented grape juice prop- erly made and bottled will keep in- definitely, if it is not exposed to the atmosphere or mold germs; but when a bottle is once opened it should, like canned goods, be used as soon as pi.MwlJc to keep from spoOing. Another method of making unfer* mented grape juice, which is oflea i«» Digitized by VjOOQ IC WINES AND LIQUORS 767 sorted to where a sufficiently large quantity is made at one time, consists m Take a clean keg or barrel (one that has previously been made sweet). Lay this upon a SKid consisting of two scant- lings or pieces of timber of perhaps 20 feet long* in such a manner as to make a runwav. Then take a sulphur match, made oy dipping strips of clean muslin about 1 inch wide and 10^ inches long into melted brimstone, cool it and attach it to a piece of wire fastened in the lower end of a bung and bent over at the end, so as to form a hook. Light the match and by means of the wire suspend it in the barrel, bung the barrel up tight, and allow it to burn as long as it wfll. Re~ peat this until fresh sulphur matches will no longer burn in the barrel. Then take enough fresh grape juice to 611 the barrel one-third fuU, bung up tight, roll and agitate violentlv on the skid for a few mmutes. Next burn more sulphur matches in it until no more will bum, fill in more luice until the barrel is about two-thirds full; agitate and roll again. Repeat the burning process as oefore, after which fill the barrel completelv with grape juice and roll. The Darrei should then be bunged tightly and stored in a cool place with the bung up, and so securea that the package cannot be shaken. In the course of a few weeks the juice will have become clear and can then be racked off and filled into bottles or jars direct, sterilised, and corked or sealed up ready for use. fiv this method, however, unless skillfully nandled, the juice is apt to have a slight taste of the sulphur. The following are the component parts of a California and a Concord unfer- mented grape juice: Con- Gali- oord fomia Per Per Cent Cent Solid contents 80. S7 80.60 Total acids (as tartaric). . 663 . 5S Volatile acids 02S .03 Grape sugar 18.54 19.15 Free tartaric acids 025 . 07 Ash i55 .19 Phosphoric acids 027 . 04 Cream of tartar 55 .50 This table is interesting in so far that the California unfermented grape juice was made from Viniferas or foreign varieties, whereas the Concord was a Labruska or one of the American sorts. The difference in taste and smell is even more pronounced than the analysis would indicate. Small quantities of grape juice may be E reserved in bottles. Fruit is likely to e dusty and to be soiled in other ways, and grapes, like other fruits, should be well washed before using. Leaves or other extraneous matter snould also be removed. The juice is obtained by moderate pressure in an ordinary screw press, ana^ strained through felt. Bj gently heating, the albuminous matter is coagulated and naay be skimmed off, and furtoer clarification may be effected by filtering through paper, but such filtra- tion must be done as rapidly as possible, using^ a number of filters and excluding the air as much as possible. The iuice so obtained may be pre- served by sterilization, in the following manner: Put the juice in the bottles in which it is to be Kept, filling them very nearlv full; place tne bottles, unstop- perea, in a kettle filled with cold water, so arranging them on a wooden per- forated "false bottom" or other like con- trivance a^ to prevent their immediate contact with the metal, this preventing unequal heating and possible fracture. Now heat the water, gradually raising the temperature to the boiling point, and maintain at that until the juice attains a boiling temperature: then close the bottles with perfectly fitting corks, which have been Kept immersed in boiling water for a short time before use. The corks should not be fastened in any way, for, if the sterilization is not complete, fermentation and consequent explosion of the bottle may occur unless the cork should be forced out. If the juice is to be used for syrup, as for use at the soda fountain, the best method is to make a concentrated syrup at once, using about 2 pounds of refined sugar to 1 pint of juice, dissolving by a Sentle heat. This syrup may be made y simple agitation without heat; and a finer flavor thus results, but its keeping quality would be uncertain. The juices found in the market are fre- quently preserved by means of antiseptics, but so far none have been proposed for this purpose which can be considered en- tirely wnolesome. Physiological experi- ments have shown that while bodies suited for this purpose may be apparently with- out bad effect at first; their repeated in- gestion is likely to cause gastnc disturb- ance. SPARKLnfG WdES. An apparatus for converting still into foaming wines, and doing this efiiciently, simply, and rapidly, consists of a vertical steel tube, which turns on an axis, and Digitized by VjOOQ IC 768 WINES AND LIQUORS bears several adjustable glass globes that are in connection with each other by means of distributing valves, the latter being of silyer-plated^ronze. The glass globes serve as containers for carbonic acid, and are kept supplied with this gas from a cylinder connected therewith. The wine to be impregnated with the acid^ is taken from a cask, through a special tube, which also produces a Tight pressure of carbonic acid on the cask, the object of which is to prevent the access of atmospheric air to the wine within, and, besides, to cause the liquid to pass into the bottle without jar or stroke. The bottles stand under the distributing valves, or levers, placed above and below them. Now, if the cock, by means of which the glass bulbs and the bottles are brought into connection, is slightly opened, and the desired lever is put in action, the carbonic acid at once forces the air out of the bottles, and sterilizes them. The upper bottles are now gradu- ally filled. The whole apparatus, in- cluding the filled bottles, is now tilted over, and the wine, of its own weight, flows through collectors filled with car- bonic acid, and passes, impregnated with the gas, into other bottles placed below. Each bottle is filled in course, the time required for each being some 45 seconds. The saturation of the liquid with car- bonic acid is so complete and plentiful that there is no need of hurry in corking. By means of this apparatus any desirra still wine is at once converted into a sparkling one, preserving at the same time its own peculiarities of taste, bou- quet, etc. The apparatus may be used equally well upon fruit juices, milk, and, in fact, any kind of liauid, its extreme simplicity permitting oi easy and rapid cleansing. ARTIFICIAL FRENCH BRAUDT. I. — The following is Eugene Dieterich's formula for Spintus vini Oallici arti- fieiaiis: Tincture of gall- apples 10 parts Aromatic tincture.. . 5 parts Purified wood vine- gar 5 parts Spirit of nitrous ether 10 parts Acetic ether 1 part Alcohol, 68 per cent. 570 parts Distilled water 400 parts Mix, adding the water last, let stand for several days, then filter. II.— The Mtinekener ApothekerVerein has adopted the following formula for the same thing: Acetic acid, dilute, 00 per cent 4 parts Acetic ether 4 parts Tincture aromatic . . 40 parts Cognac essence 40 parts Spirit of nitrous ether 20 parts Alcohol, 00 per cent.5,000 parts Water, distilled 8,500 parU Add the acids, ethers, etc., to tbe alcohol, and finally add the water. Let stand several days, and, if necessary, filter. III.— The Berlin Apothecaries have adopted the following as a magistral formula: Aromatic tincture.. . 4 parts Spirit of nitrous ether 5 parts Alcohol, 00 per cent. 1,000 parts D i s t i 1 1 e a water, quantity sufficient to make 8,000 parts Mix the tincture and ether with tbe alcohol, add the water and for evrry ounce add one drop of tincture of rhatany. Of these formulas the^ first b to he preferred as a close imitation of the taste of the genuine article. To imitate the color use burnt sugar. LIQUEURS. Many are familiar with the properties of liqueurs but believe them to be very com- pjex and even mysterious compounds. This is, of course, due to the fact that the formulas are of foreign origin and many of them have been Kept more or less secret for some time. Owing to the peculiar combination of the bouquet oila and flavors, it is impossible to make ac- curate analyses of them. But by the use of formulas now given, these products seem to be very nearly duplicated. It is necessary to use the best sugar and oils obtainable in the preparatioD of the liqueurs. As there are so many grades of essential oils on the markrC it is diflScult to obtain the best indirectly. The value of the cordials is enhanced by the richness and odor and flavor of the oils, so only the best qualities should be used. For filtering, flannel or felt is valuable. Flannel is cheaper and more easily washed. It is necessary to return filtrate several times with any of the filtenag media. As a clarifying agent talcum aUowvd to stand several days acts well. Thcae rules arc common to all. Digitized by VjOOQ IC WINES AND LIQUORS 769 The operations are all simple: First: Heat all mixtures. Second: Keep the product in the dark. Third: Keep in warm place. Tne liaueurs are heated to ripen the bouquet flavor, it having effect similar to age. To protect the ethereal oils, air and light are excluded ; hence it is recom- mended that the bottles be filled to the stopper. The liqueurs taste best at a temperature not exceeding 55* F. They are all improved with age, especially many of the bouquet oils. B£ii6dictiiie.-- I. — Bitter almonds.. 40 grams Powdered nut- meg 4.500 grams Extract vanilla.. ISO grams Powdered cloves. £ grams Lemons, sliced.. 2 grams True saffron .600 grams Sun^r 2,000 grams Boiling milk 1,000 c.c. Alcohol, 95 per cent 2,000 c.c. Distilled water.. 2,500 c.c. Mix. Let stand 0 days with occasional agitation. Filter sufficiently. II. — Essence Bene- dictine 75 c.c Alcohol, 05 per cent 1,700 c.c. Mix. Sugar 1,750 grams Water, distilled. 1,600 c.c. Mix together, when clear solution of sugar is obtained. Color with caramel. Filter sufficiently. Note. — This liqueur should be at least 1 year old before used. Essence Bfo^dictiiie for B6n6dictiiie No. n, — I. — Myrrh. 1 part Decorticated carda- m into the f. The bottlr. valves, or I. them. N..'. which thr are brou^'',- opened, ai . action, th. the air ou* them. '1 ; aUy filltMl. eluding fi. over, and - flows thr..- bonic acid the gas, it Each b(»c required t The satii, bonic aci. that therr By me;t BtiJl wiri« sparkling' time its o quet. etc. equally w . in fact, a simplicitN deansiii/^v AMiFic; I.— Tl. formula : fieialis: Ti :i An Pu sp: A). Di Mix, .. or aever ■ Il.-f asadop' imcthi- ■ — .\n» — •♦,!'» to - 1 _.trar.k, - ■ - :r wjnf, .'-= .-^ f »r • ^- *.i :♦ •r Han- Digitized by VjOOQ IC WINES AND UQUORS— WIRE ROPE 771 dered alum is frequently employed. Make a trial with 200 parts of the dim liqueur* to which 1.5 parts of burnt powdered alum is added; shake well and let stand until the liauid is dear. Then decant and filter the last portion. If the trial is successful, the wnole stock may be clarified in this manner. MEDICnCAL WHfES: Beef and Iron. — The following form ula is recommended by the American Phar* maceutical Association: I. — Extract of beef. ... 35 grams Tincture of citro- chloride of iron. . S5 c.c. Compound spirit of orange 1 c.c. Hot water 60 c.c. Alcohol 125 c.c. Syrup.... 125 c.c. Sherry wine suffi- cient to make.. . . 1,000 c.c. Rub the extract of beef with the hot water, and add, while stirring, the alcohol. Allow to stand S days or more, then filter and distill off the alcohol. Add to the residue 750 cubic centimeters of the wine, to which the compound spirit of orange has been previously added. Finally add the tincture of citro- chloride of iron, syrup, and enough wine to make 1,000 cubic centimeters. Filter if necessary. II. — For Poultry and Stodc-^A good formula for wine of beef and iron is as follows: Beef extract 256 grains Tincture . of iron citro-chloride . . .256 minims Hot water 1 fluidounce Sherry wine enough to make 1 pint Pour the hot water in the beef extract and triturate until a smooth mixture is made. To this add, gradually and under constant stirring, 12 ounces of the wine. Add now, under same conditions, the iron, stir in well, and finally add the remainder of the wine. Cinchona. — I. — Macerate 100 parts of cinchona succirubra in coarse powder for SO minutes in 100 parts of boiling water. Strain off the liquor and set aside. Macerate the residuum in 1,000 parts of California Malaga for 24 hours, strain off the liquid and ^ set aside. Finally macerate the magma in 500 parts of alcohol, of 50 per cent, for 1 nour, strain off and set aside. Wash the residue with a little water to recover all the alcoholic tincture; then unite all the liquids, let stand for 24 hours, and filter. To the filtrate add 800 parts loaf sugar and dissolve by the aid of gentle heat and again filter. The product is all that could be asked of a wine of cinchona. To make a ferrated wine of this, dissolve 1 part of citro-ammoniacal pyrophos- phate of iron to every 1,000 parts of wine. II. — Yvon recommends the following formula: Red cinchona, coarse powder 5 parts Alcohol, 60 per cent. . 10 parts Diluted hydrochloric acid 1 part Bordeaux wine 100 parts Macerate the bark with the acid and alcohol for 6 days, shaking from time to time, add the wine, macerate for 24 hours, agitating frequently, then filter. RemoYal of Musty Taste and Smell from Wine. — For the removal of this unpleasant quality, Kulisch recommends the use of a piece of charcoal of about the size of a hazel nut — 5 to 10 parts per 1,000 parts of wine. After this has remained m the cask for 6 to 8 weeks, and during this time has been treated once a week with a chain or with a stirring rod, the wine can be racked off. Obstinate turbid- ness, as well as stalk taste and pot flavor, can also be obviated by the use of the remedy. WmTER OIL: See Oil. WmXERGREEN, TO DISTINGUISH METHYL SALICYLATE FROM OIL OF. A quantity of the sample is mixed in a test tube with an equal volume of pure concentrated sulphuric acid. Under these conditions the artificial compound shows no rise in temperature^ and ac- quires only a slight veliowish tint, while with the natural oil there is a marked rise in temperature and the mixture aKsumes a rose-red color, gradually passing into darker shades. WIRE ROPE. See also Steel. A valuable anti-friction and preserva- tive compound for mine cables is as follows: Seven parts soft tallow and 3 parts plumbago, mixed thoroughly; make a long, hollow box or trough, gouge out a 4 by 6 piece of scantling about 2 feet long, sawing it down lengthwise and hollowing out the box or trough enough to hold several pounds of the compound, I making also a hole lengthwise of the Digitized by VjOOQ IC 772 WIRE ROPE— WOOD trough for the cable to run through; then affix to rope and clamp securelj^, having the box or trough so fixed that it cannot play, and letting the cable pass through it while going up or down, so that it will get a thorougn coating. This, it is found, will preserve a round cable very well, and can be used at least once a week. For a flat steel cable raw linseed oil can be used instead of the tallow, in about the firoportion of 6 parts oil and S plumbago. f tar is used, linseed oO is to be addedto keep the tar from adhering, both in- gredients to be mixed while warm. To preserve wire rope laid under ground, or under water, coat it with a mixture of mineral tar and fresh slaked lime in the proportion of 1 bushel of lime to 1 barrel of tar. The mixture is to be boiled, and the rope saturated with it while hot; sawdust is sometimes added to give the mixture body. Wire rope ex- posed to the weather is coated witn raw linseed oil, or with a paint composed of equal parts of Spanisn brown or lamp- black with linseed oil. WIRE HARDElfING: See Steel. WIRE PAnnS: See Paints. WITCH-HAZEL JELLT: See Cosmetics. Wood DECORATIVE WOOD-FIinSH. Paint or stencil wood with white-lime paint. When it has dried slowly in the shade, brush it off and a handsome dark- brown tone will be imparted to the oak- wood. Some portions which may be desired darker and redder are stained again with lime, whereby these places become deeper. It is essential that the lime be applied in even thickness and dried slowly, for only then the staining will be red and uniform. After the staining saturate the wood with a mixture of varnish, 2 parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part; turpentine, ) part. When the oil ground is dry apply 2 coatings of pale amber varnish. Colored decorations on ptnewood can be produced as follows: The most difficult part of the work is to remove the rosin accumulations with- out causing a spot to appear. Bum out the places carefully with a red-hot iron. Great care is necessary to prevent the iron from setting the rosin on fire, thus causing black smoke clouds. The resulting holes are filled ud wilJi plaster to which a little light ocher is added to imitate the shade of the wood as perfectljr as possible. Plaster up do more than is necessary. Rub the wood down with very fine sandpaper, takinf^ especial care to rob only with the gram of the wood, since all cross scratches will remain permanently visible. After this preliminanr work cover the wood with a solution of white shellac, in order not to injure the handsome golden portions of the wood and to preserve the pure light tone of the wood in general. On this shellac ground paint and stencil with glazing colors, ground with isinglass solution. The smaller, more delicate portions, such as flowers and figures, are simply worked out in wash style with water colors, using Uie tone of the wood to remain as high lights, sur- rounding the whole with a black contour. After this treatment the panels and decorated parts are twice varnished with dammar varnish. The friezes and pilaster strips are glazed darker and set off with stripes; to varnish them use amber var- nish. The style iust mentioned does not ex* dude any otner. Thus, for instance* a very good effect is produced bv decorat- ing the panels only with a black covering color or with black and transparent red (burnt sienna and a little carmine) after the fashion of boule work in rich orna- ments, in such a way that the natural wood forms the main part and yet quite a considerable portion of the omamenL Intarsia imitation is likewise wrQ adapted, since the use of variegated cov- ering colon is in perfect keeping with the decoration of natural wood, slow it should be applied, and how much of it, depends upon one's taste« as well as the purpose and kind of the object. It is a well-known fact tnat the Urge pores of oak always look rather smearv, according to whether the workshop u more or less dusty. If this is to be avoided, which is essential for neat work, take good wheat starch, pound it fine with a hammer and stir by means of a wooden spatula good strong polish with the wheat starch to a paste and work the paste into the pores by passing it crocs- wise over the wood. After about ) hour, rub down the wood thus treated in such a manner that the pores are fiUed. In case any open pores remain, repeat the process as before. After that, rub down^ polish or deaden. If this opera- tion IS not performed, the pom will always look somewhat dirty, despite all Digitized by VjOOQ IC WOOD 778 CAre. Every cabinetmaker will readilv perceive that this filling of the pores will save both time and polish in the sub- sequent finishing. WOOD FILLERS. The novice in coach painting is (juite as likely to get bewildered as to be aided by much of the information given about roughstuff, the more so as tne methods differ so widely. One authority tells us to use a large proportion of lead ground in oil with the coarser pigment, while another says use dry lead and but a small percentage, and still another in- sists tnat lead must be tabooed alto- gether. There are withal a good manv moss-CTown superstitions associated with the suDJect. Not the least of these is the remarkably absorbent nature which the surface that has been roughstuffed and **scoured*' is supposed to possess. By many this power of absorption is be- lieved to be equal to swallowing up, not only all the color applied, but at least S coats of varnish, and none of these would think of applying a coat of color to a roughstuffed surface without first giving it a^ coat of liquid filler as a sort of sacrificial oblation in recognition of this absorbing propensity. Another authority on the suDJect has laid down the rule that in the process of scouring, the block of pumice stone must always be moved in one direction, presumably for the reason that some trace of the stone is likelv to be visible after the surface is finished. If the block of stone is scratching, per- haps the appearance of the finished panel may be less objectionable with the fur- rows in parallel lines than in what en- gravers call '*cross-hatchin^,'| but if the rubbing is properly done it is not easy to discover what difference it could make whether the stone is moved in a straight line or a circle. As to absorption, it can- not be distinguished in the finished panel between the surface that was coated with liquid filler and that to which the color was applied directly, ex- cept that cracking always occurs much sooner in the former, and this will be found to be the case with surfaces that have been coated with liquid filler and finished without roughstuff: Among the pigments that may be used for rough- stuff, and there are half a dozen or more, any of which mav be used with success, there is no doubt but that known as "English filler" is best, but it is not always to be had without delay and in- conveniences. Yellow ocher, Reno umber and Key- stone filler are all suitable for roughstuff, the ocher having been used many years for the purpose, but, as alreadv re- marked, tne English filler is best. This is the rule for mixing given by Nobles and Hoare: Four pounds filler, 1 pound ground white lead, 1 pint gold size, 1 pint varnish and H pints turpentine, or \ pint good size and }^int boiled oil in lieu of the varnish. In regard to the use of white lead ground in oil, it makes the rubbing more laborious, increases the liability to scratching, and reauires a much longer time to harden before the scouring can be done, without in any appreciable man- ner improving the quality of the surface when finished. It mav be remarked here that the ad- dition of white lead, whether ground in oil or added dry to the coarser pigment, increases the labor of scouring just in proportion as it is used until sufiicient may be used to render the scouring proc- ess impossible; hence, it follows that the mixing should be governed by the character of the job in hand. If the job is of a cheap class the use of verv little or no lead at all is advisable, and tne pro- portion of Japan and turpentine may also DC increased, with the result that a fairlv good surface may be obtained with much less labor than in the formula given. The number of coats of filler required to effect the purpose in any given case must depend upon how well the builder has done his part of the work. If he has left the surface very uneven it follows, as a matter of course, that more coats will be required to make it level, and more of the roughstuff will remain after the leveling process than if the wood- work had been more perfectly done. While the merits of a system or method are not to be judged by its antiquity, there should be a good reason to justify the substitution of a new method for one that has given perfect satisfaction for generations and been used by the best coach painters who ever handled a brush. A well-known writer on paints says that the effect of a vamish is usually at- tributed to the manner of its applica- tion and the quantity of thinners used for diluting^ the melted gums, with the prepared oils and the oxidizing agents used in its manufacture. While this has undoubtedly much to do with the success- ful application of varnish, there are other facts in this connection that should not be overlooked. For example, varnish is sometimes acted on by the breaking up. or the disintefi^ration of the filling coats; which in turn is evidently acted on by the wood itself, according to its nature. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 77;-' troii affix thf i. pla> it wt get a will and • For ;. be u--' proi.. If till keep gre.l-. T i^'o^tn ^ •* ♦ «*ipr«> - ««t in.-*!! ^. •"^n ♦nr- ,r -iro.-b ,« t !» B(>t " jy wtMiaiett ••'Lioatkf Digitized by VjOOQ IC WOOD 776 hiffher classes of gums, because of their enect on the albumen in the wood and oil. All alcohol varnishes or varnishes made by the aid of heat stand well over an alkali filler. Varnishes which contain little oil seem to stand well. This is ac- counted for by the fact that alcohol ren- ders albumen insoluble. Alkalies of all kinds readilv attack shellac and several other of the cheap sums, forming unstable compounds on wnich oil has but little effect. Close-grained wood contains less albu- men and more lignin than open-grained varieties, and consequently does not take ao much filler, which accounts for the finish invariably lasting longer than the same kind used on an open-jpained wood. Open-grained wood contains more sap than close grained; consequently there is more albumen to adhere to the sides of the cells. The more albumen, the more readily it b attacked by the potash, and the more readily decomposea, or rather destroyed. Alcohol renders albumen insoluble immediately on application. It prevents it from compounding with any other substance, or any other substance com- pounding with it. Hence, we must con- clude that an application of alcohol to wood before tne filler is applied is valuable, which is proven to be a fact by experiment. Wasn one half of a board with alcohol, then apoly the potash filler over all. Asain, wash the portion of the board on wnich is the filler and apply a heavy-bodied oil varnish. Expose to sunlight and air the same as a nnished door or the like, and wait for the result. At the end of a few months a vast differ- ence will be found in the two parts of the surface. The one on which there is no alcohol will show the ravages of time and the elements much sooner than the one on which it is. Wood finishers demand a difference in the composition of fillers, paste and liquid, for open- and close-grained wood, respectively; but unfortunately the^ do not demand a difference between either kind in themselves, according to the kind of wood. Paste fillers are used indis- criminately for open-ffrained wood and liquid for close-grain ea wood. To find the fillers best adapted for a certain wood, and to classify them in this respMect will require a large amount of chemical work and practical experi- ments; but that it should be done is evidenced by the fact that both success and failure result from the use of the same filler oD different varieties of wood. After once being classified (owing to the la r^ number now on the market), they will number nearly so many in the ag- ite as might be supposed; as it will not number nearly so many in the ag- gregate as might be supposed; as it will DC found in many instances that two en- tirely different varieties of wood resemble each other more closely in their vascular formation and cell characteristics than do two other specimens of the same variety. It is a recognized fact that paste fillers whose base is starch or the like work better and ^ve better results in certain in- stances, while those whose base is mineral matter seem to do better in other cases. It is noticed that rosewood as a finish- ing veneer is obsolete. This is not because of its scarcitv, but because it is so hard to finish witnout having been seasoned for a long time. In these days, manu- facturers cannot wait. It takes longer for the sap of rosewood to become inac- tive, or in trade parlance to "die," than any other wood. This is because it takes so long for the albumen in the sap to coagulate. Rosewood has always been a source of trouble to piano makers, on account of the action of the sap on the varnish. However, if this wood, previ- ously to filling, was washed with a weak solution of phosphoric acid, and then with wood spirit, it might be more easily finished. The phosphoric acid would coagulate the albumen on the surface of the wood immediately, while alcohol would reduce it to an insoluble state. The idea here is to destroy the activity of the sap, on the same principle as sappy E laces and knot sap are destroyed by alco- ol-shellac before oeing painted. Oak is another wood which gives the painter trouble to finish. This maj be accounted for as follows: Oak contains a sour acid principle called tannic acid. It is a very active property. Wood dur- ing the growing season contains more albumen; thus in the circulation of the sap a large quantity of soft matter is de- posited on the lignin which lines the cells, which lignin, if it contains anv acid matter, acts on the material of the filler. Tannic acid has a deleterious effect on some of the material of which a number of fillers are made. Starch and many ^ums are susceptible to its influence, making some of them quite soft. Oak, like most other timber cut at the season when the least sap is in circulation, is the more easily finished. The vascular formation may, and no doubt has, something to do with wood finishing. Different species of wood differ materially in their vascular and cellular formation. Wood finishers rec- ognizes difference in treatment of French burl walnut and the common American Digitized by VjOOQ IC so. wi all. m.'i sul oM off. Boi Th. ai}.: itt<. he. bill' if it the in ji. the btiii tiot. _^^.^ be pT' 4 ,i5«* Digitized by GooQle^- WOOD 777 leaTes left at the extremity of each trunk 18 sufficient to cause the ascent of the liquid by means of the capillary force and a reserve of energy in the sap. II. — Wood which ^ can be well^ pre- aeryed may be obtained by making a circuUr incision in the bark of the trees a certain time before cutting them down. The woodcutters einployed in the immense teak forests of Siam^ have adopted in an empirical way a similar process, which has been productive of good results. The tree is oled, making around the trunk, at the height of 4 feet above ground, a circular incision 8 inches wide^ and 4 inches deep, at the time when it is in bloom and the sap rising. Sometimes the tree is left stand- ing for 3 years after this . operation. Frequently, also, a deep incision reach- ing the heart is made on two^ opposite sides, and then it takes sometimes only 6 months to extract the sap. It is probable that it is partly in con- sequence of this method that the teak- wood acquires its exceptional resistance to various destructive agents. III. — A good ^ preservation of niles, stakes, and palisades is obtained by leaving the wood in a bath of cupric sulphate of 4** of the ordinanr acidimeter for a time which may vary from 8 to 15 days, according to greater or less dry- ness of the wood and its size. After they are half dried they are immersed in a bath of lime water; this forms with the sulphate an insoluble compound, pre- venting the^ rain from dissolving the sulphate which has penetrated the wood. This process is particularly^ usetui for vine props and the wood of white poplars. A good way to prevent the decay of stakes would be to plant them upside down; that is, to bury the upper ex- tremity of the branch in the ground. In this wav, the capillary tubes do not so easily absorb the moisture which is the cause of decay. It frequently happens that for one or another reason, the im- pregnation of woods designed to be planted in the ground, such as masts, posts, and supports has been neglected. It would be impracticable, after tnev are placed, to take up these pieces in order to coat them with carbolineum or tar, especially if they are fixed in a wall, masonry, or other structure. Recourse must be had to other means. Near the point where the piece rises from the ground, a hole about one centimeter in width is made in a downward slantinff direction, filled with carbolineum, and closed with a wooden plug. It depends upon the consistency of the wood whether tne liquid will be absorbed in 1 or 2 days. The hole is filled again for a week. The carbolineum replaces by degrees the water contained in the wood. When it is well impregnated, the hole is definitely closed with a plug of wood, which is sawn level with the open- ing. The wood will thus be preserved quite as well as if it had been previously coated with carbolineum. I v.— J Wooden objects remaining in the open air may be effectually protected against the inclemency of the weather by means of the following coating: Finely powdered sine oxide is worked into a paste with water and serves for white- washing walls, garden fences, benches, and other woooen objects. After dry- ing, probably at the end of 2 or 3 hours, the objects must be whitewashed again with ^ a very dilute solution of zinc chloride in glue or water. Zinc oxide and zinc chloride form a brilliant, solid compound, which resists the inclemency of the weather. As a paint for boards, planks for cover- ing greenhouses, garden-frames, etc.. Inspector Lucas, of Reutlingen ( Wtirtem- berg^, has recommended the following coating: Take fresh cement of the best quality, which has been kept in a cool place, work it up with milk on a stone until it is of the consistency of oil paint. The wood designed to receive it must not be smooth, but left rough after sawing. Two or 3 coats are also a protection from fire. Wood to be tnus treated must be very dry. V. — Wood treated with creosote resists the attacks of marine animals, such as the teredo. Elm, beech, and fir absorb creo- sote very readily, provided the wood is sound and dry. Beechwood absorbs it the best. In fir the penetration is com- plete, when the wood is of a species of rapid growth, and of rather compact ^rain. Besides, with the aid of pressure it is always possible to force the creosote into the wood. Pieces of wood treated with creosote have resisted for 10 or 11 years under conditions in which oak wood not treated in this way would have been completely destroyed. Tne prepared wood must remain in store at least 6 months before use. The creosote becomes denser during this time and causes a greater cohesion in the fibers. In certain woods, as pitch pine, the injection is impossible, even under pressure, on account of the presence of rosin in the capillary vessels. VI. — M. Zironi advises heating the wood Digitized by VjOOQ IC 778 WOOD in vacuo. The sap is eliminated in this way. Then the receiver is filled with rosin in solution with a hydrocarbide. The saturation takes place in two hours, when the liquid is allowed to run off, and a jet of vapor is introduced, which carries off the solvent, whole the rosin remains in the pores of the wood, increasing its weight considerably. VII. — Wood can be well preserved by impregnating it with a solution of tannate of ferric protoxide. This method is due to Hazfetd. VIII. — The Hasselmann process (xyl- olized wood), which consists in immen- inf|^ the wood in a saline solution kept boiling under moderate pressure, tne liquid containing copper and iron sul- phates (20 per cent of the first and 80 per cent oi the second), as well as aluminum and kainit, a substance until recently used only as a fertilizer, is now much employed on the railways in Ger- many. IX. — Recently the discovery has been made that wood may be preserved with dissolved betuline, a vegetable product of the consistency of paste, called also birchwood rosin. Betuline must first be dissolved. It is procurable in the crude state at a low price. The wood is im- mersed for about 12 hours in the solu- tion, at a temperature of from 57^ to 60*» F. After the first bath the wood is plunged into a second, formed of a solu- tion of pectic acid of 40'' to 45"* Be., and witn a certain percentage of an alkaline carbonate — for instance, potas- sium carbonate of commerce — in the proportion of 1 part of carbonate to about 4 parts of the solution. The wood remains immersed in this composition for 12 hours; then it is taken out and drained from 8 to 15 hours, the time varying according to the nature of the wood and the temperature. In con- sequence of this second bath, the betulin which was introduced through the first immersion, is fixed in the interior of the mass. If it is desirable to make the w(H>d more durable and to give it special aualities of density, hardness, and Hn!ll>l'' F. and the boiling point; the latter will not be reached, but if into this liquid a piece of wood is piimged, an agitation analogous to boibng is maai- fested, produced by the water and sap contained in the pores of the wooJ. These, under the action of a temperatore above 212^ P., are dissolved into vapor and traverse the bath. If the wood is left immersed and a constant temperature maintained imtil every trace of agitation has diaappearrd. the water in the pores of the wood will be expelled, with Uie exception of a slight quantity, which, being in the form of vapor, represents only the seventeen- hundredth part of the original weis^ht o^ the water contained; the air which was present in the pores having been likevtM expelled.^ If the liquid is left to cool, tHis vapor i« condensed, forming a vacuum, which i« immediately filled under the action of the atmospheric pressure. In this way the wood is completely saturated by th« contents of the batn» whatever may be its form, proportions or condensation. To attain the desired effect it is D«it necessary to employ heavy ofls. The latter have, however, the advantage of leaving on the surface of the preparrd pieces a kind of varnish, which cod- tributes to protect them against mold, worms, moisture, and dry rot. The same phenomenon of penetration » produced when, without letting the wood grow cold in the bath, it is taken out and plunged immediately into a cold bath of the same or of a different fluid. Thi« point is important, because it is possible to employ as fluids to be aDsorbed matters having a boiling point belov 212'' P., and differing m this respect from the first bath, which must be com- posed of a liquid having a boiling point above 212'' F. If, instead of a cold bath of a homo- Seneous nature, two liquids of differrat ensity separated in two layers, mrt em- ployea, the wood can, with ntriwary precautions, be immersed aucecMively m them, so that it can be penctfaled with given quantities of each. Snrh liquids are heavy tar oil and a solvtiaa d. It dries much quicker than the tan used separately. Its preserving infltimre against rust is very strong. The following Tissanoier formula ka* afforded excellent results. Its facility <>f preparation and its low cost are amoog its advantages. Mix 10 parts of coal tar. 1 to 1.6 parts of slaked lime, 4,000 narts«tf oil of turpentine, and 400 parts of stron^t vinegar, m which i part of cuprtc sul- phate has been previously boiled. The addition of 2 or 3 cloves of gariie in the solution of cupric sulphate aids in nm- ducing a varnish, brilliant as well as permanent. The compound can be col- ored like ordinary paints. XXrV. — Rectified rostnous oil for painting must not be confounded with oils used in the preparation of lubricantt for metallic surfaces exposed to friction It contains a certain quantitv of rotsa in solution, which, on drying, fills the pom of the wood completely, and prevents de> composition from the action of various saprophytic fungi. It is well adapted to the preservation of pieces to be buried in the ground or exposed to the inclemency Digitized by VjOOQ IC WOOD 781 of the weatber. Paints can also be pre- pared with it by the addition of coloring powders, vellow, brown, red, green, blue, etc., in the proportion of 1 kilo to 5 liters of oil. The addition ou^ht to take place slowly, while shaking, in order to obtain quite a homogeneous mixture. Paints of this kind are economical, in consequence of the low price^ of rosin, but they cannot be used in the interior of dwellings by reason of the strong and disagreeable odor^ disengaged, even a long time after their application. As an offset, thev can be used like tar and carbonyl, tor stalls, stables, etc. To PreTent Warping. — Immerse the wood to be worked upon in a n- centraied solution of sea salt for a week or so. The wood thus prepared, after having been worked upon, will resist all changes of temperature. STAmS FOR WOOD. In the staining of wood it is not enough to know merely now to prepare and how to appiv the various staming solutions; a rational exercise of the art c? wood stain- ing demands rather a certain acquaint- ance with the varieties of wood to be operated upon, a knowledge of their separate relations to the individual stains themselves; for with one and the same stain very different effects are obtained when applied to the varying species of wood. Such a diversity of effects arises from the varying chemical composition of wood. No unimportant role is played by the presence in greater or lesser quan- tities of tannin, which acts chemicallv upon many of the stains and forms with them various colored varnishes in the fibers. Two examples will suffice to make this clear. (1) Let us take pine or fir, in which but little of the tanning principle is found, and stain it with a solution of 50 parts of potassium chro- mate in 1,000 parts of pure water; the result will be a plain pale yellow color, corresponding with the potassium chro- mate, which is not fast and as a con- sequence is of no value. If, with the same solution, on the contrary, we stain oak, in which the tanning principle is rerj abundant, we obtain a beautiful yelio wish-brown color which is capable of withstanding the effects of both light and air for some time; for the tannin of the oak combines with the penetrating potassium chroma te to form a brown dyestuff which deposits in the woody cells. A similar procedure occurs in the staining of mahogany and walnut with the chromate because these varieties of wood are very rich in tannin. (2) Take some of the same pine or fir and stain it with a solution of 20 parts of sulphate of iron in 1,000 parts of water ana there will be no perceptible color. Apply this stain, however, to the oak and we get a beautiful lijght gray, and if the stain be painted with a brush on the smoother oaken board, in a short time a strong bluish-gray tint will appear. This effect of the stain is the result of the combination of the green vitriol with the tannin; the more tannin present, the darker the stain becomes. The hard- ness or density of the wood, too, exerts a marked influence upon the resulting stain. In a soft wood, having large pores, the stain not only sinks further in, but much more of it is re(|uired than in a hard dense wood; hence in the first place a stronger, greasier stain will be obtained with the same solution than in the latter. From this we learn that in soft woods it is more advisable to use a thinner stain to arrive at a certain tone; while the solution may be made thicker or stronger for hard woods. The same formula or the same stain- ing solution cannot be relied upon to give the same results at all times even when applied to the same kinds of wood. A greater or lesser amount of rosin or sap in the wood at the time the tree is fefled, will offer more or less resistance to the permeating tendencies of the stain, ,8o that the color may be at one time much lighter, at another darker. Much after the same manner we find that the amount of the tanning principle is not always equal in the same species of wood. Here much depends upon the age of the tree as well as^ upon the climatic conditions surrounding the place where it grew. Moreover, the fundamental color of the wood itself may vary greatly in examples of the same species and thus, particularly in light, delicate shades, c»use an important delay in the realiza- tion of the final color tone. Because of this diversification, not only in the different species of wood, but even in separate specimens of the same species, it IS almost impossible always, and at the first attempt, to match a certain pre- determinea color. It is desirable that trials at staining should first be made upon pieces of board from the same wood as tne object to be stained; the results of such ex- periments furnishing exact data con- cerning the strength and composition of the stain to be employed for the exact reproduction of a prescribed color. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 78« WOOD Manj cases occur in which the color tone obtained by staining cannot always be i'udged directly after applying the stain. Sspeciallv is this the case when stain is employed which slowly develops under the action of the air or when the dye- stuff penetrates only slowlv into the pores of the wood. In sucn cases the effect of the staining may only be fully and completely appreciated after the lapse of 24 or 48 hours. Wood that has been stained should always be allowed 24 or 48 hours to dry in ordinary temperatures, before a coat of varnish, polish, or wax is applied. If anv dampness be left in the wood this will make itself apparent upon the varnish or polish. It will become dull, lose its glossy appearance, and exhibit white spots whicn can only be removed with difficulty. If a certain effect de- mand the application of two or more stains one upon the other, this may only be done by affording each distinct coat time to dry, which requires at least 24 hours. Not all the dyes, which are applicable to wood staining, can be profitably used together, either when separately applied or mixed. This injunction is to be care- fully noted in the application of coal tar or aniline colors. Among the aniline dyes suitable for staining woods are two groups — the so- called acid dyes and the basic dyes. If a solution of an acid dve be mixed with a basic dye the effect of their antagonistic dispositions is shown in the clouding up of the stain, a fine precipitate is visible and often a rosin-like separation is noticeable. It is needless to say that such a stain- ing solution is useless for any practical purpose. It cannot penetrate tne wood fibers and would present but an un- seemly and for the most part a flak^ appearance. In preparing the stains it is therefore of the greatest importance that they remain lastingly clear. It would be considerably of advanta^, before mixing aniline solutions of which the acid or basic characteristics are un- known, to make a test on a small scale in a champagne glass and after standing a short time carefully examine the solu- tion. If it has become cloudv or want- ing in transparency it is a sign that a separation of the coloring matter has taken place. The mixing of acid or basic dyestuffs even in dry powdered form is attended with the same disadvantages as in the state of solubilitv, for just as soon as they are dissolved in water the reactions commence and the natural procen of precipitation takes place with all its attending disagreeable coosequenoea. COLOR STAmS: Bronze. — I. — Prepare first a thin glue size by soaking good animal ^u« over night in cold water and melting it next morning in the usual water bath. S firmly after diying tnat a polish may be put on by means of an agate. The process is especially useful for repairing worn-off picture frames, book ornamen- tations, etc. The following bronze gronad also yields good resulU: Bofl lUOOO parts of linseed oil with tS parts ci im- pure zinc carbonate, 100 parts csf rvd lead, 25 parts of lithar|}e, and 0.3 parts ol mercuric chloride, until a drop taten out will stand like a pea upon a glass surface. Before complete cooling, the mass i» diluted with oil of turpentine to a thick syrup. Ebony Stu]is.~I.— To I pint of bocl> ing water add ) ounce of copperas aad 1 ounce logwood chips. Apply this to the wood hot. When the surfanr has dried thoroughly wet it with a solntitia composed of 7 ounces steel filinn* di>* solved in } pint of vinegar. ^ II. — Give the wood several applira* tions of a stout decoction of U^pii»od chips, finishing off with a free smear of vinegar in which rusty nails have been for some time submerged. III. — In I ouart of water boil } pound of logwood chips, sub«e<|Uently adding i ounce pearl ash, applying the aaixtnre Digitized by VjOOQ IC WOOD 788 hot. Then again boil the same quantity of logwood in the same quantity of water, adding } ounce of verdigris and } ounce of copperas, after which strain and put in J pound of rusty steel filings. With this fatter mixture coat the work, and, should the wood not be suflBciently bUck, repeat the application. Metallic Luster. — A valuable process to impart the luster of metal to ordinary wood, without injuring its natural quali- ties, is as follows: The wood is laid, ac- cording to its weight, for S or 4 days in a caustic alkaline solution, such as, for instance, of calcined soda, at a tempera- ture of 170^ F. Then it is at once placed in a bath of calcium hydrosulphite, to which, after 24 to 86 hours, a saturated solution of sulphur in caustic potash is added. In this mixture the wood is left for 48 hours at 100* to 120*» P. The wood thus prepared, after having been dried at a moderate temperature, is polished by means of a smoothing iron, and the surface assumes a very hand- some metallic luster. The effect of this metallic gloss is still more pleasing if the wood is rubbed with a piece of lead, zinc, or tin. If it is subsequently polished with a burnisher of glass of porcelain, the wood gains the brilliancy of a metallic mirror. Nutwood. — One part permanganate of potassium is dissolved m 80 parts clear water; with this the wood to be stained is coated twice. After an action of 5 minutes, rinse off with water, dry, oil, and polish. It is best to prepare a fresh solution each time. Oak. — I. — Water-color stains do not penetrate deep enough into wood to make the effect strong enough, hence solutions of other material than color are being employed for the purpose. Aqua ammonia alone, applied with a rag or brush repeatediv, will darken the color of oak to a weatnered effect, but it is not very desirable, because of its tendency to raise the grain. Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, applied in a like manner, until the desired depth is ob- tained, will serve the purpose. These waahes or solutions, however, do not give the dark, almost black, effect that is at the present time expected for weathered oak, and in order to produce this, 4 ounces of logwood chips and 8 ounces of ^e«n copperas should be boiled together in 2 Quarts of water for 40 minutes and the solution applied hot. When this has dried it should be gone over with a wash made from 4 ounces steel filings and 1 pint of strong vinegar. The steel filings are previously put into the vinegar and allowed to stand for several days. This will penetrate into the wood dee^y, and the stain will be permanent. Picture- frame manufacturers use a quick-drying atain, made from aniline blacks. II. — Dissolve } part of permanganate of potassium in 1,000 parts of cola water and paint the wood with the violet solu- tion obtained. As soon as the solution comes in contact with the wood it de- composes in- conseouence of chemical action, and ^ a hanasome light - brown precipitate is produced in the wood. The Drushes used must be washed out immediately, as the permanganate of potassium destroys animal bnstles, but it is preferable to use sponges or brushes of glass threads for staining. Boil 2 parts of cutch in 6 parts of water for 1 hour, stir while boiling, so that the roainiferous catechu cannot burn on the bottom of the vessel; strain the liquid as soon as the cutch is dissolved, through linen, and bring again to a boil. Now dissolve therein i part of alum, free from iron ; apply the stain while hot, and cover after tne drying, with a solution of 1 part of bichromate of potassium in 25 parts of water. Rosewoood. — First procure } pound logwood, boiling it in 8 pints water. Continue the boilins until the liquid assumes a very darK color, at which point add 1 ounce salt of tartar. When at the boiling point stain your wood with 2 or 8 coats, but not in quick succession, as the latest coat must be nearly drv before the succeeding one is applieu. The use of a fiat ff raining brush, deftly handled, will produce a very excellent imitation of dark rosewood. Silver Gray. — This stain is prepared by dissolving 1 part of pyrogallic acid in 85 parts of warm water and the wood is coated with this. Allow this coating to dry and prepare, meanwhile, a solution of 2 parts of green vitriol in 50 parts of boiling water, with which the first coat- ing is covered again to obtain the silver- gray shade. Walnut. — I. — Prepare a solution of 6 ounces of a solution of permanganate of potassium, and 6 ounces of sulphate of magnesia in 2 auarts of hot water. The solution is applied on the wood with a brush and the application should be re- peated once. In contact with the wood the permanganate decomposes, and a hanasome, lasting walnut color results. If small pieces of wood are to be thus stained, a very dilute bath is prepared Digitized by VjOOQ IC 784 WOOD according to the above description, then the woo<^n pieces are immersed and left therein from 1 to 5 minutes, according to whether a lighter or darker coloring is desired. II. — One hundredweight Vandyke brown, ground fine in water, and 28 pounds of soda, dissolved in hot water, are mixed while the solutions are hot in a revolving mixer. The mixture is then dried in sheet-iron trays. Yellow. — The wood is coated with a hot concentrated solution of picric acid, dried, and polished. (Picric acid is poi- sonous.) IMITATION STAINS. Yellow, green, blue, or fny staining on wood can be easily imitated with a little glazing color in oil or vinegar, which will prove better and more permanent than the staining. If the pores of the wood are opened by a Ive or a salt, almost any diluted color can be worked into it. With most^ stains the surface is thus prepared previously. Light-Fast Stains.— Stains fast to light are obtained by saturating wood in a vacuum chamber, first with dilute sul- phuric acid, then with dilute alkali to neutralize the acid, and finally with a solution with or without the addition of a mordant. The action of the acid is to increase the affinity of the wood for dye very materially. As wood consists largely of cellulose, mercerization, which always increases the affinity of that sub- stance for dyes, may be caused to some extent by the acid. SPIRIT STAINS: BUck.— I. — White shellac 1£ ounces Vegetable black 6 ounces Methylated spirit. ... S pints II. — Lampblack 1 pound Ground iron scale.. . . 5 pounds Vinegar 1 gallon Mahogany Brown. — Put into a vessel, say 4 pounds of bichromate of potash, and as many ounces of burnt umoer, let it stand a day or two, then strain or lawn for use. Vandyke Brown. — Spirit of wine 8 pints Burnt umber S ounces Vandyke brown color 1 ounce Carbonate of soda ... 1 ounce Potash } ounce Mahogany. — Rub the wood with t solution of nitrous acid, and th«ii appi; with a brush the following: I. — DrajB;on*s blood 1 ooacr Sodium carbonate. . . 6 drarhn* Alcohol 20 otuiop9 Filter just before use. II. — Rub the wood with a sol alios. • potassium carbonate, 1 drachm to a p :^ of water, and then apply a dye madr k ; boiling together: Madder.... 2 oaorv« Logwood diips ) ouorr Water 1 quart Maple.— I. — Pale button lac 5 pounds Bismarck brown.. . . | ounce Vandyke brown. ... | ounce Gamboge 4 ounce* Methylated spirit. .. 1 galJon II. — Use 1 gallon of methylated %pir.*. 4 ounces gamboge (powdered), } oud'-^ Vandyke orown, 1 drachm Bismar-i brown, S pounds shellac. Maroon. — To produce a rich maru«>- or rubv, steep red Janders w<»od n rectified naphtha and stir into the miIu* tion a little cochineal; strain or lav^ for use. Turjientine Stains. — Turpentine alair.« are chiefljr solutions of oil-soluble ctu!- tar d;^es in turpentine oil, with souil 3uantities of wax also in solution. Th^* o not roughen the wood, making a fioAi polishinff unnecessary. They enter tht wood slowly, so that an even Uaie. especially on large surfaces, is secarr^i The disadvantages of turpentine stAi-t are the lack of permanence of the (XaU^r- tng, when exposed to light and air* aA advantage, however, which can be tr» edied to a large extent by fwenoo* treatment, as follows: The wcwd is oi<«i« tened with a wet sponge, allowed to dn Digitized by VjOOQ IC WOOD 785 and then rubbed with sandpaper, or made smooth by other agencies. This almost entirely preventa roughening of the surface by the stain. ^ Another dis- adrantage of these stains is that they are rapidly absorbed by the wood, which makes an even staining of large surfaces difficult. For this too there is a remedy. The surface of the wood is rubbed all over evenly with raw linseed oil, applied with a woolen cloth, allowed to dry, and then thoroughly smoothed with sand- paper. The water stain, applied with a sponge, now spreads evenly, and is but slighUy absorbed by the wood. Among good water stains are the long- known Casael brown and nut brown, in granules. Catechine is recommended for brown shades, with tannin or pyro- gallic acid and green vitriol for gray. For bright-colored stains the tarndyes azine green, croceine scarlet, Parisian red. tartrazine, water-soluble nt^rosin, walnut, and oak brown are very suitable. With proper mixing of these dyes, all colors except blue and violet can be produced, and prove very fast to li^ht and air, and superior to turpentine stams. Only the blue and violet dyes, methvl blue, naphthol blue, and pure violet, do not come up to the standard, and require a second staining with tannin. A very^ simple method of preparing water stains ia as follows: Solutions are made of the dyes most used, by dissolving 500 parts of the dye in 10,000 parts of hot water, and these are kept in bottles or casks. Any ^ desired stain can be prepared by mixing proper quantities of the s<^utions, whicn can be diluted with water to make lighter stains. Stains for Wood Attacked by Alkalies or Adds. — Solution A Copper sulphate. . . 125 grams Potassium chlorate. 125 grams Water 1,000 cu. cm. Boil until all is dissolved. SoltUion B Aniline hydro- chloride 150 grams Water 1.000 cu. cm. Apply Solution A twice by means of a hru^n, allowing time to dry after each rr»at: next, put on Solution B and let dry a^ain. On the day following, rub on a little oil with a doth and repeat this once a month. SUBSTITUTES FOR WOOD. I. — Acetic paraldehyde or acetic alde- hyde, respectively, or polymerized formal- dehyde is mixed with methylic alcohol and carbolic acid, as well as fusel oil saturated with hydrochloric acid gas or sulphuric acid gas or methylic a^ohol, respectively, are added to the mixture. The mass thus obtained is treated with paraffine. The final product is useful as a substitute for ebonite and wood as well as for insulating purposes. II. — "Carton Pierre" is the name of a mass which is used as a substitute for carved wood. It is prepared in the fol- lowing manner: Glue is dissolved and boiled; to this, tissue paper in suitable quantity is added, which will readily go to piecies. Then linseed oil is added, and finally chalk i^ stirred in. The hot mass forms a thick dough which crumbles in the cold, but softens between the fingers and becomes kneadable, so that it can be pressed into molds (of glue, gypsum, and sulphur). After a few days the mass will become dry and almost as hard as stone. The paper imparts to it a high deg[ree of firmness, and it is less apt to %e injured than wood. It binds well and readily adheres to wood. III.— Wood Pulp.— The boards for painters* utensils are manufactured in the following manner: ^ The ordinary wood fiber (not the chemical wood cellu- lose) is well mixed with soluble glass of 33^ B6., then spread like cake upon an even surface, and beaten or rolled until smooth. Before completely dry, the cake is removed, faintly satined (for various other purposes it is embossed) and finally dried thoroughlv at a temperature of about 133^ F., whereupon the mass mav be sawed, carved, polished, etc., like wood. Any desired wood color can be ob- tained by the admixture of the cor- responding pulverized pigment to the mass. The wood veinmg is produced by placing a board of the species of timber to be imitated, in vinegar, which causes the soft parts of the wood to deepen, and making an impression with the original board thus treated upon the wood pulp when the latter is not quite hard. By means of one of these original boards (with the veins embossed), im- pressions can be made upon a large number of artificial wood plates. The veins will show to a greater advantage if the artificial wood is subsequent! v saturated and treated with colored oil, colored^ stain and colored polish, as is done with palettes. WOOD. ACID-PROOF: See Acid- Proofing. WOOD CEICEIITS: See Adhesivcs. Digitized by VjOOQ IC 786 WRITING— YEAST WOOD. CHLORINE-PROOFnfG: See Acid- Proofing. WOOD, FLREPROOFIHG: See Fireproofing. WOOD GILDING: See Plating. WOOD, IMITATION: See Plaster. WOOD POLISHES: See Polishes. WOOD RENOVATORS: See Cleanin||[ Preparations and Meth- ods under Paint, Varnish, and Enamel Removers. WOOD. SECURING METALS TO: See Adhesives. WOOD, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. WOOD'S METAL: See Alloys. WOOL FAT: See Fats. WORM POWDER FOR STOCK: See Veterinary Formulas. WRITING, RESTORING FADED: Writing on old manuscripts, parch- ments, and old letters that has faded into nearly or complete invisibility can be restored by ruboinff over it a solution of ammonium sulphide, hydrogen sulphide or of "liver of sulphur. On parchment the restored color is fairly permanent but on paper it does not last long. The let- ters however could be easily retraced, after such treatment, by the use of India ink and thus made permanent. This treatment will not restore faded aniline ink. It only works with ink containing a metal-like iron that forms a black sul- phide. WRINKLES, REMOVAL OF: See Cosmetics. Teast DRY YEAST. Boil together for } hour, 95 parts of the finest, grated hops and 4,000 parts of water. Strain. Add to the warm liquor 1,750 parts of rye meal or flour. When the temperature has fallen to that of the room aad 167 parts of good yeast. On the following day the mass will be in a state of fermentation. While it is in this condition add 4,000 parts of barlev flour, so as to form a dough. This dougn is cut up into thin disks, which are dried as rapidly as possible in the open air or sun. For use, the disks are broken into small pieces and soaked overnight in warm water. The yeast can be usea on the fol- lowing day as if it were ordinary brewer*' yeast. PRESERVATION OF YEAST. I. — The yeast is laid in a vessel of cold water which is thereupon placed in a well- ventilated, cool spot. In this man- ner the yeast can be preserved for several weeks. In order to preserve the yra«l for several months a different procr** must be followed. ^ The yeast, after having been pressed, is thoroughly dne«i. For this purpose the yeast is cut up inlu small pieces which are rolled out, placr«l on blotting paper, and allowed to dry in a place which is not reached by the snn. Tnese rolls are then grated, again dried, and finally placed in glass t>ottlefl. Fw use, the yeast is dissolved, whereupon it immediately regains its freshness. Tbijk process is particularly to be recommend- ed because it preserves the yeast for a long period. II. — For liquid yeast add one^eighth of its vol ume in glycerine. In the catir of compressed veast, the cakes are to hr covered with glycerine and kept in closed vessels. Another method of prr- serving compressed yeast is to mii it intimately with animal charcoal to a duugh, which is to be dried by expo»urr to sunlight. When it is to be used, it i« treated with water, which will take up the ferment matter, while the charrval will be deposited. Liauid and €*om> pressed yeast have been kept for a con- siderable time, without alteration, by saturating the former with chloroforan and keeping the latter under chloroform water. YEAST TESTS. I. — Pour a few drops of ^reast into boiling water. If the yeast sinks, it i« spoiled; if it floats, it is good. IL — To I pound yeast add \ tabie«po»f»- f ul of corn whiskv or branav, a pinch «>f sugar, and 2 tablespoonfufs oi wheat flour. Mix thoroughly and allow the re- sultant compound to stand in a warn place. If the yeast is good it will ri«r in about an hour. YEAST AND FERTILIZBRS: See Fertilisers. YELLOW (CHROME), TEST FOR: See Pigments. YELLOW GAMBOGE STAIN: See Lacquers. Digitized by VjOOQ IC ZAPON— ZINC 787 ZAPON: ZmC ETCHING: See Varnishes. See Etching. ZAPON FOR IMPREGNATING PAPER : ^^^ pSt?^^ ' See l^Aper* ^^ ^^^ »^^«..»^ - 2™C OINTBiENT: ZINC BRONZING: See Ointments. ^^ ^^**^°«- ZINC, TO CLEAN: ZINC CONTACT SILVER PLATING: « - ^i -.-- «„ See Plating. See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL BOOKS PUBLISHED BY The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 132 Nammi Sinet. New York. V. 8. A. J^^ Any of theae bcx>k8 will be sent prepaid on receipt of price to any address in the We will send FREE to any address in the world our complete Catalogue of Scientific Atical Books. Appleton*8 Cydopedia of Applied Mechanics This is a (fictkmary of mechanical engineering and the mechanical arts, fully describ- ing and illustrating upwards of ten thousand subjects, including agricultural machinery, wood, metal, stone, and leather working; mining, hydraulic, railway, marine, and mititaiy engineering; working in cotton, wool, and paper; steam, air, and gas engines, and other motors; lighting, heating, and ventflation; electrical, telegraphic, optical, horological, cal- culating, and other instruments; etc. A magnificent set in three volumes, handsomely bound in half morocco, each volume containing over 900 large octavo pages, wiUi nearly 8.000 engravings, including diagram- matic and sectional drawings, with full explanatory details. Price fia.oo. A8KIN80N. 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There is then a section upon pattern-shop mathematics and one upon cost, care, and invention. It is indispensable to every patternmaker. Qoth, $a.oo. BAUER. Marine Engines and Boilers : Their Design and Construction A laxne practical work of 7»» pages. 550 illustrations, and 17 folding plates for the use of stndentS{ engineers, and naval constructors. Clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while the character of its plans, drawings, tables, and statistics is without reproach. The illustrations are care- ful reproductions from actual working drawings, with some well-executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. $9.00 net. BENJAMIN. Modem Mechanism A large octavo volume of 959 pages and containing over 1,000 illustrations dealing solely with the principal and most useful advances of the past few years. Issued under a title which exactly describes its contents — "Modbrn Mbchanism." The most eminent experts have contributed to this volume, and the benefits to be derived from the result of their researches and scientific accomplishments are of incalculable value to the man seek- ing the highest and most advanced practice in Applied Mechanics. Bound m half moroc- co. $5 .00. BLACKALL. Air-Brake Catechism This book is a complete study of the air-brake eouipment. including the latest devices and inventions used. AH parts of the air brake, tneir troubles and pecuharities, and a practical way to find and remedy them, are explained. This book contains over 1.500 quesbons with their answers, and is completely illustrated by engravings and two larse Westinghouse air-brake educational charts, printed in colors. 31a pages. Handsomdy bound in cloth. aoXh edition, revised and enlarged. $a.oo. Digitized by VjOOQ IC Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. BLACKALL. 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Locomotive Breakdowns and Their Remedies This work treats in full all kinds of accidents that are likely to ha|>pc& to locoonotivw engines while on the road. The various parts of the locomotives are discussed, and •very accident that can possibly happen, with the remedy to be applied, is given. The vartooa types of compound locomotives are included, so that every en^neer may post hime>if tn regard to emeivency work in coimection with this class ot engine. For the railroad man, who is anxious to know what to do and how to do it under all the various circumstances that may arise in the performance of his dutiea, this book wiB be an invaluable assistant and guide. 950 pages, fully illustrated. |i.so> FOWLER. Boiler Room Chart An educational chart showing in isometric perspective the mechanJMns bekinging m a modem boiler-room. The eqmpment consists of water-tube boilers, ordinary grates and mechanical stokers, feed- water heaters and pumps. 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A complete work giving ten thotisand formulas which will be of value to the housewife, the painter, the carpenter, the metal worker, the farmer, the soap and candle maker, the photographer, the jeweller, the watchmaker, the electroplater. the dectrotyper. the tanner, the mechanic, the engineer, and the mantifacturer. 900 pages. $3.00. Henlejr's Encyclopedia of Practical Engineering and Allied Trades Edited by Joseph G. Horner. The scope of this work is indicated bv its title, as being both practical and encyclopaedic in character. All the great sections of engineering practice and enterprise receive sound and concise treatment. Complete in five volumes. Each volume contains 500 SMges and 500 illustrations. Bound in half morocco. Price. $6.00 per volume, or $35.00 for the complete set of five volumes. HISCOX. Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive, and right up to date. The only complete work on this important subject. Tells all about the nmning and man- agement of gas engines. PuU of general information about the new and popular motive power, its economy and ease of management. Also chapters on horseless vehicles, electric lighting, marins propulsion, etc. 450 pages Illustrated with 351 engravings. Fifteenth edition, revised, enlarged, and reset. $2.50 HISCOX. Compressed Air in All Its Applications This is the most complete book on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and its thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. Beginning with a history of the progress that has been made in this ne. it takes t:p the properties of air, gives tables of its volume and weight, both dry and saturated, as well as numerous other conditions. Step by step the reader finds how it is used, the various methods of compression and apparatus employed, its use in transmitting power, air motors and their efficiency, and a host of other infonnation in tUs connection. Pneumatic tools and their uses receive ample attention, as do the sand-blast, pneumatic tube transmission, and other applications, such as raising water, ice machines and liquid air, while the air brake and air •ignal also come in for their share. Taken as a whole it may be caUed an encyclopsedia of compressed air. It is written by an expert, who. in its 835 pages, has dealt with the sub- ject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. 545 illustrations, Sao pages. Price. $5-00. HISCOX. Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles and Motor Cycles, Operated by Steam, Hydro-Carbon, Electric, and Pneumatic Motors A practical treatise of 459 pages and 3 16 illustrations for Automobilists. Manufacturers. Capitalista, Investors, Promoters, and every one interested in the dex-elopment. csre. and use of the Automobile. Nineteen chapters. Large $\x>. 3x6 illustrations. 460 pages. Cloth. $1.50. HISCOX. Mechanical Movements, Powers, and Devices This work of 400 pages contains 1.800 specially made illustrations with descriptive text. It is a Dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, and Appliances, embracing an illustrated description of the greatest variety of Mechanical Movements and Devices in any lan^at^c. A new work on illtistrated Mechanics, Mechanical Movements and Devices, covering nearly the whole ranj^e of the practical and inventive field for the use of Machinists. Mechanics. Inventors, Eneineers, Draughtsmen. Students, and all others interested in any way in the devising and operation of mechanical works of any kind. $3-00. Digitized by VjOOQ IC Publications of The Norman W, Henley Publishing Co. HISCOX. Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movemeata and Novcltiea of Conatraction The many editioos through which the first voltone of "Mechanical Movements'* hae passed ore more than a suffiaent encouragement to warrant the ^blioation of a second volume of ^oo pages, containing i.ooo larger and specially-made illustrationa. which are more Bpedal in scope than those in the first volume, inasmuch as they deal with the pecol- iar reauirements ot the various arts and manufactures, and more detailed in tbcv ex- planations, because of the greater complexity of the machinery illustrated and described- • $3.00. HISCOX. Modem Steam Engineering in Theory and Practice This book has been specially prepared for the use of the modem steam engineer, the technical students, and all who desire the latest and most reliable information on steam and steam boilers, the machinery of power, the steam turbine, electric power and lighting plants, etc. 450 octavo pages, 400 detailed engravings. $3.00. HORNER. Modem Milling Machinea: Their Deaign, Conatiactioo and Operation This work of 304 pages is fully illustrated and describes and illustrates the MiDiag Machine from its early conception to the present time. $4.00. HORNER. Practical Metal Tuming A work covering the modem practice of machining metal parts in the lathe. Fully illustrated. $3.50. HORNER. Toola for Machiniata and Wood Workera, Including Inatm-^ menta of Meaaurment A inactical work of 340 pages fully illustrated, giving a general description and classi* fication of tools for machinists and woodworkers. 93.50. Inventor'a Manual; How to Make a Patent Pay This is a book desired as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their patents and disposing ot them. 119 pages. Cloth, $1.00. KRAUSS. Linear Perapective Self-Taught The underlying principle by which objects ma>[ be correctly repreeentej in peispei* tive is clearly set forth in tnis book ; everything relating to the subject is shown in suitable diagrams, accompanied by full explanations in the text. Price $9.50. LE VAN. Safety Valvea; Their Hiatory, Invention, and Calculatloii Illustrated by 69 engravings. 151 peges. $1.50. LEWES AND BRAME. Laboratory Note Book A practical treatise prepared for the Chemical Student. 170 pages. Cloth, ft. 00. MATHOT. Modem Gaa Enginea and Producer Qaa PlanU the care of gas engines and producer-gas plants, with a chapter on volatile hydroarbou and oil engines. $3.50. MEINHARDT. Practical Lettering and Spacing Shows a rapid and accurate method of becoming a good letterer with a little pncticc Oblong. Paper cover. 60 cents. PARSELL A WEED. Gaa Engine Conatraction A practical treatise describing thetheoryand principles of the action of gas engin— of various types, and the design and construction of a half-hone^power gas engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with dimensioned woriring dimwtags giving clearly the sizes of the various details. Third edition, revised and enlarged- T««b- ty-five chapters. Large 8vo. Handsomely illtistrated and bound. 300 pages, fs.s^ PERRIGO. Modern Machine Shop Conatraction. Equipment and Man- agement The only work imblished that describes the Modem Machine Shop or Manufaetutec Plant from Uie time the grass u growing on the site intended for it until thefintahad p*oa> uct is shipped. By a careful study of its chapters the practical man may eooooaMcaOy build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modem machine shop or mannfart' uiing esUblishm^Qt. Just the book needed by th(>ae contemplating toe orectioa of modem shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganisation of old ones, or the introductioa of Modem Shop Methods. Time anrl Cost Systems. It is a book written and iOnatrmtcd by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and ^ tacts. It is the mo«t complete all-around btKik of itn kind ever published. 400 I quarto pages, a 9$ original and specially-made illustrations, fs.oo. Digitized by VjOOQ IC Publications of The Norman W, Henley Publishing Co. PERRIGO. Ifodem American Lathe Practice A new book descrilnag and illustrating the very latest x>ractice in lathe and boring mill operations, as well as the construction of and latest developmenU in the manuiact- tue of these important classes of machine tools. 300 pages, fully illustrated. $2.50. REAGAN, JR. Electrical Engineers' and Students' Chart and Hand- Book of the Brush Arc Light System Illustrated. Bound in doth, with celluloid chart in pocket. 50 cents. SAUNIER. Watchmaker's Hand-Book Just issued. 7th edition. Contains 498 pages and is a workshop companion for those — -* in watchmaking and allied merhaiiiral arts. 250 engravings and 14 plates. $3.00. 8LOANE. Electricity Simplified The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and to show what the modem conception of electricity is. 158 pages. Illustrated. Twelfth edition. $1.00. 8LOANE. How to Become a Successful Electrician It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical engineers. Not every one is prepared to s^end several thousand dollars upon a college course, even if the three of four years requisite are at their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical engineer without this sacrifice, and this work is designed to tell "How to Become a Suc- cessfxil Electrician" without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the profession. Twelfth edition. 189 pages. Illustrated. Cloth, $z.oo. SLOANS. Arithmetic of Electricity A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds, reduced to a series of rulM. all of tne simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. Nineteenth edition. Illustrated. 138 pages. Cloth. $1.00. SLOAN E. Electrician's Handy Book An up-to-date work covering the subject of practical electricity in all its branches, bdng intended for the every-day working electrician. The latest and best authority on all branches of applied dectricity. Pocketbook size. Handsomely bound in leather, with title and edges m gold. 800 pages. 500 illustrations. Price. $3.50. 8LOANE. Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building, and Electric Motor Constraction This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motorst dynamos, and instruments in general, and is designed to brin^ within the reach of young and old the manu^cture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. Eighteenth edition. Putty illustrated. 140 pages. Qoth. $1.00 8LOANE. Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India Rubber A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds of rubber articles. 146 pages. Second edition. Cloth. $1.00. 8LOANE. Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases Containing the full theory of the subject and giving the entire history of liquefaction of gases from the earliest times to the present. It shows how liquid air. like water, is carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from it in the near future. 365 pages, with many illustrations. Handsomely bound in bndamm. Second edition, fa. 00. 8LOANE. Standard Electrical Dictionary A practical handbook of reference, containing definitions of about 5.000 distinct words, terms, and phrases. An entirely new edition, brtnight up to date and greatly enlaiged. Oomplete, concise, convenient. 68a pages. 393 illustrations. Handsomdy bound in cioth. 8vo. $3.00. 8TARBUCK. Modem Plumbing Illustrated A comprehensive and up-to-date work illustrating and describing the Drainage and Ventilation of dwellings, apartments, and pubUc buildings, etc. The very latest and most approved methods in all branches of samtary installation are ^ven. Adopted by the united States Government in its sanitary work in Cuba. Porto Rico, and the Philippines. ■ad hv the principal boards of health of the United States and Canada. The standard facxdc for master pliunbers, architects, builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of health, boards of plumbing examiners, and for the property owner, as well as for the workman and has as>prentioe. 300 pages. 50 full-page illustrations. l4*oo. USHER. The Modem Machinist A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modem 1 practice, and the applications of recent improved appliances, tools, and devices for i . , tating. duplicating, and expediting the construction of marhinfis and their pets. A new book from cover to cover. Fifth edition, as? engravings. 3aa pages. Cloth, fs.so. Digitized by VjOOQ IC Publications of The Norman W, Henley Publishing Co. VAN DERVOORT. Modern Machine Shop Tools; Their Constniction, Operation, and Manipulation, Including Both Hand and Machine Tools An entirely new and fully illustrated work of 555 f>ases and 673 illustrations, describ- ing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of both Hand and Machine Tools; being a work of practical instruction in all classes of machine-shop practice. In- cluding chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, shapers. and their tools; milling machines and cuttcn. gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering: gearing, belting, and tnmsmiasion machinery; useful data and tables. Fourth edition. 9400. WALLIS- TAYLOR. Pocket Book of Refrigeration and Ice Making This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the sub* ject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construc- tion and insulation of cold rooms, with their required pipe surface for different deem* of cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for siU lands of provisions; cold-storage charges for all classes of goods, ice-making and ston^e of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required w the instalment and operation of a refrigerating plant. $1.50. WOOD. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear The only work issued treating of this subject of valve motion. 150 pages, ittustxsted. Qoth $1.50. WOODWORTH. American Tool Making and Interehangeable Manu- facturing A practical treatise of 560 pages, containing 600 iUustrations on the destgntng. con- structing, use, and installation of tools, jigs, fixtures, devices, special appliances, sheet ■metal working processes, automatic mechanisms, and labor-saving contrivances; together with their use in the lathe, milling machine, turret lathe, screw machine, boring miU, vomtr press, drill, subpress. drop hammer, etc.. for the working of metals, the production of in- terchangeable machine parts, and the manufacture of repetition articles of metal. $4.00 WOODWORTH. Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modem Working of Sheet Metals A complete treatise of 384 pages and 505 illustrations upon the designing, constnicting. and use of tools, fixtures, and devices, together with the manner in which they should be used in the power press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet* metal articles now m use. It is designed as a suioe to theproduction of sheetHnetal parts at the minimum of cost with the maximum of output. Tne hardening and tempering of Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the use of dies in the Power press are fully treated. The engravings show dies, press fixtures, and sheet-metal working devices. fnMn the simplest to the most intricate, and the descriptions are so clear and practical that all metal- worlcing mechanics will be able to understand how to design, construct and use tbsm. fj 00. WOODWORTH. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, and Forging of Steel A new book containing special directions for the successful haTdening and I of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell. 1 mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet-metal working tools, shear blades. saws« fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements of stad, both large and small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and teranering niotinsis are presented. The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be aoaptad ars ooa* dsdy presented, and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, as are also the special methods for the hardening and tempering of special braaoa. i»o pages. 350 illustrations. $2.50. WOODWORTH. Punches, Dies and Tools for Manufacturing in ] A work of 500 pages, and illustrated by nearly 700 engravings, being an cncydopceiha subpresses, devices and mechanical combinations for punching, cutting, bending, foradna. piercing, drawing. compressinR. and assembling bheet^metal parts and also artidea of other materials in machine tools. f4.oo. WRIGHT. Electric Ftimaces and Their Industrial Application This is a book which will prove of interest to many classes of people ; the manufacttiivr who desires to know what product can be manufactured successfully «n theelectncfumac*, the chemist who wishes to post himself on electro-chemistry, and the student of scicAce who merely looks into the subject from curiosity. The book is not so scientific as Co be of use only to the technolotdst. nor so unscientific as to suit only the tyro in electnxhcmistnr; it is a practical treatise of what has been done, and of what is bamg done, both mentally and commercially, with the electric furnace. sM p«gM* $3.00. Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC Digitized by VjOOQ IC 3 2044 024 426 991 P r fSE^ED HARVARD GOLLBOE imBADV Digitized by VjOOQIC Digitized by VjOOQ IC